Different Types of Switch

Closed loop system

A closed-loop system is a type of control system where the input is varied depending on the
feedback from the output.
As an analogy, I’ll use an example from your very own home.

Let’s say you wanted to turn on the lights whenever someone walks in front of your house
(That sounded creepy). What would you do? You’d check outside whether there were people
present, and then turn the lights on or off accordingly.

“How did that become a closed loop system?”

Let us take a deeper look at what really happened. If there was a person standing in front of
your house and you saw it (input), you will turn on the switch (process).

Turning the switch on made the light bulbs outside light up (output).

If the person ran away because you scared him off for some reason, you will see that there are
no more people in front of your house (feedback). Because of this, you now turn off the lights.

“How can this be applied to an automated system?”

Automated systems use sensors—devices that output electrical signals based on environmental

conditions. They are usually placed as a feedback mechanism—which they are!
In the previous example, what was the feedback mechanism? The fact that there were no more
people in front of your house.
In that case, you may want to use a sensor that can detect the presence of people or objects. For
this PLC application, ultrasonic sensors are most widely used.
By connecting the sensor and the lamp to the PLC, you now have an automated system that
performs the same task!

Common PLC Input Devices

In most PLC applications, there are a number of components that you will usually see.

To name a few, there are push buttons, selector switch, and limit switches.

Push buttons

PLC
Basics: Push buttons(Photo from Siemens)
Push buttons are the ones that you will usually see as START or STOP buttons in a PLC control
system. It operates by either MAKING contact (Make) or by BREAKING contact (Break). Hence,
pushbuttons are divided into two categories: Normally open or Normally closed.
Normally open (NO)

Normally Open Push button

Normally open push buttons, when connected to the circuit, normally make an OPEN circuit.

In this scenario, the current can NOT flow through the switch, as there is no electrical
continuity.

Pushing the button will make its metal contacts touch with each other, closing the connection
between the two connected terminals and hence allowing the current to pass.

Normally closed (NC)

Normally Closed Push button

Normally closed push buttons, when connected to the circuit, SHORTS the connected terminals.
In this scenario, current can already flow through the switch.

This means that if you connect a normally closed push button to a circuit, the circuit will turn on
immediately because there is electrical continuity already.

This means pushing the button will make its metal contacts touch with each other, closing the
connection between the two connected terminals.

Break before make

These types of switches have BOTH the normally open and the normally closed in one
construction.
One side of the switch is normally closed and one side is normally open, so when a button is
pressed, one contact will be in the OFF position and one will be ON.

Simply put, the other one BREAKS contact while the other one MAKES, hence the name.

Selector Switch
Selector switches are still manually operated switches, however instead of being normally open
or closed, there are more than two contacts to select from.

The usual example is found in electric fans, where you can select a number that then dictates the
speed of the fan’s motor.

This process actually selects a varying load for the motor in order to control its speed.

Limit Switches

PLC Basics Limit Switch

Limit switches, as the name implies, change state when a predetermined limit is reached. These
are actually useful in automation because you can set a limit (using the limit switch) where a
specific process stops.

There are also different types of limit switches which allow us to choose the physical quantity to
limit in our control system design.

Temperature Limit Switch

PLC Basics Temperature Limit Switch

Also called Thermostat, the temperature limit switch is used to detect temperature changes in
your system.
They can also be Normally Open and Normally Closed, depending on what type is used.
This dictates the actual Industrial application that it can be used in—whether it be an
overheating prevention, or even just maintaining a certain temperature of materials.

Pressure Limit Switch

PLC Basics Pressure Limit Switch

Pressure switches are most commonly used in containers where the pressure of liquids or gases
is crucial.

They change their state whenever a liquid or gas in a tank reaches a high enough pressure.
Again, they can either be Normally Open or Normally Closed switches.

When the pressure inside a tank increases to a high amount, the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the pressure inside will make the fluid (liquid or gas) inside “try to
escape”. Using pressure limit switches allow us to prevent that scenario.

Level Limit Switch

PLC Basics Level Limit Switch

Level switches—more commonly called Level Sensors, are used to control the height of a liquid
inside a container, usually a tank.
They are most commonly used in conjunction with inlet and outlet valves in a liquid level
control system, or in a heating and mixing application.

Sensors
Sensors are devices that either measures a physical quantity or detects it.

In PLC automation, a sensor must be a transducer who can convert a physical quantity into an
electrical quantity.

It is important to know that there is no “one-fits-all” sensor that exists in this world. As
engineers, we have to solve PLC automation problems using the correct sets of devices—and it
starts with how you can monitor the physical conditions in your system.

Factors in choosing sensors

 Accuracy
Accuracy may be defined as the “closeness” to the actual value of the measurand. As the
designer, it is not always practical to choose a high accuracy sensor.

Most sensors in the market already have reasonable accuracy where they can almost represent
the actual values that you are measuring.

That said, some PLC automation applications do not require a very high level of accuracy in
order to work properly. As an example, if you only had one product weighing 5kg, it does not
make sense to put a weight sensor or strain gauge that can measure up to 0.0001g of accuracy.
Makes sense?

 Dynamic Range
This is the operating range of your sensor. How far depends on the application that you are
designing for.

For example, if you have to take a temperature reading from a heating oven, then it is necessary
for you to use thermocouples instead of LM35 sensors, just because thermocouples can measure
extremely high temperatures.

 Response Time
The response time is the amount of time needed by the sensor to represent the actual value
being measured.

Again, this is critical for some PLC automation applications, and for some, it may not be that
important.
  Sensitivity
In the simplest form, sensitivity determines the minimum amount of “stimulus” that a sensor
requires to produce a reading.

If you wanted to read a temperature reading of 0.01 degrees at around room temperature, then
(going back to the previous example) the thermocouple may not suffice in this scenario and the
LM35 does.

 Stability
This is the sensor’s ability to produce the same output when given a constant level of input for a
very long time. For example, if you wanted to measure, using PLC automation, the temperature
of a room for 365 days a year, then you want a sensor that is high in this regard.

Drift and Zero driftare the factors that you want to look at when considering stability. Drift is the
deviation in output over time, and zero drift is the change in output when there is zero input.
 Repeatability
The ability of the sensor to produce the same value of the output for the same value of the input
is its repeatability.
Measurands can vary from time to time during PLC automation, but your sensor must be able
to adapt to these changes and at the same time give similar results for each repeated value.

Simply put, your sensor must give output A for every reading A, and output B for every
reading B.

 Reliability
The reliability of your sensor determines the probability that the sensor will provide accurate,
repeatable readings (basically, optimal performance) in a predetermined working condition for
a specified period.

If you look at sensor datasheets, you will see that they give rated operating conditions where
the sensor operates linearly. These are the conditions where the sensor is reliable.
Two types of sensors: Analog and Discrete
Analog sensors are devices that output a continuous voltage linear to the experienced change in
the environment.
They are most extensively used in Temperature Sensing, Distance Sensing, Luminance Sensing,
Pressure Sensing, and basically in PLC applications where an exact, certain unit of measure is
involved.

In PLC automation, the typically used analog inputs vary from 0-20mA, 4-20mA, or 0-10V.
Hence, the sensing may also become current sensing or voltage sensing.
However, even though the sensor is Analog, the PLC is still a Digital Device. This is why an
A/D converter is used.
To briefly discuss, the analog values are sampled periodically by the PLC. This usually happens
a hundred to a thousand times per second (Fact: Voice analog signals AT THE MINIMUM are
sampled at 8000 samples per second in order to be the LEAST intelligible).

These samples are then converted into bit representations (how many bits is dependent on the
design of the PLC). This is called quantization. To easily visualize it, check the table below: it
shows a bit equivalent for the -3.5V to +3.5V range.

PLC Basics Quantization

Table
Because the PLC has a CPU, it will then perform digital signal processing in order to process the
data and convert it to an equivalent result in the output module.

Discrete sensors, on the other hand, outputs a HIGH or a LOW voltage only. This is derived
from the Binary number system where the only possible digits are 0 and 1—which can represent
LOW and HIGH, respectively.
HIGH signals, even though they are represented as 1 even in some PLCs, are not represented by
1 Volt. PLCs usually run on 24 Volts DC.

What this means is that PLCs will read HIGH at the input side only when the voltage is at 24
Volts DC.

These discrete sensors have internal switching circuits that classify them as either
a sinking (NPN) or a sourcing device (PNP). Basically, PNP provides +24 V as input, and NPN
provides -24V as input. Hence, the input modules must also be classified as sourcing or sinking.
Examples of Sensors
Proximity Sensor
Proximity Sensors, in PLC automation, are usually used in detecting the presence or absence of
objects made of varying materials. They do so WITHOUT making contact. Sometimes they are
called “proximity switches” because the output is binary, HIGH or LOW—just like a switch.

Inductive Proximity Sensor

The inductive proximity sensor consists of a ferrous metallic core wound with a conductor.

When the end of the metallic core is placed near another ferrous metal object, the effective
inductance of the coil changes. This change is monitored by another circuit in the sensor which
then activates the switching component.

In PLC automation, the inductive proximity sensor is most commonly seen in metal fabrication
processes.

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

The capacitive proximity sensor has the ability to detect both metallic and nonmetallic objects.
Essentially, two plates of the capacitor are separated by some distance. The distance between
the two plates dictates its capacitance, or its ability to store energy for a specific voltage drop.
To exploit this characteristic, the capacitive proximity sensor has only one of the plates, and the
other plate parallel to it would be the object being sensed.

Because objects have different dielectric constants, the object is detected by a CHANGE in
capacitance.

Take note that a lot of objects have dielectric properties, which makes them eligible for detection
in PLC automation using the capacitive proximity sensor.

Reed Switch
The reed switch consists of two ferromagnetic material sealed in glass or plastic. The two
materials do not initially touch each other, but when a magnetic field from either a permanent
magnet or an induced one (from a current-carrying coil) is placed near the reed switch, the
switch closes and makes electrical continuity.

For PLC automation, this can be perfectly used for notification/alarm systems where doors are
involved: for example, when a room only allows authorized personnel to enter, opening the
door will light up a bulb in the security guard office to indicate that there is someone opening
that door.

Photoelectric Sensors
Photoelectric sensors use a light emitting diode as an emitter, and usually phototransistors or
photodiodes at the receiver side. Basically, when the light (usually infrared) from the emitter’s
LED hits the receiver, the sensor changes state from LOW to HIGH.

These sensors may be used in creative ways in PLC automation because photoelectric sensors
have different modes of operation.
Modes of Operation of Photoelectric Sensors
Through Beam
The photoelectric sensor operates as a through beam type when the emitter and the detector is
placed such that the light is fully incident to the detector. “The detector sees the emitter in front
of it”.

In PLC automation systems, only an object that can block the path of light between the emitter
and the detector may be detected by the photoelectric sensor. Usually, these objects are placed
in consecutively and are moved by a conveyor so that the total number of items may be
counted.

Reflective
The photoelectric sensor operates as a reflective type when it requires that the object reflects the
emitted light onto the detector.

In PLC automation systems, the reflective type is most commonly used in detecting the liquid
level of containers and tell whether they contain the desired level.

Ultrasonic Sensors
Ultrasonic Sensors uses sound waves and their reflection in order to detect the presence of an
object. Obviously, objects that absorb sound are incapable of being detected by ultrasonic
sensors.

You may think that this sensor may annoy the people around it because of the emitted sound.
That would not be possible, and I’ll explain why.

The term “Ultrasonic” means that the frequency being used is higher than what humans are
capable of hearing.

Basically, ultrasonic sensors have high enough frequency to even be deciphered by humans.

Audible sound frequencies only range from 20Hz to 20 kHz, and this range can only be reduced
naturally due to aging.

This is why some really old people may not be able to hear sinusoidal tones at 18 kHz but a
younger one can.

Displacement/Position Sensors
A displacement sensor measures the distance between a specified reference point and the
location of the target object. Usually, these are used in fabrication to attain higher precision
levels. Hence, these sensors are undoubtedly analog, because they give off a range of values.
Linear and Rotary Potentiometers
These use the principle of Ohm’s Law to provide information about the displacement of the
target. In PLC control systems, when objects move from one point to another in a straight line,
Linear potentiometers are used.

Linear potentiometers have three terminals: one connected to the source, one to ground, and
one connected to the input of the PLC—let’s call it Output Pin.

Depending on the contact point of the Output Pin to the potentiometer, the effective resistance
changes.

When the contact point reaches the topmost level, the output voltage becomes the same as the
source voltage. When the contact point is at the middle, the output voltage becomes half of that
of the source.

Depending on how precise the PLC can read the voltage, every little change in resistance—
which is represented by a percentage of the voltage source, may also represent a change in
distance.

The same concept applies to a rotary potentiometer, except it measures angular distance. This
means that the movement is circular as opposed to straight.

In PLC automation, the potentiometers are used when a DC voltage is used to represent the
change in distance.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

These types of transformers are controlled by the displacement of a ferrous core between the 2
secondary and primary windings of a transformer.

When the core is centered, the voltages of the two secondary windings become equal.

Intuitively, when the core moves up or down the windings, the difference between the voltages
of the two secondary windings can become more positive or more negative. Similar to the
potentiometer, these changes in output voltages can represent a change in distance.

In PLC automation, the linear variable differential transformer is used when a constant AC
voltage is used to represent the change in distance.
Capacitive Displacement Sensors
Capacitive displacement sensors share similar principles to the capacitive proximity sensor.

Essentially, when the parallel plates of the capacitor are placed completely aligned with each
other, the effective Area of the capacitor is at its maximum.

Now, when you move one side without changing the distance between the plates, e.g. move the
other plate downward or upward, the effective area of the capacitor changes.

How basic PLC input devices are connected

These PLC input devices are not just connected directly to the PLC for specific reasons.

Logically speaking, it is not assured that someone will always connect a properly rated device
for the PLC input.

Also, a different polarity of DC input may be connected to the I/O module of the PLC.

Optoisolation
Remember the concept of photoelectric switches? PLCs have miniature versions of these
photoelectric switches in order to protect the system.

Optoisolation works by having an LED (emitter) and a phototransistor (detector) placed directly
to each other.

When a proper polarity of DC voltage is applied to input terminal 1, for example, the LED turns
on.

The phototransistor creates a connection between the source and the PLC at THAT SPECIFIC
INPUT TERMINAL.

The PLC reads this as “Input from terminal 1 switched on, let’s make changes to the output
based on the program”

Using Optoisolation, the PLC input side can only supply voltage to the PLC if it is in the right
polarity. If the input voltage or power is too high, only the input side of the optoisolator is
damaged.
Different Types of Relays
Depending on the operating principle and structural features relays are of different types such
as electromagnetic relays, thermal relays, power varied relays, multi-dimensional relays, and so
on, with varied ratings, sizes and applications.

1. Electromagnetic Relays

These relays are constructed with electrical, mechanical and magnetic components, and have
operating coil and mechanical contacts. Therefore, when the coil gets activated by a  supply
system, these mechanical contacts gets opened or closed. The type of supply can be AC or DC.
DC vs AC Relays

Both AC and DC relays work on the same principle as electromagnetic induction, but the
construction is somewhat differentiated and also depends on the application for which these
relays are selected. DC relays are employed with a freewheeling diode to de-energize the coil,
and the AC relays uses laminated cores to prevent eddy current losses.

DC vs AC Relays

The very interesting aspect of an AC is that for every half cycle, the direction of the current
supply changes; therefore, for every cycle the coil loses its magnetism since the zero current in
every half cycle makes the relay continuously make and break the circuit. So, to prevent this –
additionally one shaded coil or another electronic circuit is placed in the AC relay to provide
magnetism in the zero current position.

Attraction Type Electromagnetic Relays

Attraction Type Relays

These relays can work with both AC and DC supply and attract a metal bar or a piece of metal
when power is supplied to the coil. This can be a plunger being drawn towards the solenoid or
an armature being attracted towards the poles of an electromagnet as shown in the figure. These
relays don’t have any time delays so these are used for instantaneous operation.

Induction Type Relays

These are used as protective relays in AC systems alone and are usable with DC systems. The
actuating force for contacts movement is developed by a moving conductor that may be a disc
or a cup, through the interaction of electromagnetic fluxes due to fault currents.

Induction Type Relays

These are of several types like shaded pole, watt-hour and induction cup structures and are
mostly used as directional relays in power-system protection and also for high-speed switching
operation applications.

Magnetic Latching Relays

These relays use permanent magnet or parts with a high remittance to remain the armature at
the same point as the coil is electrified when the coil power source is taken away.

2. Solid State Relays

Solid State uses solid state components to perform the switching operation without moving any
parts. Since the control energy required is much lower compared with the output power to be
controlled by this relay that results the power gain higher when compared to the
electromagnetic relays. These are of different types: reed relay coupled SSR, transformer
coupled SSR, photo-coupled SSR, and so on.

Solid State Relays

The above figure shows a photo coupled SSR where the control signal is applied by LED and it
is detected by a photo-sensitive semiconductor device. The output form this photo detector is
used to trigger the gate of TRIAC or SCR that switches the load.

3. Hybrid Relay
These relays are composed of electromagnetic relays and electronic components. Usually, the
input part contains the electronic circuitry that performs rectification and the other control
functions, and the output part include electromagnetic relay.
4. Thermal Relay

These relays are based on the effects of heat, which means – the rise in the ambient temperature
from the limit, directs the contacts to switch from one position to other. These are mainly used
in motor protection and consist of bimetallic elements like temperature sensors as well as
control elements. Thermal overload relays are the best examples of these relays.
5. Reed Relay

Reed Relay

Reed Relays consist of a pair of magnetic strips (also called as reed) that is sealed within a glass
tube. This reed acts as both an armature and a contact blade.  The magnetic field applied to the
coil is wrapped around this tube that makes these reeds move so that switching operation is
performed.

Based on dimensions, relays are differentiated as micro miniature, subminiature and miniature
relays. Also, based on the construction, these relays are classified as hermetic, sealed and open
type relays. Furthermore, depending on the load operating range, relays are of micro, low,
intermediate and high power types.
Different Types of Transducer
What is a Transducer?

An electrical transducer is a device which is capable of converting physical quanties into a

proportional electrical quantity such as voltage or electric current. Hence it converts any
quantity to be measured into a usable electrical signal. This physical quantity which is to be
measured can be pressure, level, temperature, displacement etc. The output which is obtained
from the transducer is in the electrical form and is equivalent to the measured quantity. For
example, a temperature transducer will convert temperature to an equivalent electrical
potential. This output signal can be used to control the physical quantity or display it.
Instrumentation is the heart of industrial applications. Instrumentation is the art and science of
measuring and controlling different variables such as flow, level, temperature, angle,
displacement etc. A basic instrumentation system consists of various devices. One of these
various devices is a transducer. A transducer plays a very important role in any
instrumentation system.
Note that any device which is able convert one form of energy into another form is called as a
transducer. For example, even a speaker can be called as a transducer as it converts electrical
signal to pressure waves (sound). But an electrical transducer will convert a physical quantity to
an electrical one.
Types of Transducer

There are of many different types of transducer, they can be classified based on various criteria
as:
Types of Transducer based on Quantity to be Measured

 Temperature transducers (e.g. a thermocouple)

 Pressure transducers (e.g. a diaphragm)
 Displacement transducers (e.g. LVDT)
 Oscillator transducer
 Flow transducers
 Inductive Transducer
Types of Transducer based on the Principle of Operation

 Photovoltaic (e.g. a solar cell)

 Piezoelectric transducer
 Chemical
 Mutual induction
 Electromagnetic
 Hall effect
 Photoconductors
Types of Transducer based on Whether an External Power Source is required or not

Active Transducer

Active transducers are those which do not require any power source for their operation. They
work on the energy conversion principle. They produce an electrical signal proportional to the
input (physical quantity). For example, a thermocouple is an active transducer.

Passive Transducers

Transducers which require an external power source for their operation is called as a passive
transducer. They produce an output signal in the form of some variation in resistance,
capacitance or any other electrical parameter, which than has to be converted to an equivalent
current or voltage signal. For example, a photocell (LDR) is a passive transducer which will
vary the resistance of the cell when light falls on it. This change in resistance is converted to
proportional signal with the help of a bridge circuit. Hence a photocell can be used to measure
the intensity of light.