INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNICAL

STUDIES
Subject:Concrete Technology - I (GPCE1401)

Student Name as per last qualification mark

sheet Lunawadi Husain Kusai
Enrollment No. IIMTS/IND/PGPCE/LHK1225362/09B22
Professional Graduate Programme In Civil
Course Title Engineering
Semester Applied Fourth
Subject Concrete Technology-1
Examination Start Date 07/09/2023
Answer sheet Submission Date 17/09/2023

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Max. Marks:100
 Answer the questions of the following in detail (Each question carries 20 marks ) (100 marks)

Question 1:(a)Define Curing. Give its objectives and methods of curing.

Ans : Curing is the process of maintaining an adequate water cement ratio and temperature in concrete
from the time the concrete is poured, and until the concrete has met the specified properties of the
concrete mix design.
The water cement ratio in concrete is vital for a proper concrete mix. When hydration occurs, this
reaction between the cement and water causes tiny crystals to form. If there is a lack or surplus of water
in the mix, these crystals do not properly form, and the concrete is incapable of reaching strength.

A lack of water is the issue most frequently encountered due to evaporation of bleed water from the
surface, especially in hot and arid climates. Imagine squeezing a sponge full of water. How do you keep
the concrete from losing its water like this? Curing. Inadequate curing will ultimately lead to weak
concrete that is more susceptible to cracking, abrasion, and adverse effects.

Methods Of Curing

Overall, there are two points at which a concrete cure process must be considered: during the finishing
process (initial curing) and after the finishing process (final curing).

Initial Curing – Both fogging and evaporation retarders can be applied during the placing and finishing
process. This curing method also assists the finishers by increasing the “workability” of the concrete to
achieve a better finish.

Fogging is the act of creating a fog-like mist that is not applied directly to the slab but above the slab.
This initial curing method creates a humid atmosphere for the concrete in dry climates and lowers the
rate of evaporation.

Evaporation retarder does exactly as the name implies; it stops the water from evaporating from the
concrete. The evaporation retarder is sprayed onto the concrete being placed and creates a film that
reduces the rate of evaporation as the concrete is being finished.

Final Curing – The method of curing a concrete slab after placing and finishing the concrete.

Sprinkling : The sprinkling of water to cure a concrete slab is just as it sounds; the surface of the concrete
slab is kept sufficiently moist as the concrete continues to set.

Positives: Effective and simple curing method.

Negatives: Water sprinkling cannot be applied when the temperature is below freezing. In addition, the
cost of water and labor may be high as water must be periodically applied to keep the concrete surface
damp.

What You Will Need: Access to water, hose, sprinkler, or spray gun.

Ponding :Ponding is the act of boarding up the edges of a concrete slab and flooding the slab with a few
inches of water. Ponding is rarely applied, due to the extensive requirements.

Positives: Effective curing method.

Negatives: Time & labor consuming.

What You Will Need: Access to water, forms, nails, & hose.

Concrete Covers – Burlap Mats, Sand, or Straw with Water : There are multiple methods to covering a
concrete slab for curing. Each of these materials are laid out on the surface of the slab prior to finishing
and aid in maintaining a high moisture content. Some of the materials used include:

 Burlap/Cotton Mat
 Sand
 Straw
Positives: Effective curing method, if not the most effective curing method

Negatives: Time & labor consuming to place and remove burlap or other material.

Concrete Cure – Liquid Membrane Forming Compounds : The most common form of concrete curing
today is spraying a liquid membrane forming compound commonly referred to as ‘cure’. The cure is
sprayed across the surface of the slab, which creates a film that reduces the evaporation of water from
the surface. For most slabs, a clear resin cure is typically used that dissipates over time or is later
removed with a cleaner. Some exterior slabs use a white pigmented cure (such as sidewalks) to give it a
finished white color.

Positives: Cost & Labor Effective. Can be applied immediately upon finishing. Does not require hours of
attention and labor.

Negatives: Be sure to confirm cure chemicals will not interfere with final material floor finish.

What You Will Need: Cure & Spray Gun

Variables Affect the Curing of Concrete

Weather: Temperature, Humidity, Precipitation, Etc. In arid or dry climates, concrete is highly susceptible
to evaporation and drying out!

Concrete Additives: Retarders, Water Reducers, Acceleraters, Air Entrainmers, Shrinkage Reducers, and
Superplasticizers.

How Long Does Concrete Take to Cure?

Concrete typically takes seven days to reach its designed compressive strength. However, concrete never
stops curing. The concrete will reach its compressive strength and the chemical reaction does
significantly slow down to an extremely low rate, but concrete will often reach 500-1,000psi above it’s
designed compressive strength in twenty-eight days.

What You Will Need: Access to water and a burlap mat, straw, or sand.

(b) What is compaction of concrete? Explain various methods of compaction of concrete.

Ans : Compaction of concrete is the process of removal of entrapped air from the concrete. During the
process of concrete mixing and placement, the air gets entrapped in it. Workable mix has a lower
amount of entrapped air. In other words, stiff concrete has a high amount of entrapped air therefore
would require more compacting efforts to remove the air bubbles.

This entrapped air reduces the strength of the concrete. Approx. 5% of entrapped air decreases the
strength of concrete up to 30% and 10% entrapped air can reduce the strength by as much as 60%.

Thus it is very necessary to remove the air from the concrete as it not only reduces the strength of the
concrete also due to the presence of air, the porosity of the concrete increases and foreign material
finds its way and attack concrete and steel.
Methods for Compaction of Concrete

Hand Compaction

Hand compaction of concrete is done in the case of small concrete works. It consists of rodding,
ramming, and tamping. For hand compaction higher w/c ratio is required. It is limited up to the
thickness of 15-20 cm.

Rodding

In this method of hand compaction, concrete is compacted by using the rod of 16 mm dia. and 2 m
length between the reinforcement and edges. Rodding is done continuously to effectively pack the
concrete and remove entrapped air. Bamboos can also be used in place of the rod.
Ramming

Ramming by steel or wooden rammer is essentially done in the case of unreinforced concrete on the
ground floor only. Ramming can’t be done on reinforced concrete because it will displace the
reinforcement from its position. Also, it cant be done on the upper floors because its impact can
displace the formwork or strut.

Tamping

You might have seen that during the construction of slabs of buildings or road pavements the surface is
compacted by wooden crossbeams or steel beam or section 10 x 10 cm. This method of hand
compaction is called tamping. Tamping is adopted at a place where the thickness is concrete is
comparatively less and the surface is required to be finished smooth and level.

Compaction by vibration

The strength of the concrete compacted by hand compaction will always be low because of the higher
w/c ratio required for the compaction of concrete. If high strength concrete is required, the w/c ratio
would have to be low thus in this case hand compaction can not be used. Thus we have to compact the
concrete using mechanical vibrators and the method is called compaction by vibration.

Vibrators set the concrete in motion which reduces the friction between the particles of the concrete.
Vibration does not directly affect the strength of the concrete but it permits the use of concrete with a
lower w/c ratio which ultimately increases the strength of concrete.

Compaction with Internal vibrators

It is the most commonly used vibrator also known as needle vibrator, poker vibrator, and immersion
vibrator. It consists of a power unit, a shaft and a needle can be powered by electricity, or petrol or by
an air compressor. An eccentric weight is attached either to the shaft or motor which creates the
vibration.

Dia. of the needle varies from 20 – 70 mm length is 30-90 cm. The bigger the size of the construction
bigger the needle will be used. This Is portable and can be shifted very easily. This method of
compaction by vibration can also be used in difficult positions and situations.

Compaction with External Concrete Form Vibrator

This method of compaction by vibration is used in the case of columns, thin walls and ni precast
construction works. The vibrator is attached to the external wall surface of the formwork and vibration
is given to the formwork. This is particularly suitable in case of very heavy reinforcement works where a
needle vibrator will not enter.
It gives a very good finish to the concrete surface. The efficiency of this type of vibrator is lower than the
needle type because vibration is given to the formwork thus consuming more power.

Compaction with Table vibrator

As the name suggest it is a special vibrator where vibrator is attached to the table. It is used mostly used
in laboratories to compact the concrete cubes and in small precast unit fabrication.

Compaction with Platform vibrator

If size of the table vibrator is increases we will call it platform vibrator. This method of compaction by
vibration is used for manufacturing of large prefabricated concrete units like railway sleepers,
prefabricated electrical poles.

Compaction with Surface vibrator

Also known as screed board vibrator. In this type of vibrator a small vibrator is attached to the screed
board. It is used for the compaction of thin concrete member like slab, floor, pavement and can be
employed for a maximum thickness of 15 cm.

Compaction by pressure and jolting

Very dry concrete is vibrated pressed and jolted to compact hollow blocks, cavity blocks, and solid
concrete blocks. By the combined action of vibration, jolts, and pressure concrete gets compacted to a
dense form.

Compaction by spinning

This method of compaction is used for the fabrication of concrete pipes/hume pipes. Plastic c oncrete
when spun at high speed gets compacted by the effect of centrifugal force.

Vibratory roller

In this method of compaction, a heavy roller that vibrates while rolling is employed for the compaction
of concrete dams, concrete and earthen roads.
Proper Use of Vibrators

Depth of Concrete layer

Although concrete up to 1m depth can be compacted using heavy vibrators the depth of the concrete
layer should not generally be more than 60 cm.

Depth of immersion of vibrator

The active part of the vibrator should be completely immersed for good compaction of concrete. The
vibrator shall be immersed 10-20 cm in the already compacted concrete to create a good bond between
the compacted and new layer of concrete.

Spacing of vibrator insertion

Spacing should be such that the range of action overlaps to some extent and concrete shall be
sufficiently compacted. For example for concrete of workability 0.78 to 0.85, a vibrator shall be inserted
at a distance of 35 to 90 cm apart.

Speed of insertion and withdrawal

Speed of 3 cm/s is sufficient for the proper compaction by vibration.

Duration of vibration

Duration of vibration depends on the depth of the concrete layer, workability, and type of vibrator. The
vibrator should not be kept in one place for a longer duration. Instead, it is better to insert a vibrator at
a number of places for a shorter duration for good compaction of concrete.

Vibrating concrete with hardened concrete

In the case where concrete has to be joined with hardened concrete, for proper bonding hardened
concrete should be roughened and cleaned first. Cement sand grout of 1:1 shall be applied then only
fresh concrete shall be placed over it and vibrated.
 Question 2:(a)What do you mean by workability? Describe compacting factor test.
Explain the properties of concrete in the hardened state.

Ans : Workability of Concrete is a broad and subjective term describing how easily freshly mixed
concrete can be mixed, placed, consolidated, and finished with minimal loss of homogeneity.
Workability is a property that directly impacts strength, quality, appearance, and even the cost of labor
for placement and finishing operations.

Compaction Factor Test

Compaction factor test is the workability test for concrete conducted in laboratory. The compaction
factor is the ratio of weights of partially compacted to fully compacted concrete. It was developed by
Road Research Laboratory in United Kingdom and is used to determine the workability of concrete.
The compaction factor test is used for concrete which have low workability for which slump test is not
suitable.

Apparatus
Compaction factor apparatus consists of trowels, hand scoop (15.2 cm long), a rod of steel or other
suitable material (1.6 cm diameter, 61 cm long rounded at one end ) and a balance.

Sampling
Concrete mix is prepared as per mix design in the laboratory.

Procedure

1. Place the concrete sample gently in the upper hopper to its brim using the hand scoop and level it.
2. Cover the cylinder.
3. Open the trapdoor at the bottom of the upper hopper so that concrete fall into the lower hopper. Push
the concrete sticking on its sides gently with the road.
4. Open the trapdoor of the lower hopper and allow the concrete to fall into the cylinder below.
5. Cut of the excess of concrete above the top level of cylinder using trowels and level it.
6. Clean the outside of the cylinder.
7. Weight the cylinder with concrete to the nearest 10 g. This weight is known as the weight of partially
compacted concrete (W1).
8. Empty the cylinder and then refill it with the same concrete mix in layers approximately 5 cm deep,
each layer being heavily rammed to obtain full compaction.
9. Level the top surface.
10. Weigh the cylinder with fully compacted. This weight is known as the weight of fully compacted
concrete (W2).
11. Find the weight of empty cylinder (W).
The compaction factor is defined as the ratio of the weight of partially compacted concrete to the
weight of fully compacted concrete. It shall normally to be stated to the nearest second decimal place.
Compaction Factor Value= (W1-W) / (W2-W)

Result of Compaction Factor

Compaction factor of the concrete = The Compaction factor values ranges from 0.7 to 0.95.

Properties of Hardened Concrete:

Characteristic strength, drying shrinkage, creep, modulus of elasticity, permeability and resistance to
chemical attack are hardened and time-dependent properties of concrete that may influence
structural performance.

We will discuss different properties of hardened concrete below in details.

1. STRENGTH
In simple language, the strength of concrete means the maximum amount of load which it can handle.

In common practice, it is the power of the concrete which is considered its most valuable property.

In fact, high-strength concrete is synonymous with good quality concrete.

The Strength of Concrete can be determined by the compressive strength and tensile strength.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH :
It may be defined as the maximum compressive load that can be taken by concrete per unit area.

It has been shown that with special care and control, concrete can be made to bear as high loads as
800 kg/sq.cm or even more.

In practice, however, concrete with compressive Strength between 200-500 kg/sq.cm can be easily
made on the site for the common type of construction.

The compressive strength is also called the crushing strength, and it is determined by loading axially
cube-shaped (or cylindrical shaped, in the USA) specimens made out of the concrete.

The tests are carried out in 3 days, 7 days and 28 days after the casting of the samples.

It has been observed that the compressive (crushing) strength of concrete is influenced by a huge
number of factors.

Some of the most important factors are:

i. Type of Cement:
The composition, quality and ‘age‘ of the material which is used in the manufacture of cement that
have been stored for the considerable time make concrete of lower strength.
Cement with higher proportions of tri-calcium silicate produce concrete that show higher strengths, at
least in earlier stages.

Similarly, finer the particle size of the cement, higher is the ultimate compressive strength.

ii.Nature of Aggregates.
Sand and coarse aggregates form the other two essential components of concrete. A good bond
between cement and the aggregates is possible only when the aggregates have sharp edges, clean
surfaces, and rough texture.
Smooth and rounded aggregates result in comparatively weak bonds. Similarly, the aggregates used in
the concrete making should have in themselves good compressive strength.

For example, if chalk (very soft limestone) is used in making of concrete instead of massive limestone,
the resulting concrete will be weak in compressive strength because of the reduced strength of the
aggregate.

iii. Water-Cement Ratio.

The compressive strength decreases, in general, with increasing water cement ratio.
Hence, when minimum water has been used just to ensure complete hydration of the cement, the
resulting concrete will give maximum compressive strength on proper compaction.
iv. Curing Conditions.
Great importance is attached to proper curing of concrete after it’s laying for obtaining maximum
compressive strength.
Incomplete curing and intermittent drying of concrete during the curing period may cause a loss in the
compressive strength to the extent of 40 percent or even more.

v. Weather Conditions.
The same concrete placed in different climates -extremely cold and dry hot, may develop different
strength values.

The cause is related to incomplete hydration of the cement in the concrete.

vi. Admixtures.
Certain admixtures are added to the concrete at the mixing stage for achieving some specific purposes.

It has been observed that certain admixtures especially calcium chloride, increase the compressive
strength.

Some other admixtures (e.g., air entraining agents) however, affect the compressive strength
adversely if proper controls are not maintained on the water-cement ratio.

vii. Method of Preparation.

Improper mixing of the concrete and careless transport and placing may result in poor (in strength)
quality, despite the best cement and aggregates used in it.
It is the workmanship that determines the quality of the concrete-work in the ultimate analysis. A
skilled worker can produce best concrete-mix despite some other deficiencies.

An incompetent labor, however, may spoil the entire work despite being given the best-designed
concrete-mix.

The voids left in the concrete on compaction and curing have a profound influence on the strength of
the concrete.

Tensile Strength:
Plain concrete (without steel reinforcement) is quite weak in tensile strength which may vary from
1/8th to 1/20th of the ultimate compressive strength.

It is primarily for this reason that steel bars (reinforcement) are introduced into the concrete at the
laying stage to get a block of reinforced cement concrete which is very Strong in compression as well
as in tension.
In plain concrete, tensile strength depends largely on the same factors as of the compressive strength.

The Tensile strength of concrete becomes a valuable property when it is to be used in road making and
runways. It is determined by using indirect methods.
 In one of such methods, it is deduced from the flexural strength test. In this test, a beam of concrete is
cast in standard dimensions depending upon the nominal size of the aggregate.
Then, the beam is properly cured and tested after 28 days.

In the second indirect method, called the split-cylinder method, the cylinder of specified dimensions is
made to fail under tension by applying compressive load across the diameter.
This is termed as Splitting Tensile Strength.

The testing machine is adjusted to distribute the load along the entire, length of the cylinder; From the
load at failure, tensile strength is calculated.

2. Durability:
Durability is the second most important quality of hardened concrete. It may be defined as the
capacity of hardened concrete to withstand all the forces of deterioration that are likely to act on it,
after setting, in a given environment.

Among these forces, the following are more likely to act.

1. Frost action.
2. Abrasive forces.
3. Chemical action.
4. Alkali-aggregate reaction.
A brief note on each of these is given below.

i. Frost Action.
Frost Action is a major cause of deterioration of concrete in Cold Climates. It takes place due to
freezing or water within the concrete pores and cavities during extremely cold weather.

Water on freezing expands and exerts pressure on the walls of the pores. This cyclic freezing of water
in the pores are responsible for the development of cracks of various nature in the concrete.

To minimize frost actions following measures should be taken.

 In cold weather, the water-cement ratio should be kept as low as possible. This will not allow any extra
water to remain within the concrete pores. Hence frost formation will not take place.
 Use good drainage and covering methods for removing any surface water from staying on the concrete
during the curing process.
ii. Chemical Attack.
Concrete is liable to attack to various degrees by acids alkalies and salt solutions.

Among the acids, hydrochloric, Sulphuric, nitric and hydrofluoric acid, acetic acid, lactic acid, and
formic acid are very harmful to concrete.

The sources of these acids can be from within or outside the environment in which concrete has been
used. Thus, hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid may be present in industrial and domestic sewage.
 They will destroy gradually the calcium hydroxide components of concrete used for sewage disposal.
Other acids may attack the concrete used in the industrial buildings of acids.

The organic acids are common though in traces, in food processing factories and dairy farms. Concrete
used in these buildings will gradually deteriorate from these acids at a fast rate.

iii. Alkali-Aggregate Reaction.

Sodium and potassium hydroxides of cement are capable of reaction with silica.

Since amorphous silica is a common component of many coarse aggregates, such an alkali-aggregate
reaction may create harmful effects on cement concrete.

This is because the gel-like silicate structures produced by the above reaction are quite weak and
unstable and result in greater expansion.

These may be the cause of frequent cracking in some concrete. For avoiding this reaction, either the
percentage of alkalies (K2O and Na20) has to be kept very low in the Portland Cement.
Or a great care has to be taken for selecting aggregates free of amorphous silica-like opal, chert,
cristobalite, etc.

3. DIMENSIONAL STABILITY:
CREEP; This defines the behavior of concrete under loads.
It is now well established that concrete is not a truly elastic material. Also, it is not entirely plastic
material. When hardened concrete is loaded, it deforms.

1. partly as a result of elastic strain (which is recovered on the removal of the load);
2. partly as a result of plastic strain (a permanent deformation).
This latter non-elastic time dependent deformation is a typical property of concrete and is commonly
referred as CREEP.

Among the various causes of creep, the following may be mentioned:

1. Closure of the void-structures of concrete on the application of load;

2. Squeezing of water from within the cement gel when the concrete is loaded,
3. The flow of cement-water paste, in a viscous state, causing a permanent shrinkage under load;
4. Readjustment of aggregates under load.
It is believed that the proportion of mix and the type of cement used in concrete have a profound
influence on the rate of creep.
Concrete mixes with higher water-cement ratio will also show higher creep rates.

Creep is thought to be beneficial in some cases and harmful in other cases.

In reinforced concrete, it helps in transferring stresses to the reinforcement and, thereby reducing
chances of failure by stress-concentration.
 SHRINKAGE:
Hardened Concrete undergoes in three types of shrinkage that are important with respect to its
dimensional stability:

1. Plastic shrinkage.
2. Drying shrinkage.
3. Thermal shrinkage.

i. Plastic Shrinkage.
This is the shrinkage that the freshly placed concrete undergoes till it sets completely. It may also be
called initial shrinkage.

Such a volumetric change is due to loss of water from the fresh concrete due to evaporation, bleeding,
seepage, and soaking by formwork.
Excessive shrinkage at initial stages may develop extensive cracking in the concrete on the setting.
Therefore, all precautions should be taken to avoid excessive loss of water due to evaporation.

ii. Drying Shrinkage :

As the concrete has completely set and hardens, some further shrinkage may result because of
contraction of gel-structure due to further loss of moisture, or drying (against the term evaporation
used in the first type of shrinkage).

This kind of shrinkage is practically an essential and irreversible property of concrete. It has to be met
with by careful design of reinforcement to avoid its ill effects (cracking of hardened concrete).

iii. Thermal Shrinkage.

This may be due to fall in temperature of concrete from the time it is laid till it sets completely.

Thus, when concrete laid at 30°C cools down to 15°-18°C, some shrinkage may be expected. It may be
negligible on its own account.

But when added to drying shrinkage, it becomes necessary.

EXPANSION:
Concrete may expand on hardening due to the following two reasons:

Thermal Expansion: In massive concrete works, when the upper layers are laid before the lower layers
have completely set, there can arise a phenomenon of thermal expansion in the lower layers.
This is because the heat of hydration gets accumulated in those layers and may attain magnitudes
beyond acceptable limits.

Chemical Reactions: Alkali-aggregate reactions are known to cause a definite expansion in the
concrete.
The reaction between amorphous silica of aggregates and oxides of potassium and sodium – from the
cement used in aggregate yield crystalline structures of bigger volumes.
 This change becomes harmful because these gel-structures are not as stable and strong as those
formed by reaction between calcium oxide and silica.

They become the cause of cracking and quicker deterioration of hardened concrete.

Question 3:(a)Explain various types mixers. Give their sizes and capacities.

Ans : A concrete mixer mixes cement, aggregates and water and produce concrete mechanically. There
are various types of concrete mixers available which makes concrete production quick and economical.

Types of Concrete Mixers

There are two broad types of concrete mixers:

1. Batch mixers
o Drum Types Mixer
 Tilting drum mixers
 Non-tilting drum mixer
 Reversing drum mixer
o Pan Type Mixer
2. Continuous mixers

Batch Concrete Mixers

Batch mixers are widely used machines for concrete mixing. Concrete mix obtained by this mixer is
collected batch by batch and time by time. So, it is called as batch mixer. After pouring all the materials
into pan or drum, it mixes all of those for some time and finally discharges. This process is repeated until
required amount of concrete mix is obtained. In general Batch mixers are two types.

 Drum type mixers

 Pan type mixers
Drum Type Mixers
In case Drum type mixers concrete ingredients are mixed in a drum which is actually in double conical
frustum shape. Drum types mixers are classified into three types:

 Tilting drum mixers

 Non-tilting drum mixers
 Reversing drum mixers
 Tilting Drum Mixers Tilting drum mixer means the drum will discharge concrete by tilting downwards. It
is rapid discharge process and used for larger projects. Rapid means it delivers concrete by gravity that is
tilting the drum downwards because of this the concrete mix obtained will be not subjected to
segregation. Low workable concretes which contains large sized aggregates of size greater than 7.5cm
are also mixed efficiently with this tilting type mixers. But the mixing efficiency depends on some of the
factors as follows:

 Shape of the drum

 Angle of the drum
 Size of blades
 Angle of blades
The only disadvantage of this mixer is sticking of concrete to bottom of drum. To overcome this a
method called buttering of mixer is applied in which some amount of cement mortar is mixed in the
mixer before mixing first batch of concrete.

Non-Tilting Drum Mixers Non- tilting drum mixers are not allowed to tilt and the drum rotates about its
horizontal axis. For the discharge of concrete a chute is arranged in inclined position which will receives
the concrete mix from drum and discharges out. In this case, the drum is opened at two ends and
consists blades insides when materials are poured through one end and mix is collected through another
end. Rapid discharge of concrete is not possible in this case. Due to this delay, the concrete may be
vulnerable to segregation. The larger size aggregate is not discharged easily with the mix. So, size of
aggregate mot more than 7.5cm is preferable for this type of mixers. So, this type of mixers are
generally used for small projects.

Reversing Drum Mixers Reversing drum mixers are similar to non-tilting type mixers but in this case
reversal of rotation takes place for different action. The drum has two openings, one end is for pouring
materials and other end is for discharge of mix. The drum rotates about its horizon tal axis. The rotation
of drum takes place in one direction for mixing and in opposite direction for discharging. Two different
set of blades are arranged for mixing and discharging. They are suitable for dry concrete mixes.
Pan Type Concrete Mixers
Pan type mixers consists a circular pan in which concrete is mixed. The mixing is done by blades which
are arranged in star shape inside the pan. There are two types of pan mixers are available. In one case,
the circular pan is constant and only star blades rotate about vertical axis of pan. In the other case,
circular pan rotates while the blades are at static position. But in both cases, the mixing is efficient and
concrete mixture is collected through central hole provided in the pan. The rotating star blades contains
special blades called scrapper blades which will make concrete not to stick to the pan. The blades can
also be adjusted in height so, there is no room for concrete to store in the pan. We can say among the
all types of batch mixers pan type mixer are more efficient.
Continuous Concrete Mixers
Continuous mixer, the name itself telling its duty that the loading, mixing and discharging of mix is
continuously done until the work is complete or work break occurs. The loading of materials is done
continuously by screw feeders. Continuous mixtures are used for very large projects such as dams,
bridges, construction of high rise buildings, etc.
 (b) Discuss in detail the properties of concrete in plastic (green) stage.
Ans : Concrete in its plastic state is soft and can be molded into different shapes. This state is also called
"Green Concrete". The most important properties of plastic concrete are workability and cohesiveness.

Workability is the ease with which the concrete can be mixed, transported, placed, and compacted. A
workable concrete mix doesn't result in bleeding or segregation.

The Properties Of Concrete In Plastic Stage are:

Plastic stage of concrete is that stage where concrete can be transported easily, moulded or poured
into any place

 Good Workability:

Workability is the most important property of concrete. It may be defined as ‘ The ease with which the
concrete can be mixed, transported, placed and compacted. ‘ A workable concrete mix doesn’t results in
bleeding or segregation.

 Freedom from segregation :

A good concrete should be free from segregation. Segregation means separation of coarse aggregates
from concrete in plastic stage.
 Freedom from bleeding :

A good concrete should be free from bleeding. The appearance of Water, along with some particles of
cement and very fine sand on the surface of freshly placed concrete is known as bleeding.

 Prevention from harshness :

The concrete mix which doesn’t give smooth surface with a certain amount of trowelling is known as
harsh mix.

Question 4:(a)Describe in detail the Vee-Bee test to determine workability of concrete.

Ans : The Vee-Bee test, also known as the Vebe test, is used to measure the workability of freshly mixed
concrete. The test measures the relative effort required to change the shape of a mass of concrete from
conical to cylindrical using vibration. The amount of effort required is called the remoulding effect and is
measured in seconds.

The test is named after its developer, V Bahrmer of Sweden. It is covered by IS: 119 – 1959.

The test is performed in a laboratory. The results are based on the mobility and compatibility of the
concrete. Workability depends on the flexibility and stability of the concrete.
 The concrete slump test is another test that measures the workability of freshly made concrete. This
test measures the consistency of the concrete before it sets.

This test is useful for concrete which has low workability. The slump value for the low workability
concrete is limited upto the 50 mm.

In the vee bee consistometer test, the effort of the concrete is measured in terms of the second, also
called the vee bee time, or it can also be said that the remoulding effort of the concrete. The workability
of the concrete is the measure of the workable nature of the concrete. Vee bee consistometer test
measures the energy required to change the shape of a concrete mix from one shape to another.

Vee Bee Consistometer Test Apparatus

The Vee bee consistometer test apparatus includes vibrator plates resting over the elastic s upports, A
metallic pot, A metallic cone open at both ends and a temper of a rod with a standard size of 20 mm
diameter and 50 cm in length. The test apparatus is shown in the following figure.

Vee Bee Consistometer Test Theory

Vee bee consistometer test is based on the principle that measures the relative effort of the concrete
mix to change its shape from one shape to another through the means of vibration. In this test, the
concrete shape will change from conical to cylindrical.

This test gives the time for a given mobility of concrete from changing one shape to another. Which
relates to the water cement ratio and grading of the aggregates. This time is the complete remoulding
time of the concrete mix, which is reported as the vee bee time in seconds.

Vee Bee Consistometer Test Procedure

Vee bee consistometer test is performed in the laboratory to measure the workability of the concrete
mix. This test procedure for measuring the workability of the concrete mix is done as per IS 1199:1959.
The test procedure is explained as follows:

 A slump test is performed according to the IS 1199:1959 in the sheet metal cylindrical pot of the
consistometer.
 Before lifting the cone up, the glass disc linked to the swivel arm must be adjusted to note the position
of the concrete cone. The glass disc must be moved and positioned right on top of the slump cone in the
pot.
 The glass disc on top of the concrete cone will then be lowered as the cone is raised, and the droop will
be indicated on the graded rod.
 The electrical vibrator shall be switched on, and the concrete shall be allowed to spread out in the pot.
 The vibration shall then be continued until the whole concrete surface uniformly adheres to the glass
disc, and the time taken for this to be attained shall be noted with a stopwatch. The time is recorded in
seconds.
 Uses of Vee Bee Consistometer Test

Vee bee consistometer test can be used to measure the workability, mobility, placeability, finishability
etc., of the concrete. Vee Bee Consistometer to determine durability is a test on performed for the
concrete mix, which also measures the workability of the concrete. This test can measure the
workability of concrete with a low slump value upto the 50 mm.

Vee bee consistometer test is suitable for finding the workability of a low-workable concrete mix. The
workability of concrete by the vee bee consistometer test is measured by measuring the vee bee time in
seconds. This time corresponds to changing the concrete mix's shape

Vee Bee Consistometer Test: Advantages and Disadvantages

Vee bee test for the determination of the workability of the concrete mix can be used based on the
quality and ingredients of the concrete mix. It has some advantages and disadvantages because it can be
used to measure the workability of the concrete.

Advantages

 It can measure the workability of the concrete mix in its dry state.
 It can be used for concrete having a low water-cement ratio.
 It can measure the compactibility of the concrete mix and workability of the concrete mix.

Disadvantages

 The vee bee apparatus is quite expensive in comparison to other test apparatus, and it also requires
electricity.
 This test can also be used for the low workable concrete mix.

(b)What are the main impurities of water and their effects on the properties of concrete.

Question 5:(a) Explain different types of cement giving their uses.

Ans : There are various types of cement used in concrete construction. Each type of cement has its
properties, uses, and advantages based on composition materials used during its manufacture.
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
Ordinary Portland cement is the most widely used type of cement, which is suitable for all general
concrete construction. It is the most commonly produced and used type of cement around the world,
with annual global production of around 3.8 million cubic meters per year. This cement is suitable for all
kinds of concrete construction.
2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
Portland pozzolana cement is prepared by grinding pozzolanic clinker with Portland cement. It is also
produced by adding pozzolana with the addition of gypsum or calcium sulfate or by intimately and
uniformly blending Portland cement and fine pozzolana.
This cement has a high resistance to various chemical attacks on concrete compared with ordinary
portland cement, and thus, it is widely used. It is used in marine structures, sewage works, sewage
works, and for laying concrete underwater, such as bridges, piers, dams, and mass concrete works, etc.

3. Rapid Hardening Cement

Rapid hardening cement attains high strength in the early days; it is used in concrete where formworks
are removed at an early stage and are similar to ordinary portland cement (OPC). This cement has
increased lime content and contains higher c3s content and finer grinding, which gives higher strength
development than OPC at an early stage.

The strength of rapid hardening cement at the three days is similar to 7 days strength of OPC with the
same water-cement ratio. Thus, the advantage of this cement is that formwork can be removed earlier,
which increases the rate of construction and decreases the cost of construction by saving formwork
cost.
Rapid hardening cement is used in prefabricated concrete construction, road works, etc.

4. Quick setting cement

The difference between the quick setting cement and rapid hardening cement is that quick-setting
cement sets earlier. At the same time, the rate of gain of strength is similar to Ordinary Portland
Cement, while quick hardening cement gains strength quickly. Formworks in both cases can be removed
earlier.

Quick setting cement is used where works is to be completed in very short period and for concreting in
static or running water.

5. Low Heat Cement

Low heat cement is produced by maintaining the percentage of tricalcium aluminate below 6% by
increasing the proportion of C2S. A small quantity of tricalcium aluminate makes the concrete to
produce low heat of hydration. Low heat cement suitable for mass concrete construction like gravity
dams, as the low heat of hydration, prevents the cracking of concrete due to heat.

This cement has increased power against sulphates and is less reactive and initial setting time is greater
than OPC.

6. Sulfates Resisting Cement

Sulfate resisting cement is used to reduce the risk of sulfate attack on concrete and thus is used in the
construction of foundations where the soil has high sulfate content. This cement has reduced the
contents of C3A and C4AF.
Sulfate resisting cement is used in construction exposed to severe sulfate action by water and soil in
places like canals linings, culverts, retaining walls, siphons, etc.
7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement
Blast furnace slag cement is obtained by grinding the clinkers with about 60% slag and resembles more
or less in properties of Portland cement. It can be used for works where economic considerations are
predominant.

8. High Alumina Cement

High alumina cement is obtained by melting a mixture of bauxite and lime and grinding with the clinker.
It is a rapid hardening cement with initial and final setting time of about 3.5 and 5 hours, respectively.

The compressive strength of this cement is very high and more workable than ordinary portland cement
and is used in works where concrete is subjected to high temperatures, frost, and acidic action.

9. White Cement
It is prepared from raw materials free from Iron oxide and is a type of ordinary portland cement, which
is white. It is costlier and is used for architectural purposes such as precast curtain wall and facing
panels, terrazzo surface, etc. and for interior and exterior decorative work like external renderings of
buildings, facing slabs, floorings, ornamental concrete products, paths of gardens, swimming pools, etc.

10. Colored cement

It is produced by mixing 5- 10% mineral pigments with ordinary cement. They are widely used for
decorative works on floors.

11. Air Entraining Cement

Air entraining cement is produced by adding indigenous air-entraining agents such as resins, glues,
sodium salts of sulfates, etc. during the grinding of clinker.

This type of cement is especially suited to improve the workability with a smaller water-cement ratio
and to improve frost resistance of concrete.

12. Expansive Cement

Expansive cement expands slightly with time and does not shrink during and after the time of hardening.
This cement is mainly used for grouting anchor bolts and prestressed concrete ducts.

13. Hydrographic cement

Hydrographic cement is prepared by mixing water-repelling chemicals and has high workability and
strength. It has the property of repelling water and is unaffected during monsoon or rains.

Hydrophobic cement is mainly used for the construction of water structures such as dams, water tanks,
spillways, water retaining structures, etc.
 (b) Enlist types of admixtures used in concrete and explain each in brief.
Ans : Concrete admixtures are of different types and they are as follows:

1. Water Reducing Admixtures

2. Retarding Admixtures
3. Accelerating Admixtures
4. Air entraining concrete admixture
5. Pozzolanic Admixtures
6. Damp-proofing Admixtures
7. Gas forming Admixtures
8. Air detraining Admixtures
9. Alkali Aggregate Expansion Inhibiting Admixtures
10. Anti-washout Admixtures
11. Grouting Admixtures
12. Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures
13. Bonding Admixtures
14. Fungicidal, Germicidal, Insecticidal Admixtures
15. Coloring Admixtures

1.Water Reducing Admixtures

Water reducing admixtures, the name itself defining that they are used to minimize the water demand
in a concrete mix. Workability is the important property of concrete which is improved with the addition
of water but if water is added more than required the strength and durability properties of concrete
gets affected. In addition to increase in workability it also improves the strength of concrete, good bond
between concrete and steel, prevents cracking, segregation, honeycombing, bleeding etc. Water
reducing admixtures are also called as plasticizers and these are classified into three types namely
plasticizers, mid-range plasticizers and super plasticizers. Normal plasticizer reduces the water demand
up to 10%, mid-range plasticizers reduce the water demand up to 15% while super plasticizers reduce
the water demand up to 30%. Calcium, sodium and ammonium lignosulphonates are commonly used
plasticizers. Some of the new generation super plasticizers are acrylic polymer based, poly carboxylate,
multicarbovylatethers etc.
2. Retarding Admixtures
Retarding admixtures slow down the rate of hydration of cement in its initial stage and increase the
initial setting time of concrete. These are also called as retarders and used especially in high
temperature zones where concrete will set quickly. The quick setting in some situations may lead to
discontinuities in structure, poor bond between the surfaces, creates unnecessary voids in concrete etc.
Retarders are useful to eliminate this type of problems. Commonly used retarding admixture is calcium
sulphate or gypsum. Starch, cellulose products, common sugar, salts of acids are some other retarders.
Most of water reducing admixtures are also acts as retarding admixtures and they are called as retarding
plasticizers.

3. Accelerating Admixtures
Accelerating admixtures are used to reduce the initial setting time of concrete. They speed up the
process of initial stage of hardening of concrete hence they are also called as accelerators. These
accelerators also improves the strength of concrete in it early stage by increasing the rate of hydration.
Earlier hardening of concrete is useful in several situations such as early removal of formwork, less
period of curing, emergency repair works, for constructions in low temperature regions etc. Some of the
accelerating admixtures are triethenolamine, calcium formate, silica fume, calcium chloride, finely
divided silica gel etc. Calcium chloride is the cheap and commonly used accelerating admixture.

4. Air Entraining Concrete Admixture

Air entraining admixtures are one of the most important inventions in concrete technology. Their
primary function is to increase the durability of concrete under freezing and thawing conditions. When
added to concrete mix, these admixtures will form millions of non-coalescing air bubbles throughout the
mix and improves the properties of concrete. Air entrainment in concrete will also improve the
workability of concrete, prevents segregation and bleeding, lower the unit weight and modulus of
elasticity of concrete, improves the chemical resistance of concrete and reduction of cement or sand or
water content in concrete etc. Most used air entrainment admixtures are vinsol resin, darex, Teepol,
Cheecol etc. These admixtures are actually made of Natural wood resins, alkali salts, animal and
vegetable fats and oils etc.

5.Pozzolanic Admixtures
Pozzolanic admixtures are used to prepare dense concrete mix which is bets suitable for water retaining
structures like dams, reservoirs etc. They also reduce the heat of hydration and thermal shrinkage. Best
pozzolanic materials in optimum quantity gives best results and prevents or reduces many risks such as
alkali aggregate reaction, leaching, sulfate attack etc. Pozzolanic materials used as admixtures are either
natural or artificial. Naturally occurring Pozzolanic materials are clay, shale, volcanic tuffs, pumicite, etc.
and artificial pozzolans available are fly ash, silica fume, blast furnace slag, rice husk ash, surkhi etc.

6.Damp-proofing Admixtures
Damp proofing or water proofing admixtures are used to make the concrete structure impermeable
against water and to prevent dampness on concrete surface. In addition to water proof property, they
also acts like accelerators in early stage of concrete hardening. Damp proofing admixtures are available
in liquid form, powder form, paste form etc. The main constituents of these admixtures are aluminum
sulfate, zinc sulfate aluminum chloride, calcium chloride, silicate of soda etc. which are chemically active
pore fillers.
7. Gas forming Admixtures
Aluminum powder, activated carbon, hydrogen peroxide are generally used gas forming chemical
admixtures. When gas forming admixtures are added, it reacts with hydroxide obtained by the hydration
of cement and forms minute bubbles of hydrogen gas in the concrete. The range of formation of
bubbles in concrete is depends upon many factors such as amount of admixture, chemical composition
of cement, temperature, fineness etc. The formed bubbles helps the concrete to counteract the
settlement and bleeding problems.

8. Air detraining Admixtures

Air-detraining Admixtures are used to remove the excess air from the concrete voids. Sometimes, the
aggregates may release the gas into concrete and air entrained is more than required then this type of
admixtures are useful. Some of the mostly used air-detraining admixtures are tributyl phosphate,
silicones, water insoluble alcohols etc.

9. Alkali Aggregate Expansion Preventing Admixtures

Alkali aggregate expansion in concrete is happened by the reaction of alkali of cement with the silica
present in the aggregates. It forms a gel like substance and cause volumetric expansion of concrete
which may lead to cracking and disintegration. Use of pozzolanic admixtures will prevent the alkali-
aggregate reaction and in some cases air-entraining admixtures are also useful. Generally used
admixtures to reduce the risk of alkali aggregate reaction are aluminum powder and lithium salts.

10. Anti-washout Admixtures

Anti-washout admixtures are used in concrete especially for under water concrete structure. It protect
the concrete mix from being washed out under water pressure. It improves the cohesiveness of
concrete. This type of admixtures are prepared from natural or synthetic rubbers, cellulose based
thickeners etc.

11. Grouting Admixtures

Grouting admixtures are added to grout materials to improve the grout properties according to the
requirement of grout. Sometimes, there is a need of quick set grout and sometimes there is a need of
slow set grout to spread into deep cracks or fissures. Hence, different admixtures are used as grout
admixtures based on situation. Accelerators like calcium chloride, triethanolamine etc. are used as grout
admixtures when the grout is to be set rapidly. Similarly retarders like mucic acid, gypsum etc. are used
to slow down the setting time of grout. Gas forming admixtures like aluminum powder is added to grout
material to counteract the settle of foundations.

12. Corrosion Preventing Admixtures

Corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete structure is general and it is severe when the structure is
exposed to saline water, industrial fumes, chlorides etc. To prevent or to slow down the process of
corrosion preventing admixtures are used. Some of the corrosion preventing admixtures used in
reinforced concrete are sodium benzoate, sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite etc.
13. Bonding Admixtures
Bonding admixtures are used to create a bond between old and fresh concrete surfaces. In general, if
fresh concrete is poured over a hardened concrete surface, there is a chance of failure of fresh concrete
surface due to weak bond with old surface. To make the bond stronger, bonding admixtures are added
to cement or mortar grout which is applied on the concrete surface just before placing fresh concrete.
This type of admixtures are used for pavement overlays, screed over roof provision, repair works etc.
Bonding admixtures are water emulsions and they are made from natural rubber, synthetic rubbers,
polymers like poly vinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate etc.

14. Fungicidal, Germicidal, Insecticidal Admixtures

To prevent the growth of bacteria, germs, fungus on hardened concrete structures, it is recommended
that the mix should have fungicidal, germicidal and insecticidal properties. This properties can be
developed by adding admixtures like polyhalogenated phenols, copper compounds and dieledren
emulsions etc.

15. Coloring Admixtures

Coloring admixtures are the pigments which produce color in the finished concrete. The admixtures
used to produce color should not affect the concrete strength. Generally coloring admixtures are added
to cement in a ball mill, then colored cement can be obtained which can be used for making colored
concrete.