1.

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we will be discussing vaguely the concepts that guide this project, the parameters
that were taken into consideration while doing this project and a little introduction to the area of
control systems which compromises majority of the work that we have done. Besides, we will
also discuss the motivation that guided us through this project, the literature review and the target
specifications that we had to achieve at the end of this project.

1.1 CONTROL SYSTEM FOR REAL TIME ENVIRONMENT

Real-time Control System (RCS) is reference model architecture, suitable for many software-
intensive, real-time control problem domains. RCS is a reference model architecture that defines
the types of functions that are required in a real-time intelligent control system, and how these
functions are related to each other.

Also RCS provides a comprehensive methodology for designing, engineering, integrating, and
testing control systems. Architects iteratively partition system tasks and information into finer,
finite subsets that are controllable and efficient. RCS focuses on intelligent control that adapts to
uncertain and unstructured operating environments.

The RCS reference model architecture combines real-time motion planning and control with high
level task planning, problem solving, world modeling, recursive state estimation, tactile and
visual image processing, and acoustic signature analysis.

RCS (real-time control system) is developed into an intelligent agent architecture designed to
enable any level of intelligent behavior, up to and including human levels of performance. RCS
was inspired 30 years ago by a theoretical model of the cerebellum, the portion of the brain
responsible for fine motor coordination and control of conscious motions. It was originally
designed for sensory-interactive goal-directed control of laboratory manipulators. Over three
decades, it has evolved into real-time control architecture for intelligent machine tools, factory
automation systems, and intelligent autonomous vehicles.

1.2 REAL TIME PARAMETERS

A) Temperature
1
B) Pressure

C) Viscosity

D) Surface Tension

E) Humidity

F) Loudness

G) Illuminance

H) Polarization and Ionization

1.3 TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER

Temperature control is a process in which change of temperature of a space (and objects

collectively there within) is measured or otherwise detected, and the passage of heat energy into
or out of the space is adjusted to achieve a desired average temperature.

1.3.1 How do Temperature Controllers work?

To accurately control process temperature without extensive operator involvement, a temperature

control system relies upon a controller, which accepts a temperature sensor such as a
thermocouple or RTD as input. It compares the actual temperature to the desired control
temperature, or setpoint, and provides an output to a control element. The controller is one part
of the entire control system, and the whole system should be analyzed in selecting the proper
controller. The following items should be considered when selecting a controller:

a)Type of input sensor (thermocouple, RTD) and temperature range

b)Type of output required (electromechanical relay, SSR, analog output)

c)Control algorithm needed (on/off, proportional, PID)

d)Number and type of outputs (heat, cool, alarm, limit)

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1.3.2 What Are the Different Types of Controllers?

A) PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER

Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the cycling associated with on-off control. A
proportional controller decreases the average power supplied to the heater as the temperature
approaches setpoint. This has the effect of slowing down the heater so that it will not overshoot
the setpoint, but will approach the setpoint and maintain a stable temperature. This proportioning
action can be accomplished by turning the output on and off for short time intervals. This "time
proportioning" varies the ratio of ―on‖ time to "off" time to control the temperature. The
proportioning action occurs within a ―proportional band‖ around the setpoint temperature.
Outside this band, the controller functions as an on-off unit, with the output either fully on
(below the band) or fully off (above the band). However, within the band, the output is turned on
and off in the ratio of the measurement difference from the setpoint. At the setpoint (the
midpoint of the proportional band), the output on:off ratio is 1:1; that is, the on-time and off-time
are equal. if the temperature is further from the setpoint, the on- and off-times vary in proportion
to the temperature difference. If the temperature is below setpoint, the output will be on longer; if
the temperature is too high, the output will be off longer.

B) PID CONTROLLER

This type of controller provides proportional with integral and derivative control, or PID. This
controller combines proportional control with two additional adjustments, which helps the unit
automatically compensate for changes in the system. These adjustments, integral and derivative,
are expressed in time-based units; they are also referred to by their reciprocals, RESET and
RATE, respectively. The proportional, integral and derivative terms must be individually
adjusted or ―tuned‖ to a particular system using trial and error. It provides the most accurate and
stable control of the three controller types, and is best used in systems which have a relatively
small mass, those which react quickly to changes in the energy added to the process. It is
recommended in systems where the load changes often and the controller is expected to
compensate automatically due to frequent changes in set point, the amount of energy available,
or the mass to be controlled.

We will now move onward to a third type of controller which is also the center idea of our
project work.

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C) ON/OFF CONTROLLER

An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature control device. The output from the
device is either on or off, with no middle state. An on-off controller will switch the output only
when the temperature crosses the setpoint. For heating control, the output is on when the
temperature is below the setpoint, and off above setpoint. Since the temperature crosses the
setpoint to change the output state, the process temperature will be cycling continually, going
from below setpoint to above, and back below. In cases where this cycling occurs rapidly, and to
prevent damage to contactors and valves, an on-off differential, or ―hysteresis,‖ is added to the
controller operations. This differential requires that the temperature exceed setpoint by a certain
amount before the output will turn off or on again. On-off differential prevents the output from
―chattering‖ or making fast, continual switches if the cycling above and below the setpoint
occurs very rapidly. On-off control is usually used where a precise control is not necessary, in
systems which cannot handle having the energy turned on and off frequently, where the mass of
the system is so great that temperatures change extremely slowly, or for a temperature alarm.
One special type of on-off control used for alarm is a limit controller. This controller uses a
latching relay, which must be manually reset, and is used to shut down a process when a certain
temperature is reached.

1.4 Inspiration behind choosing this project?

 Nowadays, the demand for accurate temperature control and air ventilation control has
conquered many of industrial domains such as process heat, alimentary industry,
automotive, industrial spaces or office buildings where the air is cooled in order to
maintain a comfortable environment for its occupants. One of the most important
concerns involved in heat area consist in the desired temperature fruition and
consumption optimization. To fulfill such a challenge one should promote suitable
control strategies. In the last decade extensively research has been made with respect to
temperature control for different types of process.
 Large scales of application are dedicated to control the temperature in a realistic
environment suitable to various needs. In order to obtain the optimum performance it
would be advantageous to provide a temperature control structure by providing a safer
cooling or heating system with better performances in terms of energy efficiency,
flexibility and portability. Extensively research has been made on heating control
because of the necessity in practical applications.

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  In this project the idea focuses on simple process that could be suitable to educational
application to illustrate different control design aspects. Moreover, the designed part is a
low cost application with components easy to access.
 Designed part consists of cooler, resistor, sensor, display board and microcontroller. The
analog temperature sensor LM335 will offer information about current state of
temperature at every sampling time.

1.5 Literature Review

The idea of the project is to develop an ON/OFF CONTROLLER which can be used with any
drives like motor, boiler, furnaces etc.

We chose to design a controller for Electric motors and for this we have investigated the
different reasons responsible for the rise in temperature in different types of electric motors and
collected several data which would be used as a feedback in designing the controller.A DC motor
is supplied with rated voltage. The aim of this project is to maintain the working temperature of
the motor below a specified value. We use a linear temperature sensor that converts the
temperature into electrical voltages. This data is fed to the ADC along with the reference voltage.
The digital data is given to an interface card which is connected to the PC.

1.5.1 Literature Survey

 Temperature sensors and their specifications.

 Different types of Electric Motors and their specifications.

 Causes of rise in temperature of Electric Motors.

1.6 Objective of the work

The Primary Objective of the project is to develop an on/off temperature controller for an electric
motors.

1.7 Target Specification

To develop a low cost application On/Off controller with components easy to access and
assemble.

5
To develop a user friendly design that can be installed easily either for individual purpose or for
industrial purpose.

1.8 Project Work Schedule

(a) Jan 2012: Background Study of project.

(b) Feb 2012: Circuit design and analysis.

(c) Mar 2012: Actual designing of the Hardware.

(d) Apr 2012: Hardware implementation.

(e) May 2012: Documentation & Final report presentation.

6
 2. BACKGROUND THEORY
In this chapter, we will do a background study of the basic design that we got from our reference.
After doing a detailed general circuit discussion, we will move on to the detailed study of the
complete theoretical discussion pertaining to all the parameters involved with this project. In the
end, will try to sum it up with a conclusion that will help us to understand the methodology we
have employed, discussed elaborately in the next chapter.

2.1 Basic Design Concept and Circuit Analysis

Fig. 2.1

7
2.2 Different types of Electric Motor

Fig. 2.2

2.3 Overheating Electric Motors: A Major Cause of Failure

The main reasons responsible for overheating are:

A) Overload Condition

Stator current is frequently used to measure load level, but load level can easily be masked by an
overvoltage condition. A common mistake is made in operating at an overvoltage to reduce the
stator current and to reduce the introduction of heat. It has been shown that for motors ranging
from 10-200 hp, operating at a 10 percent overvoltage would typically decrease losses by only 1-
3 percent.

8
Even though the motor current may vary when applying overvoltages, the excessive damaging
heat in the motor will not improve. A load error of more than 10 percent can be introduced by
relying on stator current readings to access probable load and heat levels. Under full load
conditions, this is the difference between life and death to a motor.

For example at a coal-fired power plant in the United States, a 7000 hp 6.6kV motor was running
with only 7 percent overcurrent, but an 8 percent overvoltage. Two identical applications had
undergone unscheduled outages in the previous 12 months. A mild overload was identified by
examining the stator current of this motor. However, after looking at the true load to the motor,
an overload of nearly 20 percent was discovered. This explains why these motors were failing.
The repair for each of these three motors ran into the hundreds of thousands of dollars.

In industrial applications, perfect voltage conditions are rare. Losses, not current levels alone, are
the true source of heat. These losses are a destructive factor to windings and a significant reason
for bearing damage.

This justifies the need for accurate knowledge of operating load level. Only accurate load level
calculations can give reliable measurements of excessive losses and overheating in the motor.

B) Power Condition

Electric motors in manufacturing plants generally need to be derated because of poor power
conditions in order to maximize their useful life. NEMA MG-1 Sections II and IV specify what
voltage quality, as a function of balance and distortion, allows what level of percentage load. Fig.
shows the NEMA derating curve for percentage of unbalance. According to the derating curve,
the higher the level of unbalance, the lower the acceptable level of steady state load. For
example, if a 100 hp motor has an unbalance factor of 3 percent, the motor should be derated to
0.88 or 88 percent of capacity, 88 hp.

9
 Fig. 2.3

C) Effective Service Factor

The key to finding the most frequent causes of overheating is accuracy in estimating load level.
This can be identified by looking at only currents and voltages. The formula for calculating
effective service factor is:

Effective service factor provides predictive maintenance professionals a solid conclusion of

stress on any particular motor load application.

In another example, data gathered using a dynamometer showed a 300 hp motor under test was
running a nearly full load, 99.7 percent. Voltage distortion was poor due to a previously
unidentified silicon controller rectifier defect in the power supply. The resulting NEMA derating
factor of 0.85 results in an effective service factor of 1.17, which signaled an alarm condition.

10
Regardless of nameplate service factor, any motor operating above 1.0 service factor is under
stress. A higher service factor signifies the motor‘s capability for overload for short periods of
time, not higher steady state operating capabilities. Poor voltage conditions are frequent and can
be caused by a variety of reasons. NEMA specifies which load level is permitted for poor voltage
conditions. On-line monitoring tools capable of accurately calculating operating load ensure
plant operation within appropriate limits.

D) Frequent starts and stop

Table 1 displays the maximum number of starts and stops for line-operated motors as a function
of their rating and speed. Limiting the frequency of startup, the most stressful portion of motor
operation, is highly important.

Many well-documented cases of recurring motor failure were addressed by increasing the
horsepower rating of the motor which shortened the time between failures. However, the root
cause of the failure was actually the frequency of starts and stops. The key is to closely monitor
the number of starts—hourly for small or medium motors and daily for larger motors.

On-line testing can ensure full compliance to professional standards. It can be used in identifying
reasons for failure in operations that do not comply with standards by including these standards
in long-term unsupervised monitoring operations.

11
 Table 2.1

A = Maximum number of starts/hr

C = Minimum rest or off time in seconds between starts.

E) Environmental Condition.
12
Thermography is frequently used to determine the conditions where electric motors are being
used. Poor cooling due to high ambient temperature, clogged ducts, etc., are typical examples of
non-electrically induced temperature stress on both the motor and insulation system. Chemical
abrasive substances in the air, wet operation, and high altitude operation are a few common
environmental stresses.

2.4 Understanding Motor Temperature Rise

Understanding motor insulation classes and temperature ratings is simpler than you might think.
Though we're focusing on standard AC induction motors, you can apply most of this information
to DC motors. Let's begin by looking at motor temperature terms.

Ambient temperature is the temperature of the air surrounding the motor. This is the threshold
point or temperature the motor assumes when shut off and completely cool.

Temperature rise is the change within a motor when operating at full load. For example; if a
motor in a 78°F room operates continuously at full load, the winding temperature will rise. The
difference between its starting temperature and its final elevated temperature is the motor's
temperature rise.

Hot spot allowance. The standard method of measuring "temperature rise" involves taking the
difference between the cold and hot ohmic resistance of the winding. This averages the
temperature change of the whole winding, including the motor leads, end turns, and wire deep
inside the stator slots. Since some of these spots are hotter than others, an allowance factor uses
the average temperature to indicate what the temperature probably is at the hottest spot. We call
this allowance factor the hot spot allowance.

Insulation class. Insulation classes group insulations by their resistance to thermal aging and
failure. We designate the four common insulation classes as A, B, F, or H. The temperature
capability of each class is the maximum temperature at which the insulation can operate to yield
an average life of 20,000 hr.

Insulation system. Manufacturers use several insulating components when building motors (see
sidebar, on top of page 78). A chain is only as strong as its weakest link, so manufacturers base
insulation system classifications on the component with the lowest temperature rating. For
example, if a manufacturer uses one Class B component with F and H components, the entire
system is Class B.

Putting it all together. The basic ambient temperature rating point of most motors is 40°C. A
motor rated for 40°C is suitable for installation where the normal surrounding air temperature
does not exceed 40°C (104°F). This is the starting point.

When the motor operates at full load, it has a certain temperature rise, which adds to the ambient
temperature. For example, U frame motors originally had Class A insulation and a maximum
temperature rise of 55°C. In a 40°C ambient temperature, this gives an average winding
13
temperature of 95°C. That's 40°C (ambient) ` 55°C (rise). Manufacturers use the 10° difference
between 95°C and 105°C rating of Class A insulation to handle the hot spot allowance. If you
take a motor designed for a 55°C rise and Class A insulation, and change the insulation to Class
B, you have an extra 25°C of thermal capability. You can use this extra capability to handle
higher than normal ambient temperatures. In so doing, you extend the motor's life.

You can also use this capacity to handle higher than normal temperature rise brought on by
overloads. You can get overloads from high or low voltages, voltage imbalance, blocked
ventilation, high inertia loads, frequent starts, and other factors. For example: If a motor with
Class A design (55°C) temperature rise has Class B insulation, then you could expect it to have a
normal insulation life - even when ambient temperature is 650°C. These design criteria show that
even if a motor feels hot, it may be fine (see sidebar, below).

In a T frame motor with Class B insulation, the extra 25°C of thermal capacity (Class B
compared to Class A) accommodates the higher temperature rise associated with the smaller T
frame motors. For example: A standard T frame motor might have a rating of 40°C ambient,
80°C temperature rise, and a 10°C hot spot allowance. When you add these three components
together, you use up the total temperature capability of Class B insulation (130°C).

Changing insulation classes. By building a Class B, totally enclosed, fan-cooled, T frame motor
with Class F insulation, you may increase the service factor from 1.0 to 1.15. You can use this
same change of one insulation class to handle a higher ambient temperature or increase the
motor's life. This could also make the motor more suitable in high elevations where thinner air
has less cooling effect.

Actual insulating practice. Improvements in insulating materials have reduced manufacturing

costs. As a result, most motor manufacturers use a mixture of materials, many of which have
higher than required temperature ratings. Some manufacturers stopped using Class A materials
altogether. This means even though many fractional horsepower motors should have a Class A
temperature rise, the real insulation is Class B or better. Similarly, many motors designed for
Class B temperature rise actually use Class F and H materials. This extra margin gives the motor
a life bonus.

As a general rule of thumb, insulation life doubles for each 10° of unused insulation temperature
capability. For example, if you design a motor to have a total temperature of 110°C (including
ambient, rise, and hot spot allowance), but build it with a Class B (130°C) system, an unused
capacity of 20°C exists. This extra margin raises the expected motor insulation life from 20,000
hr to 80,000 hr.

Similarly, if a motor's load is less than full capacity, its temperature rise will be lower. This
automatically lowers the hot spot temperature and extends motor life. If the motor operates in a
lower than 40°C ambient temperature, its life will be longer. The degree rule applies to motors
operating at above rated temperature; insulation life drops by half for each 10°C of over
temperature. Depending on design and cooling arrangements, motor surface temperature can be
hot to the touch. Surface temperatures of 75°C to 95°C can exist on T frame motors. However,
14
these temperatures do not necessarily indicate overload or impending motor failure.

Motors use these components for insulation.

- Enamel coating on the magnet wire.

- Insulation that comes to the conduit box.

- Sleeving where leads connect to magnet wire.

- Lacing string that binds the end turns of the motor.

- Slot liners (in the stator laminations) that protect the wire from chafing.

- Top sticks that hold the wire down in place inside the stator slots.

- Varnish that manufacturers dip the completed assembly in, prior to baking it. The dipping
varnish seals nicks or scratches that may occur during the winding process. The varnish also
binds the entire winding together into a solid mass so it doesn't vibrate and chafe when subjected
to the high magnetic forces.

Temperature Rise By Resistance Method.

Degrees C Rise = Rh – Rc/ Rc (234.5 + T)

Where Rc = Cold Winding Resistance in Ohms

R h = Hot Winding Resistance in Ohms

T = Cold (ambient) Temperature in Degrees Centigrade

Note: This formula assumes that the ambient temperature does not change during the test.

Example: A small motor has a cold temperature of 3.2 ohms at 25° C (77° F) ambient
temperature. After operating at full load for several hours, the resistance measures 4.1 ohms and
the ambient has increased to 28° C.

Calculate the temperature rise:

Apparent rise = 4.1 – 3.2/3.2 (234.5 + 25) = 73° C

Correcting for 3° C increase in ambient:

Actual rise = 73° – 3° = 70° C

15
Table 2.2

16
Table 2.3

17
2.5 Fundamental Mathematical Calculations

The methodology based on numerical techniques such as finite differences and finite elements
has become an important tool in the thermal analysis of electric machines. we develop a
mathematical model allowing one to calculate the distribution of motor temperature as a function
of input parameters determined by the current operating conditions, implement the model, and
compare the results of computations with the results of experimental measurements. The model
can be applied for various frequencies and loads, and the identified temperature can then be
compared to thermal limits and alarm thresholds to prevent motors from overheating which
could be generated by a range of factors, e.g. overload, locked rotor, prolonged starts, or
unbalanced current to name just a few.

Mathematical model for thermal analysis of electric induction motors

We base our consideration on the following energy balance model:

(1)

where q is the density of the material, e is the internal energy, q is the energy flux, e and are
deformation and stress tensors, respectively, Q is the energy supply. We can reduce (1) to the
following form.

Where ,accounts for the energy supply and changes in the internal energy
due to different types of losses, e.g. friction and cooling losses, and electromagnetic losses.
Assuming that the internal energy can be expressed as

where cv is the specific heat at constant volume. Model (1)–(3) is supplemented by boundary and
initial conditions. Depending on the part of the motor under consideration we use
Dirichlet_s,Neumann_s, specified flux, or radiation boundary conditions. In doing so, we use
Fourier_s law ,Newton_s law of cooling/heating accounting for convection from the
surface (heat acquired from the surrounding), and the Stefan–Bolzmann law
giving the radiative energy net exchange ,(heat acquired due to the
incoming radiation),where h is the convection coefficient, Text and Tam are external and

18
ambient temperatures, respectively,k is the thermal conductivity coefficient, and Ccons is the
radiative transfer coefficient.
We follow in developing a general representation of boundary conditions for the problem. In
this context, it is convenient to introduce a scalar quantity, Wout, representing heat losses at the
surface. Then, the energy balance at the surface is defined by the formula

The representation (4) allows us to ‗‗activate‘‘ coefficients k, h, Ccons depending on which

specific type of heat transfer (conductive, radiative, or convective) should be accounted for in a
particular part of the motor. If we denote the heat generated within the system by Win then the
original model can be schematically reformulated as a basic conservation law in the form Wout =
Win –Wchange where Wchange = would formally represent the change in energy
stored within the system.In order to complete the model formulation we need to specify
functions and coefficients entering the model (1)–(4) since they depend on the geometry and
nature of the region of the motor and/or the boundary segment under consideration.

Laminar airflow case (Re < 7*104)

In this case we define the quantity,

where Fw is the distance between two fins and Fh is the height of the fins, and K is the thermal
conductivity of the air. Then, we calculate the convection coefficient related to the dissipation
from the fins of the frame as follows:

and the value of convection coefficient related to the dissipation from the surface between the fins as

Turbulent airflow case (Re < 7 * 104)

In this case, H‘ is calculated as

By using the value,Ha is then calculated,while H1 is calculated using formula

Finally, we note that for the free convection coefficient we use the following formula

Now, we are in a position to describe the main steps of the computational procedure.

19
 3. Methodology
In this chapter, we will discuss in detail the methodology we have employed in this project. We
will discuss the specific circuit diagram. We will also do a detailed study of the components used
and their specifications. We will then take a look at the various tools that we have used for the
making of this project.

3.1 Circuit Diagram

Fig. 3.1

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 Fig. 3.2

3.2 Detailed Methodology

In this project we are using external A.C supply (220 v) as input , this high voltage is converted
into 12 Volts A.C by step down transformer , then we use voltage regulators and filters with
bridge rectifier to convert the A.C into D.C voltage .
For voltage regulation we are using LM 7805 and 7812 to produce ripple free 5 and 12 volts D.C
constant supply.

The microcontroller,ATMEL(AT89C52), is the heart of the system. It accepts inputs from

a simple four-key keypad which allow specification of the set-point temperature, and it displays
both set-point and measured temperatures using LCD controlled by a display driver. Inputs of the
temperature controller are a potentiometer and two buttons, which are employed to change a set-
point temperature and other process parameters for a control action and to support system
operation menu. As an output of the temperature controller, a 2 * 16-character liquid crystal
display (LCD) [16] is used. The LCD therefore presents the set point and the measured plant
temperatures as well as the process
parameters.

21
The LM35 temperature sensor, which measures the air temperature in the plant, converts the
measured temperature into voltage . Noting that the maximum output voltage of the LM35
sensor is 1 V and the reference voltage of the ADC is 5 V, a signal conditioning circuit is needed
to amplify the maximum output voltage of the sensor.

ADC converts the incoming voltage signal to digital output,which is being stored in
Microcontroller continuously according to set sampling interval and displayed using LCD.As the
temperature of Electric motor rises up,LM35 senses the motor temperature which is now being
compared with set temperature,if it exceed the set temperature Microcontroller sends a signal to
Darlington pair which amplify the signal sufficient to drive a relay circuit.Relay drive circuit
turn-off the electric motor and turn-on the cooler(fan) to cool down the overheated
motor.Hence,protecting the Electric motor from Overheating beyond it‘s temperature range.

22
 FLOWCHART

Fig. 3.3

3.3 Major Components Required

 Temperature Sensor (LM35)

 Microcontroller (AT89C51)

 ADC0808/0809

 Relay Driver Circuit.

23
  Crystal Oscillator

 Bridge Diode Rectifier

 Transformer

 LCD

3.3.1 Temperature Sensor LM35

LM35 is an integrated-circuit temperature sensor, whose output voltage is linearly proportional

to the Centigrade temperature. The LM35 has a benefit over linear temperature sensors calibrated

in Kelvin, as the user is not requisite to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain

suitable Centigrade scaling. The LM35 does not require any outside calibration to provide typical

accuracies of ±0.25°C at room temperature and ±0.75°C over a -55°C to +150°C temperature

range.

Fig. 3.4

24
The LM35 has low output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration make

interfacing to read out or control circuitry especially easy. It can be used with single power

supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it draws only 60uA from its supply, it has very low

self-heating, less than 0.1°C in still air. The LM35 is rated to operate over a -55° to +150°C

temperature range, while the LM35C is rated for a -40° to +110°C range (-10° with improved

accuracy).

The LM35 series is available packaged in hermetic TO-46 transistor packages, while the

LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D are also available in the plastic TO-92 transistor package. The

LM35D is also available in an 8-lead surface mount small outline package and a plastic TO-220

package.

Fig. 3.5

3.3.2 Microcontroller (ATMEL AT89C51)

Features
• Compatible with MCS-51™ Products
• 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory

25
– Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles
• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
• Three-level Program Memory Lock
• 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM
• 32 Programmable I/O Lines
• Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
• Six Interrupt Sources
• Programmable Serial Channel
• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

Fig. 3.6

26
3.3.3 ADC0808/ADC0809--8-Bit μP Compatible A/D Converters with 8-Channel
Multiplexer

The ADC0808, ADC0809 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with an 8-
bit analog-to-digital converter, 8-channel multiplexer and microprocessor compatible
Control logic. The 8-bit A/D converter uses successive approximation as the conversion
technique. The converter features a high impedance chopper stabilized comparator, a
256R voltage divider with analog switch tree and a successive approximation register. The 8-
channel multiplexer can directly access any of 8-single-ended analog signals.
The device eliminates the need for external zero and full-scale adjustments. Easy interfacing to
microprocessors is provided by the latched and decoded multiplexer address
Inputs and latched TTL TRI-STATE® outputs.

Fig. 3.7

Features
 Easy interface to all microprocessors.
 No zero or full-scale adjust required.
 8-channel multiplexer with address logic.
 0V to 5V input range with single 5V power supply.
 Outputs meet TTL voltage level specifications.
 Standard hermetic or molded 28-pin DIP package.
 28-pin molded chip carrier package.

27
3.3.4 Relay Driver

Features
1. 92/8 gold silver alloy on silver palladium contact type
is suitable for low level switching application.
2. Small size and light weight can provide high density P.C. Board mounting.
3. 2.54gmm Terminal Pitch.
4. Low Coil Power Consumption of GS-T Type and high Coil Power Consumption of GS-D type
are available to meet user‘s selection.
5. Employment of suitable plastic materials to be applied to high temperature and various
chemical solution.
6. Plastic epoxy resin sealed type for washing procedure.

Fig. 3.8

3.3.5 Crystal Resonators

The UM Series Resonators feature excellent frequency stability and are suitable for pager and
mobile radio applications. These highly impactresistant,reliable crystal resonators have been
reduced in size without trading off their electrical characteristics.
The HC Series Resonators are excellent in frequency stability and suitable
as the reference clocks of microprocessors and other electronic devices.
Features
 Automatic mounting with tape and reel form is possible.
 Desirable characteristics for tuned oscillator circuit applications because the
natural oscillation frequency of the crystal is very stable with changes in temperature,
power supply voltage, or mechanical vibration.
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General Circuit Of crystal Resonators

Fig. 3.9

3.3.6 Bridge Diode Rectifier

The Fullwave bridge rectifier is designed to convert AC sine wave to a full-wave pulsating
DC signal.
The bridge is generally connected to the secondary of transformer.
For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave bridge serves to
convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may be desired because the
bridge alone supplies an output of pulsed DC.

Fig. 3.10

The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor (or smoothing capacitor) is to
lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the rectified AC output voltage waveform from the bridge.
29
There is still some variation, known as "ripple". One explanation of 'smoothing' is that the
capacitor provides a low impedance path to the AC component of the output, reducing the AC
voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive load. In less technical terms, any drop in the
output voltage and current of the bridge tends to be canceled by loss of charge in the capacitor.
This charge flows out as additional current through the load. Thus the change of load current and
voltage is reduced relative to what would occur without the capacitor. Increases of voltage
correspondingly store excess charge in the capacitor, thus moderating the change in output
voltage / current.

3.3.7 Transformer
Low Frequency, Open-Style Laminated, Low Profile, Plug-In Series

Fig. 3.11

 Semi-toroidal construction reduces EMI.

 Low profile - Ideal for low height PC board applications.
 1500VRMS HIPOT.
 Vacuum impregnated - withstands board washing systems and reduces audible noise.
 Baked resin provides environmentallyresistant finish.
 Sizes 2, 6 and 12 are available as encapsulated, hermatically sealed (request drawings)

3.3.8 LCD

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide range of
applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in various
devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other multi segments
LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no limitation of
displaying special & event custom characters(unlike in seven segments),animations and so on.

A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this LCD
each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely, Command
and Data.

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The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an

instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the

cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed on the

LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD.

Fig. 3.12

Features
1. 5x8 dots
2. Built-in controller (S6A0069 or equivalent)
3. +5V power supply
4. 1/16 duty cycle
5. LED Backlight

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3.4 Tools Required

Even though there were a number of tools that came handy during the completion of this project
but these are a few of them which were very important and without their use this project would
have been incomplete:

 Cadence® Pspice® -
 C/C++
 Keil
 Coral Draw
 Data Sheets of the components used (Attached in Annexure)

32
 4. Result Analysis
In this chapter, we will deal with the result of the experiments that we did with the project.

Fig. 4.1

Step 1 : First, we will give the sampling interval of the temperature that we are measuring. In this
case, we will give an interval of 1 second.

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 Fig. 4.2

Step 2 : Now we will give a threshold value of temperature range beyond which the heating
element (Motor, in this case) must get cut off from its power supply subsequently switching on
the cooling element (Fan, in this case). In this case, we have kept it at a temperature of 40 C.

34
 Fig. 4.3

Step 3 : Now, we have switched on the motor and the sensor measures the temperature which is
being measured by the LM 35. Up till 40 C, it will keep on working like in the figure it‘s visible.

35
 Fig. 4.4

Step 4 : Once the threshold temperatures were crossed, the motor stopped working and the Fan
was switched on to cool the heating element beyond the threshold temperature.

This is the final motive of our project will was a achieved successfully and this prototype works
perfectly according to its requirements and specifications. A basic more developed model can be
made on similar lines with more power capacity sources.

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 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK

This chapter includes the conclusion of our project as in the significance of the results obtained
and the scope of its vitality in day to day life or in an industry where large sums of money are
invested in huge instruments which need utmost care and maintenance.

5.1 Brief summary of the work

 To develop a control system for monitoring and controlling the real time parameter in
real time environment.
 Process control is an efficient expression of improving the operation of a process, the
productivity of a plant, and the quality of products.
 Nowadays, the demand for accurate temperature control and air ventilation control
has conquered many of industrial domains such as process heat, alimentary industry,
automotive, industrial spaces or office buildings where the air is cooled in order to
maintain a comfortable environment for its occupants.
 One of the most important concerns involved in heat area consist in the desired
temperature fruition and consumption optimization. To fulfill such a challenge one
should promote suitable control strategies.

5.2 Conclusions
 Finally, we would have designed a system which can monitor and control an electric
motor (or any other system that has the property of getting heated up) depending on
its temperature variation.
 The result is significant in the sense that every system, from a laptop to a pressure
vessel or any mechanical device emits some heat after a certain workload. The
observation of its temperature rise along with the control plays a very important role
as everything works under a certain temperature range beyond which it can
malfunction or get damaged. The project which we have presented can also be used in
domestic purposes like the temperature control of a laptop or in an industry where
very costly devices are installed.

5.3 Future scope of work

The scope may include research of some advanced control strategies and the implementation on
this low cost plant, which may reflect better control actions in terms of small sampling rate.

37
 REFERENCES

Journal / Conference Papers

[1] Bogdan Levărdă and Cristina Budaciu.,The design of temperature control system using
PIC18F4620. “Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Department of Automatic
Control and Applied Informatics.2010.

[2] Weijun Y., Xianyi Q., The Constant Temperature Automatic Control System Design.
Proceedings of 2009 International Conference on Information Engineering and Computer
Science, ICIECS 2009.

[3]Tom Bishop,P.E,Understanding Motor Temperature rise Limit. . EASA Technical Support

Specialist,November 2003

Reference / Hand Books

[1] J. Millman and A. Grabel, Microelectronics. Mcgraw-Hill, 2nd ed., 1987.

[2] Imbrahim D., Microcontroller Based Temperature Monitoring and Control. Newnes, 2002.
[3] E BALAGURUSAMY, Programming in C.

Web

[1] www.google.com
[2] http://www.national.com/
[3] http://www.ti.com/
[4] http://embedded-lab.com/
[5] http://www.alldatasheet.com/
[6] http://www.ladyada.net/
[7] www.electromotores.com/.../...

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 ANNEXURES

PCB Layout

Fig. A1

This is the PCB layout of the sketch which was used to make it.

39
Microcontroller ASM code

#include<reg51.h> //include file for 8051 registers

#include <string.h>

sbit en = P2^7; // define en, rs & rw pins for LCD

sbit rs = P2^5;
sbit rw = P2^6;
sbit b = P0^7; // define b as busy flag
sbit cs = P3^0; // define cs, wr, rd & intr as pins for
sbit wr = P3^1; // ADC
sbit rd = P3^2;
sbit intr = P3^3;
sbit heater = P2^0; // define P2.0 & P2.1 as pins to on/off
sbit cooler = P2^1; // heater and cooler
unsigned char data1,data2;
int c=0; // initialize counter

void writecmd(unsigned char a); //function that writes command on LCD

void writedat(unsigned char b);
void busy(void);
void writestr(unsigned char *s);
void delay(void);
void display(unsigned char z);
// function that sends data to LCD
// function to check LCD busy
// function that writes string on LCD
// to generate delay
//converts hex in to ASCII and display it

40
void timr1(void) interrupt 3 //timer 1 overflow interrupt subroutine
{
c++; // increase count when interrupt occur
ET1=0;
TH1 = 0x3C; // load same value again in T1
TL1 = 0xAF;
if(c==50) //if count is 50 means 50×50ms=2.5 sec
{
c=0; // set counter again to 0
EA = 0; // disable all interrupts
writecmd(0xC0); // go to next line in LCD
writestr("curr temp="); // write string
intr = 1;
cs = 0;
rd = 1;
wr = 0; // write enable to ADC
P1 = 0x01; // select channel 1
while(!intr); // wait for conversion over
rd = 0; // read enable
wr = 1;
data2=P1; // get the data from P1
display(data2); // display it
writestr("'C ");
if(data2>=data1) // if current temp is higher
{
writecmd(0xC0);

41
 writestr("over temperature"); //display message
heater = 0; // turn off heater
cooler = 1; // turn on cooler
}
else
{
heater = 1; // or turn on heater
cooler = 0; // turn off cooler
}
EA = 1; //enable interrupt before exiting
} // loop
}
void display(unsigned char z)
{
unsigned char tmp; // define temporary variable
unsigned char ASCII[2]; // define 2 digit variable
tmp = z>>4; // get upper nibble
if(tmp <= 0x09) // if its less then 9 convert it
ASCII[1] = tmp+0x30; // in ASCII by adding 30

else
{
ASCII[1] = tmp-0x09; //otherwise first deduct 9
ASCII[1] += 0x40; // then convert it in ascii
}
tmp = (z & 0x0f); // get lower nibble and perform

42
 if(tmp <= 0x09) // same operation
ASCII[0] = tmp+0x30;

else
{
ASCII[0] = tmp-0x09;
ASCII[0] += 0x40;
}
writedat(ASCII[1]);
writedat(ASCII[0]);
}
void delay(void)
{
int x;
for(x=0;x<10000;x++);
}
void writecmd(unsigned char a)
{
busy(); //check if LCD is busy or not
rs = 0; // select command register
rw = 0; // write to LCD
P0 = a; // send byte to LCD
en = 1; // apply strobe
en = 0;
}
void writedat(unsigned char b)

43
{
busy(); //check if LCD is busy or not
rs = 1; // select data register
rw = 0;
P0 = b; // write to LCD
P0 = a; // send byte to LCD
en = 1; // apply strobe
en = 0;
}
void busy()
{
en = 0; //disable display
P0 = 0xFF; // P0 as input port
rs = 0; // select command register
rw = 1; // read enable
while(b==1) // wait until busy flag is 1
{
en=0;
en=1;
}
en=0;
}
void writestr(unsigned char *s)
{
unsigned char l,i;
l = strlen(s); //get the length of string

44
 for(i=1;i<l;i++) // send all characters one by one
{
writedat(*s); // till the end of string
s++;
}
}

void main()
{
TMOD = 0xA0; // initialize timer 1 with 16 bit timer
TH1 = 0x3C; // load initial count 15,535 = 3CAFh
TL1 = 0xAF;
heater = 1; // initially heater is on
cooler = 0;
writecmd(0x3C); // initialize LCD
writecmd(0x0E);
writecmd(0x01);
writestr("set temp="); // send string to LCD
delay();
intr = 1;
cs = 0; // enable ADC
rd = 1;
wr = 0; // write enable
P1 = 0x02; // select 2nd channel
while(!intr); // wait until conversion is over
rd = 0; // read enable

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 wr = 1;
data1=P1; // get digital data from ADC
display(data1); // display it
writestr("'C ");
TR1=1; // start timer 1
IE = 0x88; // enable timer 1 overflow interrupt
while(1); // continuous loop
}

46
 PROJECT DETAILS

Student Details
Student Name Amit Swaroop
Register Number 080906482 Section / Roll No A / 154
Email Address amitkarn21@rediffmail.com Phone No (M) 9742510780
Student Name Nilay Kumar Shrivastav
Register Number 080906160 Section / Roll No A / 23
Email Address nilay.jam@gmail.com Phone No (M) 9008420442
Project Details
Project Title Control System for Real Time Environment
Project Duration 16 Weeks Project Start Date 09/01/2012
Organization Details
Organization Name Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal
Full postal address with pin code Dept of Electrical & Electronics Engg, MIT Manipal,
Manipal 576 104, Karnataka State, INDIA
Guide Details
Guide Name Mr. Ashwin
Full contact address with pin code Dept of Electrical & Electronics Engg, MIT Manipal,
Manipal 576 104, Karnataka State, INDIA
Email address ashwinnyk@yahoo.com

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