Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Benjamins Translation Library aims to stimulate academic research and training
in translation studies, lexicography and terminology. The Library provides a forum
for a variety of approaches (which may sometimes be conflicting) in a historical,
theoretical, applied and pedagogical context. The Library includes scholarly works,
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ADVISORY BOARD
Jens Allwood (Linguistics, University of Gothenburg)
Morton Benson (Department of Slavic, University of Pennsylvania)
Marilyn Gaddis Rose (CRIT, Binghamton University)
Yves Gambier (Centre for Translation and Interpreting, Turku University)
Daniel Gile (Université Lumière Lyon 2 and ISIT, Paris)
Ulrich Heid (Computational Linguistics, University of Stuttgart)
Eva Hung (Chinese University of Hong Kong)
W. John Hutchins (Library, University of East Anglia)
Werner Koller (Department of Germanic, Bergen University)
José Lambert (Catholic University of Louvain)
Willy Martin (Lexicography, Free University of Amsterdam)
Alan Melby (Linguistics, Brigham Young University)
Makoto Nagao (Electrical Engineering, Kyoto University)
Roda Roberts (School of Translation and Interpreting, University of Ottawa)
Juan C. Sager (Linguistics, Terminology, UMIST, Manchester)
María Julia Sainz (Law School, Universidad de la República, Montevideo)
Klaus Schubert (Technical Translation, Fachhochschule Flensburg)
Mary Snell-Hornby (School of Translation & Interpreting, University of Vienna)
Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit (Savonlinna School of Translation Studies, Univ. of Joensuu)
Gideon Toury (M. Bernstein Chair of Translation Theory, Tel Aviv University)
Wolfram Wilss (Linguistics, Translation and Interpreting, University of Saarland)
Judith Woodsworth (FIT Committee for the History of Translation,
Concordia University, Montreal)
Sue Ellen Wright (Applied Linguistics, Kent State University)
Volume 20
Edited by
MARY SNELL-HORNBY
University of Vienna
ZUZANA JETTMAROVÁ
Charles University, Prague
KLAUS KAINDL
University of Vienna
Preface
Theo Hermans
Translation as institution 3
Rosemary Arrojo
The "death" of the author and the limits of the translator's
visibility 21
Jean-Marc Gouanvic
Pour une sociologie de la traduction: le cas de la
littérature américaine traduite en France après la
Seconde Guerre mondiale (1945-1960) 33
Cay Dollerup
Translation as imposition vs. translation as requisition 45
Sirkku Aaltonen
Translating plays or baking apple pies: A functional approach
to the study of drama translation 89
Marta Mateo
Translation strategies and the reception of drama performances:
a mutual influence 99
Rainer Kohlmayer
From saint to sinner: The demonization of Oscar Wilde's
Salomé in Hedwig Lachmann's German translation and in
Richard Strauss' opera Ill
Michaela Wolf
Translation as a process of power: Aspects of cultural
anthroplogy in translation 123
Mira Kadric/Klaus Kaindl
Astérix — Vom Gallier zum Tschetnikjäger: Zur Problematik
von Massenkommunikation und übersetzerischer Ethik 135
Andrew Chesterman
Ethics of translation 147
Erkka Vuorinen
News translation as gatekeeping 161
Veronica Smith/Christine Klein-Braley
Advertising — A five-stage strategy for translation 173
Zuzana Jettmarova/Maria Piotrowska/Ieva Zauberga
New advertising markets as target areas for translation 185
vii
Ingrid Kurz
Getting the message across — Simultaneous interpreting
for the media 195
Franz Pöchhacker
"Clinton speaks German": A case study of live broadcast
simultaneous interpreting 207
Udo Jörg
Bridging the gap: Verb anticipation in German-English
simultaneous interpreting 217
Irena Kovačič
A thinking-aloud experiment in subtitling 229
Paul Kussmaul
Comprehension processes and translation.
A think-aloud protocol (TAP) study 239
Sigrid Kupsch-Losereit
Übersetzen als transkultureller Verstehens- und
Produktionsprozeß 249
Hanna Risku
Von Scheuklappen, Mikroskopen und Fernrohren: Der Umgang
mit Wissen in der Entwicklung der Übersetzungskompetenz 261
Renate Resch
Ein kohärentes Translat — was ist das? Die Kulturspezifik
der Texterwartungen 271
Michèle Kaiser-Cooke
Murder in the laboratory - Termhood and the culture gap 283
Dorte Madsen
A model for translation of legal texts 291
Irene Rübberdt/Heidemarie Salevsky
New ideas from historical concepts: Schleiermacher and
modern translation theory 301
viii
Anneke de Vries
A matter of life and death: Gender stereotypes in some
modern Dutch Bible translations 313
Mary Snell-Hornby
Zuzana Jettmarová
Klaus Kaindl
Part I
Theo Hermans
tends towards the world of science. The other attitude, which is unwilling to
learn, corresponds to a normative expectation. It actually provides more peace
of mind because it is more stable. It is 'counterfactually stable' in that
disappointments, anomalous occurrences, flagrant breaches do not really upset
it. It carries on regardless. More than that: following disappointment it may
emphatically and publicly reaffirm its validity. This mode of expectation tends
towards the law, which, as we know, remains intact despite crimes being
committed daily (Luhmann 1984:436ff.).
And now to translation. What if we are happily reading a translation, and
stumble upon a real howler, a glaring, totally unacceptable anomaly, something
wholly incompatible with our expectations of what a translated text should be
like, of what constitutes 'translation'?
Let's be honest. We all know exactly how we respond. We respond with
indignation and condemnation. We say: "Wrong!", "Unacceptable!". We say:
"Do they call this translation?" — by which we mean: I don't, therefore it
isn't, and anyone who knows anything about translation will surely agree with
me (making it doubly hard to disagree); and if the fancy takes us we resolutely
set to work on the text with a red pencil, or write to the publisher, or phone
the translation agency.
In doing so we are emphatically upholding and reaffirming our idea of
'translation', what it is and what it evidently is not, and at the same time we
are appealing to a publicly recognized and acknowledged category, both a
concept and a practice, to which this translation should be made to correspond
if it is to be accepted as a valid translation. It is in this sense, then, that we can
speak of a social entity called 'translation' and a form of behaviour called
'translating' with which, give or take a few nuances, we reckon we are all
familiar in our own language and culture. The meaning of the term
'translation' is codified in dictionaries, there are professional activities called
translation, we have organisations representing translators, institutes for
translator training, etc. It is this 'public face' of translation that I have in mind
when I speak of translation as 'institution'.
There is nothing new in this. What I want to stress however is, firstly,
that translation, as institution, is circumscribed by expectations which have
both cognitive and normative elements in them; secondly, that, beyond this,
these expectations also structure the 'domain', or the 'field', or indeed the
'system' of translation, in the sense in which Niklas Luhmann speaks of
expectations as constituting the structure of social systems (1984:377ff.); and
thirdly, that since we are dealing with translation, the matter is more
complicated than it looks.
6 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Let us begin by returning to Luhmann. Why Luhmann? Niklas Luhmann
is a sociologist. He has applied concepts from modern systems theory to a vast
number of things including education, religion, politics, law, the sphere of
intimate personal relations, art history, science, everything except translation.
His main work to date is called Social Systems (Soziale Systeme, 1984; English
translation 1995), and what a magnum opus it is: vast, abstract, theoretical,
and all the more forbidding for it. The point however is that, if we want to
understand translation as interpersonal communication, as social behaviour, as
institution, we could do worse than to look at someone like Luhmann — or,
for that matter, someone like Pierre Bourdieu. Of course, it all depends on
where one stands and where one wants to go in the Babylonian universe of
discourse that we call translation studies. I can only speak for myself. My
agenda is defined primarily by non-applied, historicizing approaches to
translation and an active interest in how translations and ideas about translation
relate to their socio-cultural environment, why translators act as they do, why
they tend to make certain choices and not others. Speaking from that vantage
point it seems to me that among the reasons for attempting to draw fresh
inspiration and new perspectives from Luhmann's work are the following:
• his use of modern systems theories, i.e. theories of self-reproducing, self-
regulating, self-referential systems;
• his application of these theories to the domain of social and cultural
studies, and to historical issues;
• his use of what appears to me as a very rich concept of communication;
• his view of expectations — i.e. cognitive as well as normative
expectations — as constituting the structure of social systems.
In other words, there is enough there that strikes a chord, and plenty to learn
from. It does not invalidate anything that has been done before in the study of
translation, but it casts new light on old perspectives, and raises other,
intriguing questions.
In what follows I want to draw on three aspects of Luhmann's work, in
the hope of being able to add a few new touches to the way in which we
approach the world of translation. The first has to do with expectations, norms,
and decisions. If there is something new in this by now well-worn perspective,
it is the emphasis on the translator as an active decision-maker within complex
structures of power. The second aspect picks up Luhmann's concept of
communication, and may have methodological consequences which, again,
without being completely new, may serve to shift the focus of some of our
historical research, or at least act as a reminder. The third bears on self-
reference and self-reflexiveness, and has, I think, profound implications for the
Theo Hermans 7
way in which we perceive the nature and status of the discourse about
translation, including, perhaps even especially, our own academic discourse on
the subject.
We can now, very briefly, take up the notion of norms and normative
expectations again, bearing in mind that when I speak of a norm I do not mean
some abstract, static, formal or mechanical rule which relates to the practice
of translation as cause relates to effect, of the sort: if this is the feature
displayed in our text, then that must have been the norm that triggered it.
Rather, what I mean by a norm is neither more nor less than a kind of loaded
expectation. The term therefore implies, in the case of translation, structured
interaction between individuals, as clients, patrons, producers, consumers,
teachers or critics of translation. The reason for emphasizing the aspect of
expectation, in contrast with the more traditional stress on the 'rule' character
or the element of 'constraint' in norms, will become clear as we go along.
My basic assumption in all this is that translation, like any other use of
language, is a matter of communication, i.e. a form of social behaviour which
requires a degree of interaction, of cooperation, among those involved. For
communication to take place here and now, as you the reader are reading these
words on the page, both you and I have to coordinate our actions to a certain
extent, even across time and space (e.g. you, at your end, in being prepared
to take in what I have written, in being willing to read on; I, at my end, in
choosing a particular language, in trying to express myself in such a way that
I think you will be able to follow my argument). Norms, like conventions,
arise as answers to problems of this kind of interpersonal coordination.
The classic definition of convention (Lewis 1969) hinges on exactly this
point. Conventions, as defined by Lewis, imply the expectation, which all
those concerned are aware of, that in a given situation one member of the
group is likely to do one thing rather than another. A family may develop the
pattern, for example, that when they start playing a certain board game, the
youngest child always takes the first turn at throwing the dice. After a while
that is indeed what every family member expects to happen whenever this
particular board game is played. If it works well, the expectation may even be
transferred to other games. What the example illustrates is that the convention
has a regulatory function. It restricts the number of practically available
options in recurrent situations of a given type by offering a particular option
8 Translation as Intercultural Communication
as the one known to be preferred by everyone involved. In so doing, in
promoting coordination, the convention makes everyone's behaviour more
predictable by reducing uncertainty and contingency. In this family there will
be no more fighting about who is allowed to have the first go.
The main difference between a norm and a convention lies in the modality
of the expectation. A convention is a purely probabilistic expectation. Norms
tell individual members of a community not just how everyone else reckons
they are probably going to behave in a given situation, but how they ought to
behave. Norms imply that there is, among the range of possible options that
present themselves, a particular course of action which is generally accepted
as 'proper', or 'correct', or 'appropriate'. That course of action, it is agreed,
should therefore be adopted by all who find themselves in that type of
situation. And each time a norm is observed, its validity is confirmed and
reinforced.
In fact, even if it is not observed by all, the norm remains valid. Provided
the breaches do not occur persistently and on a large scale without sanctions
of one kind or another, norms are able to cope with a certain amount of
discrepant, erratic, idiosyncratic behaviour. The conventions and norms that
govern, say, our behaviour when we pick up the telephone, or at a dinner
party, during a funeral service, during an academic lecture, are not invalidated
every time someone fails or refuses to behave in the way everyone else expects
everyone else to behave.
Which norms are observed or broken by whom, where and when, will
depend on such things as the nature and strength of the norm, the kind of
sanction that might apply, the individual's status and motive, and other such
factors. When, in the 1960s, Louis and Celia Zukofsky rendered Latin poetry
into English mimicking only the sound of the words, to the exclusion of just
about everything else, it is relevant to know that this was done in a literary
context, that even in that domain it was generally interpreted as a provocative
— i.e. a deliberately norm-breaking — gesture, that already at this time Louis
Zukofsky was widely recognized as a prominent poet in his own right, etc. The
newly graduated translator who has just been given a job in the European
Union's fisheries department and wants to make a career in the EU is unlikely
to be able to afford to follow the Zukovskys' example.
Norms, then, can be strong or weak, limited or extensive in scope, more
or less enduring over time. They can spell out obligations or prohibitions, and
exert different kinds of pressure on the choices which individuals make. We
can map these modalities (it has been done, e.g. De Geest 1992), and they give
us an insight into differences between well-defined areas governed by clear
Theo Hermans 9
rules understood by all (do this, don't do that) and backed up by explicit
sanctions and rewards, and more fluid areas governed by vaguer, less
pronounced or more permissive or mutually conflicting norms. If the EU's
translation division is an example of the first, the world of modern poetry is
perhaps an example of the second.
We acquire norms by learning them. They are inculcated as part of the
process of socialization. Just as learning to speak is learning to speak
'properly', in accordance with the linguistic norms of the relevant community
(the family, the circle of friends, the school, the workplace), so learning to
translate means learning to operate the norms of translation, i.e. to operate
with them and within them, anticipating, accommodating, calculating,
negotiating the expectations of others concerning the social institution called
translation. In the same way readers learn what they can and cannot expect
when they pick up a book labelled 'translation'. What this means is that, on
both sides of the equation, in fact on all sides since the production and
consumption of translation involves more than two parties, certain bonds,
certain contracts are entered into. They may be clearly set out and understood
by all concerned, or remain rather diffuse. And who controls whom is a
question of power and position. An experienced and well-established translator
of science fiction may feel more confident than the young aspiring novice in
ignoring the wishes and suggestions of a particular editor or publisher. A
contract between a professional translator and a client creates relations of
obligation and claim very different from those between, say, teacher and
student at a translator training institute.
In other words, norms are not independent of local conditions, and of the
social relations within communities, regardless of whether these relations are
material (economic, legal, financial) or what Pierre Bourdieu calls "symbolic",
i.e. relations that have to do with status, with legitimacy, and with who confers
legitimacy. Of course, in large, complex and differentiated societies, a vast
multiplicity of different, overlapping and often conflicting norms coexist. The
translator's work is inevitably entangled in several of these networks at once,
if only because the product of the translator's labour is never a 'translation per
se', but it is a translated computer manual, or a translated novel, or a
translated medical record, etc. In each case the translator enters an existing
network of discourses and social relations. His or her translational discourse
occupies a place in, or at least in relation to, that network. It is part of the
ambivalence of the translated text that it is expected to comply with both the
translational and the textual norms regarded as pertinent by a given community
10 Translation as Intercultural Communication
in a given domain. If the translation does this, because the translator has made
the requisite choices, it will be deemed a 'legitimate' translation.
Learning to translate correctly, then, means precisely the acquisition of
that competence, i.e. of the skills required to select and apply those norms that
will help to produce legitimate translations, that is to say translations socially
recognized as legitimate within a certain community and its concept of
translation. Translating is a socially regulated activity. Communities and social
systems have good reason to regulate translation in this way. Seen from the
consumer or the receptor point of view, or more generally from the point of
view of the translating system, translation typically involves the importation,
and as a rule the linguistic domestication, of material from outside the system.
Since the environment of the system is always more complex and hence less
predictable than the system itself, translation is regulated because this makes
it possible for the system to reduce complexity and to control contingency.
Furthermore, just as one of the main functions of the educational system
as a whole is that of transmitting the requisite social skills, expectations and
'dispositions' (in Bourdieu's sense), continually reproducing and reaffirming
the community's dominant values and models in the process, so, in the field
of translation, one of the roles of the translator training institute consists
precisely in continually reproducing within itself the social institution called
translation, which in turn contributes to the very process of the
institutionalization of translation. Let me add immediately that other discourses
about translation, including so-called descriptive and historicizing discourses,
do very much the same thing, if perhaps less emphatically. They all contribute
to the ongoing self-reproduction of translation, and for that matter to its self-
description.
I will come back to this issue, but let me try to sum up the main point so
far. Which is this: considering the practice of translation in terms of
expectation and contingency, of shared expectation and individual selection in
the context of a multiplicity of conflicting and overlapping norms and pressures
allows us to bring into focus not just the social, institutionalized aspect of
translation, but also the individuals themselves who weave their way through
and around these complex structures, who take up positions and build alliances
so as to be able to achieve their own aims and ambitions — be it making
money, or buttressing or subverting a political system or an ideology, or
acquiring literary fame, or, as has been the case with many women translators
in history, finding a voice when they were prevented from speaking in their
own name. In each of these cases, translators make choices, i.e. they select
one option from among the range of more or less practicable, more or less
Theo Hermans 11
likely options available to them in the circumstances. In other words, the focus
is here firmly on the agents involved in the whole process of the production
and consumption of translation. The operation of translational norms is then
not a matter of texts, or of textual relations, but of acting, thinking, feeling,
calculating, sometimes desperate people, with certain personal or group
interests at heart, with stakes to defend, with power structures to negotiate.
There is another angle from which to approach the issue, and this line of
thought will bring us back to the matter of norms and expectations, and to
ways of studying translators and their behaviour. To set out this approach, I
need to refer to Luhmann's concept of communication. Let it suffice for the
purposes of the present exposition to say that for Luhmann social systems are
self-reproducing systems in that they continually produce and reproduce the
elements of which they consist. These elements are communications, i.e.
communicative acts. In other words, social systems consist, not of individuals
or of groups of people, but of communications, and of specific types of
communication. These communications are for the most part produced and
processed by means of signs; they also have to be linked and connected in a
temporal sequence for the system to continue to exist. There are no social
systems without communication, but at the same time communications are
momentary, fleeting phenomena, here one moment and gone the next. This
explains the need for connectivity, for structures that can endure over time.
Luhmann's notion of communication differs from e.g. the Saussurian
notion mainly in that it stresses the aspect of enunciation, the utterance itself,
the actual presentation of the information in a particular context. Luhmann's
term for it is "Mitteilung", which he contrasts with "Information", the
referential data as such (1984:191ff.). Secondly, whenever something is
communicated, in whatever way, the communicative act itself involves an act
of selection: this topic, this theme is picked out and not that one; this means
of transmission is chosen, at this exact moment, and not another one, or this
one at another moment.
Because communication takes place at a certain moment, in a given
context, 'interpreting', 'understanding' it — Luhmann calls this "Verstehen"
— means that making 'sense' (Luhmann: "Sinn") of a communication involves
being alive not only to the 'theme' and the 'code' of the communication, but
also to its selective aspect, its negative foil, the difference between what has
12 Translation as Intercultural Communication
been included (i.e. selected) and what has been excluded, the difference also
between the information that is conveyed and the moment that has been
selected to convey it. This is precisely what constitutes the 'point' of a
communication, its 'intent', and what the receiver rightly or wrongly
constructs as its 'sense' — in a given situation, at a certain moment in time.
One Luhmann commentator (De Berg 1993: 50) speaks of the "temporalization
of semantics", a useful phrase.
A crude example might be the national anthem. The British do not intone
their national anthem because they seriously wish to beseech God to save their
Queen, not even because they fervently hope their Queen will be preserved
long enough to keep Charles from the throne, but as part of a ritualized
ceremony, or as a political gesture, or as a provocation hurled at another
bunch of football hooligans, etc. The communication derives its 'sense' not,
or not only, from the information content of the words by themselves but from
the context which makes it more or less likely that these particular words are
selected at this or that particular moment.
Texts therefore have no fixed meaning in themselves. They acquire
meaning, they are invested with meaning as communications in a selective
environment, a differential context. And, Luhmann maintains, because contexts
are always historically unique, meaning is prevented from sliding into a
Derridean labyrinth of "différence" and deferral. When we look at texts in this
way, through their "temporalized semantics", we may be able to glimpse the
speaker's agenda: how likely was this communication in these particular
circumstances, why was this theme, and this mode of transmission, selected at
this moment, how does it alter the existing state of affairs?
In itself, of course, this way of looking at texts is not entirely new. In his
short essay Man and Language from 1966 Hans-Georg Gadamer already
observed that "[n]othing that is said has its truth simply in itself, but refers
instead backward and forward to what is unsaid... And only when what is not
said is understood along with what is said is an assertion understandable"
(1977:67). We have also come across it, for example, in pragmatics, and in
the literary and cultural semiotics of Yury Lotman, who stressed in the 1970s
that in literature every mode of representation means the selection of one
particular mode against the possibility of other modes — and he too used this
approach to firmly locate texts, conventions and expectations in their historical
context. Luhmann goes perhaps further than this in that his whole concept of
communication is historicized.
If this is true of texts, it is true also of translations. Their 'meaning' or
'sense' or 'point' as communications, their differential agenda, does not reside
Theo Hermans 13
different from — what the words add up to. That this also goes for everything
I have been saying here, goes without saying.
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The "death" of the author and the limits of the
translator's visibility
Rosemary Arrojo
In the essentialist opposition which tradition has built between reading and
writing, and between originality and reproduction, translation has not been
merely associated with secondariness and failure. In its long history of
marginality and invisibility, particularly in a culture that often equates
authorship with property and writing with the conscious interference of a
producer, the translator's activity has been related to evil and blasphemy, to
indecency and transgression. In its obvious pretension — even when
understated — to take the place of another and to represent someone else's
voice in a foreign language and culture, in a different time and space, any
translation is bound to raise questions not only of property but, first and
foremost, of propriety. Even the "perennial question whether translation is, in
fact, possible" is basically embedded in "ancient religious and psychological
doubts on whether there ought to be any passage from one tongue to another"
(Steiner 1975:239). If the conscious presence of the author is somehow
expected to be found in her or his writing, and if the original is seen as the
true recipient of its creator's intentions and expression, any translation is, by
definition, devalued since it necessarily represents a form of falsification,
always removed from the original and its author.
While the original is generally associated with stability, with what is
present, primary and authentic, a translation is often related to precariousness
and the absence of what is unconditionally legitimate. If one thinks of the
Tower of Babel as a framework for a reflection about the complex relationship
which tradition has woven between original and translation, one can say that
the original is idealized and related to creation, while translation is associated
with the limits, shortcomings, and inadequacies of what is purely human and
with what is, ultimately, improper. In the well-known myth, the condemnation
to translation is nothing but the expression of God's anger at men's daring
22 Translation as Intercultural Communication
pretension to reach the divine and to have the right to bear their own names.
Thus, God punishes "the sons of Shem" for having wanted "to make a name
for themselves, [...] to construct for and by themselves their own name, to
gather themselves there [...] as in the unity of a place which is at once a
tongue and a tower, the one as well as the other, the one as the other" (Derrida
1985:169). The divine condemnation to translation is, in other words, also the
repression of men's authorial will and of their desire to bear a proper name.
In the plot which tradition has constructed for the relationships which can be
established between translation and original, between translator and author, or
between the translated text and its readers, the translator's name and
interference have been condemned either to oblivion or to disdain by a
conception of originality and of text firmly rooted in a theological basis.
From the perspective of certain trends in contemporary thought and,
particularly, of deconstruction, which Jacques Derrida explicitly associates with
translation (1985:165f.), the typical notions of originality, authorship, and
interpretation are radically revised, as is our reading of the myth of Babel. In
this context, the goals and the incompleteness of men's construction, that is,
the precariousness and the underlying authorial goals of interpretation, begin
to be recognized as that which is essentially human. The acceptance of the
impossibility of reaching any pure origin, or that which could be immortal,
univocal and beyond any perspective, is, thus, also the acceptance of the
inevitability of interference in any act of alleged re-creation. The recognition
of the far-ranging implications of this paradigmatic role of translation, or of
interpretation as translation, which has become a key concept in contemporary
theories of language, culture and the subject, is also one of the inaugural
premises of what has been generally known as postmodernism and which has
been closely linked to Nietzsche's and to Freud's intellectual heritages. The
acceptance of the inevitability of translation as interference is thus intimately
related to the death of God and of the Cartesian subject, and, therefore, also
to the death of the author and of authorship as the definite, controlling origin
of meaning.
The implications of such "deaths" for a reflection on the translator's task are
obviously far-reaching and potentially revolutionary. Indeed, an important
trend in the contemporary discussion of the translator's visibility raises the
issue of a different relationship between translation and original, translator and
Rosemary Arrojo 23
author, a relationship which we might associate, for example, with the birth
of the reader celebrated by Roland Barthes as a direct consequence of the death
of the author. In the wake of poststructuralist theories of intertextuality,
reading begins to be recognized as "an anti-theological activity, an activity that
is truly revolutionary since to refuse to fix meaning is, in the end, to refuse
God and his hypostases — reason, science, law" (1977:148). For Barthes, the
one place where the "multiplicity" of writing is "focused" is no longer the
author, but the interpreter, or the reader, who becomes "the space on which
all the quotations that make up a writing are inscribed without any of them
being lost": the reader "is simply that someone who holds together in a single
field all the traces by which the written text is constituted." Thus, "we know
that to give writing its future, it is necessary to overthrow the myth: the birth
of the reader must be at the cost of the death of the Author" (1977:161). In the
explicitness of this ambitious Oedipal move, which seems to overcome any
deeply embedded guilt associated with the interpreter's authorial designs and
to end the age-old oppression of an impossible neutrality, "text" is redefined
precisely as that which is read "without the father's signature: it can be
broken, [...] it can be read without the guarantee of its father, the restitution
of the inter-text paradoxically abolishing any legacy" (1977:161). Hence, no
"vital respect" is owed to the author who becomes a mere "limit," or a "guest"
that may, or may not, be invited to the reader's productive reading act. The
author "becomes, as it were, a paper-author: his life is no longer the origin of
his fictions but a fiction contributing to his work" (1977:161).
Relieved of the impossible mission to recover the ultimate origins of a text
and free from the age-old inhibition of flaunting his or her authorial will, the
reader begins to be recognized as an active producer of meaning whose
interference is not merely tolerable but inevitable. However, as the interpreter
becomes "that someone who holds together in a single field all the traces by
which the written text is constituted," that is, as the interpreter becomes a
somewhat stable origin of meaning who can apparently choose what to do with
the author, this privileged position in which Barthes places his reader does not
seem to be very different from the traditional conception of authorship which
has been questioned by poststructuralist theories of language. If
poststructuralism necessarily brings about the death of traditional authorship,
how can the reader born of such theorization be protected from the inevitability
of intertextuality? How could a textual theory promote the birth of a rather
strong, apparently omnipotent reader at the same time that it declares the death
of the omniscient author? In other words, one might say that even though a
new reader was definitely born of non-essentialist theories of language and the
24 Translation as Intercultural Communication
subject, such a birth is inescapably marked by the "deaths" which have made
it possible. That is, in order to be coherent, the postmodern reader has to be
an interpreter whose production is necessarily inscribed within the same
process of différance which deconstructs the possibility of any stable, definite
origin, and which allows us to accept and explore the inevitable transgression
represented by any act of interpretation.
1
For a commentary on the basic contradictions involved in the notion of "abusive fidelity"
with regard to feminist translations, see Arrojo (1994; 1995).
Rosemary Arrojo 25
original is about and thus can decide what should be respected, or abused. In
this sense, Lewis's translator is not very different from the translator idealized
by tradition who is torn between his or her authorial interests and the proper
respect owed to the author and should know exactly what the original is about.
Like the Barthesian reader who seems to take the place of the controlling
author and is allegedly able to produce a reading that can remain faithful to
itself, Lewis's aggressive translator does not seem to consider the fact that his
or her abusive translation will inevitably be subject to other readings and
interpretations and will thus be transformed (and abused) by them. However,
unlike Barthes's reader, who seems to have been set free from any inhibition
to interfere and occupy the position formerly attributed to the powerful author,
Lewis's aggressive translator is still cautious to exercise his or her authorial
thrust and apparently hides his or her intervention under the guise of a
paradoxically abusive fidelity.
It seems that the only way out of this paradox would involve a true
acceptance of the implications of poststructuralism and of Derridean
deconstruction, that is, a true acceptance of difference (and différancé) in
translation which necessarily transforms one text into another, one language
into another, be it a reading, or a translation. If the controlling author is
inevitably dead, that is, if writing can be read without its author's presence or
absent approval, and if no interpretation can ever aspire to truly recover
meaning simply because no meaning is ever present or immanent but is always
already a production, any act of translation is bound to be a transformation, "a
regulated transformation of one language by another, of one text by another"
(Derrida 1987:20). Therefore, what Lewis considers to be "the modalities of
expression" and "the rhetorical strategies" of the original, i.e., what he sees
as belonging to the original and which he proposes to respect in his translation
is inevitably a reflection of his own reading, the inscription of his interference
as a reader and interpreter, which determines what to emphasize and what to
respect, or disrespect, in the so-called original. Just as Barthes's theory of
reading does not seem to take into account that, after the deconstruction of the
notion of traditional authorship as the absolute, controlling origin of meaning,
any act of reading, like any piece of writing, will necessarily be circumscribed
by its own context and history, and will, therefore, also be given to inter-
textuality and to différance, Lewis's notion of abusive fidelity seems to
disregard an implicit, basic consequence of its own argument, that is, that the
fidelity to the original that the aggressive translator intends to maintain cannot
be anything more than a fidelity to his or her own version of what the original
might be about or like, as well as to the goals and the context of his or her
Rosemary Arrojo 27
consciously visible translator should start to build a name, a "proper" name for
him or herself that would make his or her readers aware of the "translator-
function"2 as another key factor in the necessary repression of meaning
proliferation that takes place in any act of interpretation. Furthermore, the
validation of the translator's voice as a legitimate interference in the translated
text will only be truly able to start making a difference when visibility begins
to be marked by the signature of his or her own authorial name. It is the
recognition and the acceptance of this name which can open the space for the
possibility of a "translator-function" as a regulating element that necessarily
and legitimately determines meaning in the relationship which a reader will
establish with a translated text. If, as Foucault writes, "texts, books, and
discourses really began to have authors [...] to the extent that authors became
subject to punishment, that is, to the extent that discourses could be
transgressive" (1979:148), the recognition that translation is in fact a form of
meaning production should be accompanied by the recognition of the
translator's function as that "ideological" element by which, in the reading of
translated texts, one marks certain forms of relationships between original and
translation, as between what is foreign and what is domestic. It is the
recognition of the translator's name as proper and rightful that will free the
translator's visibility from the stigma of impropriety or abuse. In the wake of
poststructuralism and postmodernism, the visible translator's claim to bear his
or her own name may finally begin to change the age-old prejudices that have
always ignored or humiliated the production of meaning that constitutes the
inescapable task of any translation.
References
Arrojo, Rosemary. 1994. "Fidelity and the Gendered Translation". 777? — Traduction,
Terminologie, Rédaction — Etudes sur le texte et ses transformation, VII (2), 147-163.
Arrojo, Rosemary. 1995. "Feminist, 'Orgasmic' Theories of Translation and Their
Contradictions". Tradterm 2, 67- 75.
Barthes, Roland. 1977. Image. Music. Text. Trans. Stephen Heath. New York: Hill and Wang.
Chamberlain, Lori. 1988. "Gender and the Metaphorics of Translation". Signs — Journal of
Women in Culture and Society 13(3), 454-472.
Derrida, Jacques. 1985. "Des Tours de Babel". Trans. Joseph F. Graham. In: J. F. Graham
(ed,), 165-207.
Derrida, Jacques. 1987. Positions. Trans. Alan Bass. London: The Athlone Press.
2
Unlike Myriam Díaz-Diocaretz, whose conception of "translator function" (1985:24-41)
is vaguely reminiscent of Foucault's, I explicitly relate the notion of "translator function"
which I propose here to Foucault's seminal essay "What's an Author?" (1979:141-159).
32 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Jean-Marc Gouanvic
Dans l'état actuel des études traductologiques, on est frappé par l'absence de
certaines approches. Je voudrais esquisser ce que pourrait être une sociologie
de la traduction, en m'inspirant des théories de Pierre Bourdieu.2 Pourquoi
Bourdieu? Il est l'un des rares sociologues dont la théorie rende compte des.
productions symboliques (arts et lettres) sans les réduire à de simples biens de
consommation et sans succomber au finalisme ou au fonctionnalisme
mécaniste.3 L'un des traits de la sociologie de Bourdieu est de rétablir celles
et ceux qui sont actifs dans les pratiques culturelles comme les agents de ces
pratiques. Pour la traduction, cela est important, car on a tendance dans les
recherches en traduction soit à surévaluer le rôle du traducteur (en en faisant
l'égal de l'auteur, sans voir que la notion d'auteur est elle aussi
problématique), soit à le sous-estimer (en faisant de lui une simple courroie de
transmission du système). La notion d'agent, telle que Bourdieu l'entend,
permet d'articuler le rôle du traducteur avec le possible social, en proposant
la notion de champ comme modèle heuristique permettant d'analyser ce qui est
au principe des productions symboliques et de rendre compte de la part de
1
Communication réalisée dans le cadre d'une recherche subventionnée en 1995-1996 par
le Conseil de Recherche en Sciences Humaines du Canada.
2
Dans ce premier essai de sociologie bourdieusienne de la traduction, il a paru approprié
de paraphraser les formulations de P. Bourdieu, en les inscrivant dans le contexte de la
traduction.
3
Bourdieu écrit par exemple: Le "moteur" de Taction n'est "ni dans la fin matérielle ou
symbolique de l'action, comme le veut le finalisme naïf, ni dans les contraintes du
champ, comme le veut la vision mécaniste. Il est dans la relation entre l'habitus et le
champ qui fait que l'habitus contribue à déterminer ce qui le détermine. " (1982:48) Nous
reviendrons sur cette relation entre l'habitus et le champ.
34 Translation as Intercultural Communication
créativité sociale qui émerge de la rencontre entre l'habitus de l'agent
traducteur et le possible du champ.
Les champs se présentent à l'appréhension synchronique comme des espaces
structurés de positions (ou de postes) dont les propriétés dépendent de leur
position dans ces espaces et qui peuvent être analysées indépendamment des
caractéristiques de leurs occupants (en partie déterminées par elles). [...] Un
champ [...] se définit entre autres choses en définissant des enjeux et des intérêts
spécifiques, qui sont irréductibles aux enjeux et aux intérêts propres à d'autres
champs (on ne pourra pas faire courir un philosophe avec des enjeux de
géographe) et qui ne sont pas perçus de quelqu'un qui n'a pas été construit pour
entrer dans ce champ [...]. (1984:114)
Qui sont les agents de la traduction? Ce sont bien sûr les traducteurs, mais
aussi les éditeurs, directeurs littéraires et directeurs de collections qui occupent
une position dans un champ de production culturelle (artistique, littéraire,
scientifique...) et il est d'une importance capitale de ne pas établir des cloisons
artificielles entre ces fonctions si l'on veut rendre compte de la traduction dans
un secteur d'activité donné.
Mon propos est d'analyser comment s'articule la théorie sociale bourdieu-
sienne sur la traduction, en étudiant le cas de la littérature américaine traduite
dans la France des années 1945-1960. Il s'agit de dessiner à grands traits deux
états de la recherche que j'ai entreprise: un panorama socio-historique du
champ littéraire français entre 1945 et 1960 du point de vue de la traduction
et une socioanalyse comparative des textes source et cible dans un champ en
émergence à la même période, celui de la science-fiction.
4
Insistons encore une fois sur la nécessité d'une historiographie culturelle des traducteurs
et de la traduction, une historiographie qui tienne compte de toutes les déterminations,
y compris métatraductives (et par là il faut entendre les activités dans lesquelles n'entre
pas directement la traduction, comme la participation à un débat critique ou à une
polémique, par exemple).
38 Translation as Intercultural Communication
5
A côté de Georges-Hilaire Gallet qui a été, avant-guerre, Tun des tout premiers
connaisseurs de la SF américaine, avec Régis Messac. Sur les modèles socio-esthétiques
Jean-Marc Gouanvic 39
de la science-fiction française et sur la mutation générique subie dans les années 1950,
voir Gouanvic (1994b).
40 Translation as Intercultural Communication
le décentrement traductif est pleinement assumé comme positif du fait que la
traduction de la SF est dans la logique de la reconnaissance d'un genre
spécifiquement américain. Il n'est pas question d'adapter le texte américain,
de l'assimiler à la culture française, mais bien d'en proposer une traduction
dissimilatrice, qui correspond à la demande du public et jouit d'une légitimité
sociale dans le champ en formation. On est loin de l'image très largement
répandue, selon laquelle les genres "paralittéraires" seraient systématiquement
traduits "n'importe comment" ou sur le mode de l'infidélité assimilatrice.
La traduction de la SF est prise au sérieux par ses traducteurs. Mais qui
sont-ils? Comme le champ de la SF n'existe pas encore au début des années
50, ce sont des traducteurs non spécialisés en SF : Jean Rosenthal, Jacques
Papy, Marie-France Watkins, Amélie Audiberti, Boris Vian... Les seuls qui
tendront à prendre place exclusivement dans le champ de la science-fiction à
titre d'agents de traduction, mais pas seulement de traduction, sont peu
nombreux: Georges-Hilaire Gallet, Alain Dorémieux. Il demeure que, à
mesure que le champ de la science-fiction s'autonomise et se spécifie, il
devient de plus en plus évident que le traducteur doit connaître de l'intérieur
le discours subculturel de la science-fiction, avec ses sociolectes, ses mots-
fiction qui entrent en résonnance de textes en textes et que les lecteurs
reconnaissent immédiatement (par exemple une allusion à l'une des Lois de la
robotique d'Asimov qui apparaissent dans ƒ, Robot). Tel est le "jeu" en vigueur
dans le champ nouvellement constitué de la science-fiction. Qu'en est-il des
œuvres réalistes américaines traduites dans le champ littéraire canonique?
de The Scarlet Letter est très sélectivement traduit dans la culture française
entre 1850 et 1950. Certes The Scarlet Letter connaît de nombreuses versions
françaises dès sa publication en 1850. Mais il faut attendre 1952 pour que The
Blithedale Romance (paru cent ans plus tôt) soit mis à la disposition des
lecteurs français par Gallimard accompagné d'une préface d'André Maurois.
Quant à The Marble Faun qui date de 1860, il n'est publié dans une version
française complète qu'en 1949 et toujours par le même Gallimard. La
publication de The Marble Faun est accompagnée d'une préface de René Lalou
intitulée — de façon très significative — "Nathaniel Hawthorne, créateur et
précurseur". Historiquement, c'est Hachette qui se positionne comme l'éditeur
de Hawthorne en français dans la foulée des premières éditions américaines.
Cependant, Hachette ne publie qu'un nombre restreint de ses œuvres. Sauf The
Scarlet Letter, qui sera rééditée régulièrement, seuls les contes pour enfants de
Hawthorne (comme A Wonder-book for girls and boys de 1851 et The
Tanglewood Tales de 1853) sont traduits et publiés avec succès dans le champ
français de la littérature pour les enfants. En France, Hawthorne est ainsi
presque exclusivement un écrivain pour enfants jusqu'après la Seconde Guerre
mondiale. En 1945, il sort de la marginalisation, grâce au rattrapage intense
dont il est l'objet grâce à Gallimard, qui entreprend de faire traduire les
romans "oubliés" (The Blithedale Romance et The Marble Faun, en
particulier). Cette découverte de Hawthorne dans la France de l'immédiat
après-guerre est-elle propre à Hawthorne, ou faut-il rattacher les efforts de
rattrapage à un mouvement plus général? Les cas de Henry James et de
Fitzgerald sont instructifs à cet égard.
Henry James (1843-1916): Avec James, on constate une situation encore
plus criante. L'effet Hawthorne, si l'on peut dire, ne lui est pas particulier:
Les éditeurs français font l'impasse sur certaines œuvres comme The Turn of
the Screw pendant 30 ans et sur The Europeans, Washington Square, The
Bostonians, The Awkward Age et What Maisie knew, que les lecteurs français
ne découvriront qu'après la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Fitzgerald (1896-
1940): Pour ce qui est de Scott Fitzgerald, il y a de quoi être étonné de
l'intérêt très mitigé des éditeurs français pour son œuvre. Seul The Great
Gatsby (de 1925) est publié en traduction française immédiatement, en 1926.
Tender is the Night (1934), The Last Tycoon (1941) et la célèbre nouvelle "The
Diamond as big as the Ritz" (1922) ne connaissent des versions françaises que
dans les années 50. This Side of Paradise (1920), The Beautiful and the
Damned (1922), Tales of the Jazz Age (1922), All the Sad Young Men (1926)
et Taps at Reveille (1935) ne susciteront l'intérêt des éditeurs français qu'après
les années 60.
42 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Parmi les auteurs américains régulièrement traduits en français, Faulkner,
Hemingway, Dos Passos (pour ne citer que ces trois cas) sont l'objet d'un
intérêt tout particulier. Faulkner a été traduit par Maurice-Edgar Coindreau,
l'une des figures dominantes de la traduction avant et après la guerre, mais
aussi par R.-N. Raimbault (avec C. P. Vorce), Hilleret, André du Bouchet et
Maxim Gauchet. A peu près tout l'œuvre romanesque est ainsi traduit et publié
chez Gallimard à 90 %, sauf des textes plus anciens comme Mosquitoes (de
1927), traduit en 1948 aux éditions de Minuit, ou encore Soldiers' Pay (de
1926), traduit par l'éditeur Arthaud en 1946.
Hemingway bénéficie aussi de la faveur de l'édition française, puisque dès
1928 la NRF publie 50 000 dollars (titre d'un recueil de trois récits
comprenant le titre éponyme), suivi en 1931 par l'Adieu aux armes, traduit par
Coindreau (encore lui) chez Gallimard, le Soleil se lève aussi en 1933,
également traduit par Coindreau pour Gallimard. Après guerre, Marcel
Duhamel sera le principal traducteur d'Hemingway, avec l'exception notable
du Vieil homme et la mer traduit par Jean Dutourd en 1952 pour Gallimard.
Troisième, exemple remarquable, John Dos Passos: l'omniprésent
Coindreau s'est chargé de la traduction de Manhattan Transfer (publié par
Gallimard en 1928), laquelle traduction sera rééditée de nombreuses fois avant
et après la guerre. Cependant, c'est là le seul Dos Passos traduit par
Coindreau. Dos Passos (13 romans entre 1920 et 1954) a été traduit par
d'assez nombreux traducteurs, N. Guterman, Charles de Richter, Yves
Malartic, Jean Rosenthal, Hélène Claireau, Maurice Rémon, Jean Collignon,
R.-N. Raimbault, Jean Castet, et j'en passe, la plupart pour Gallimard.
Ce tableau général permet de tracer les grandes lignes des impasses que les
éditeurs français ont fait jusqu'à la Seconde Guerre mondiale sur certains
auteurs ou sur certains textes de la culture américaine source; à l'inverse, il
permet de mettre en lumière l'intérêt considérable que suscite la littérature
américaine dans la France de 1945-1950. L'éditeur dominant est clairement
Gallimard qui, avec sa collection "Du monde entier", exerce un quasi-
monopole. Les autres éditeurs qui créent des collections spécialisées en
traduction sont: Hachette avec la coll. "Grands Romans étrangers"; Calmann-
Lévy avec la coll. "Traduit de..."; Ferenczi avec "Les Romans américains".
Et Gallimard ne se cantonne pas à la littérature du circuit lettré: il prend pied
très tôt en Série noire (en 1944) et en science-fiction (en 1951) comme on l'a
vu.
L'effet transformateur de la traduction apparaît donc on ne peut plus
évident du fait qu'il s'inscrit non pas seulement dans la "distance
Jean-Marc Gouanvic 43
6
Voir Bourdieu (1992:224) sur la "synchronisation des temps discordants".
44 Translation as Intercultural Communication
par Gallimard. On peut sans exagérer avancer que les traducteurs se font les
agents d'une certaine américanisation de la littérature française (Gouanvic
1994a); et je dis "certaine" américanisation, pour deux raisons: (1) parce que,
bien évidemment, (mais on a tendance à l'oublier) ce ne sont pas les États-Unis
dans leur totalité culturelle qui prennent la parole à travers les œuvres, mais
— vaille que vaille — la classe moyenne instruite (educated middle class),
même en science-fiction; (2) parce que l'américanisation dont il s'agit est une
américanisation à la française de la société française: en d'autres termes, c'est
la façon française de "voir" les États-Unis selon certains intérêts français. Tel
est l'enseignement général que, à ce stade, je tirerais d'une sociologie de la
traduction informée par les idées de Pierre Bourdieu.7
Références
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1971. "Le marché des biens symboliques". L'Année sociologique 22, 49-126.
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1979. La Distinction — Critique sociale du jugement (Le sens commun).
Paris: Minuit.
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1982. Leçon sur la leçon. Paris: Minuit.
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1984. Questions de sociologie. Paris: Minuit.
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1987. Choses dites (Le sens commun). Paris: Minuit.
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1992. Les Règles de Vart. Genèse et structure du champ littéraire (Libre
examen). Paris: Seuil.
Gouanvic, Jean-Marc. 1994a. "La traduction et le devenir social: le cas de l'irruption de la
science-fiction américaine en France après la Seconde Guerre mondiale". TTR — Etudes
sur le texte et ses transformations 7(1), 117-152.
Gouanvic, Jean-Marc. 1994b. La Science-fiction française au XXe siècle (1900-1968): essai de
socio-poétique d'un genre en émergence. Amsterdam-Atlanta: Éditions Rodopi.
Gouanvic, Jean-Marc. 1995. "Sémiotique et traduction: les enjeux sociaux de la traduction de
la science-fiction américaine au Rayon Fantastique". Francophonie plurielle. Montréal-
Casablanca: Hurtubise HMH-Eddif, 199-214.
7
Le propos de cette étude n'a pas été de distinguer la sociologie bourdieusienne d'autres
théories présentant certains points d'intersection avec elle, comme la théorie du
Polysystème, mais de la développer selon ses exigences propres. S'il fallait cependant
esquisser une différenciation, il me semble que l'apport fondamental de la théorie de
Bourdieu est de construire une théorie sociale générale des productions culturelles, en co-
pensant le travail de production des œuvres culturelles selon leur logique propre dans
leur champ spécifique (littéraire, etc.) et l'usage social de ces œuvres dans l'espace social
général et les champs du pouvoir. La théorie du polysystème interprète les systèmes
culturels comme des systèmes sémiotiques et soumet leurs productions à une analyse
descriptive interne, alors que la socio-analyse de Pierre Bourdieu ne traite jamais le
sémiotique en dehors du social, le sémiotique n'étant pas — pour Bourdieu —
interprétable en dehors du social.
Translation as imposition vs. translation as requisition
Cay Dollerup
In this article I shall discuss societal forces which propel texts in source
languages to become translated. My examples will be Danish, but they are
discussed for their paradigmatic and international, rather than their specific and
national value.
I hope these observations will contribute to make endeavours in translation
work for cultural transfers more successful in today's world where numerous
new nations are establishing their identity, in terms of past and present,
industry, trade and culture. In the last field, the most significant element, in
the eyes of intellectuals, is that their national art and literature should be
recognised, enabling them to aspire to the coveted international symbol that
this goal has been reached — the Nobel Prize.1
One persistent feature in discussions of translation practice and theory is
the acceptance of the movement from left to right, that is from a sender who
utters the source message which moves through various stages, to the end as
a target text with an audience; it is a view abundantly reflected in most models
of the translation process.2
I intend to question the automatic applicability of this left-to-right model
in actual translational activity in societal contexts from a historical, diachronic
perspective with particular reference to the present-day scene.
1
My attention was drawn to these features in connection with some research (e.g. Dollerup
1995) as well as to the frequent patriotic query which I have met with: "Is it only because
of poor translations that our most prominent poet/author has not received the Nobel
Prize ".
2
See e.g. Wilss (1982:57, 81), Levy (1969:33). Nida implies this sequentially in his
diagram of the transfer or translation (1964:147). That the models are not exclusively
European is demonstrated in Mohanty (1994:194); and in Uwajeh (1994:247).
46 Translation as Intercultural Communication
In today's world there may be texts which are produced with a structure, style
and vocabulary which will facilitate translation.3 I have never met with such
texts, but they might conceivably be found among the scripts of television
serials intended for international consumption, among addresses to international
audiences, and, perhaps the most likely case, among delegates' speeches at
international meetings with conference interpreting. At all events such texts
will make up only a fraction of the texts eventually transferred to other
cultures. In the vast majority of cases, today as well as in previous ages,
authors and original senders have not troubled to facilitate interlingual
mediation of their product in the moment of conception; in most cases they
have not taken subsequent translation into account at all.
In other words, no matter whether their product is an advertisement or a
literary masterpiece, authors normally produce with only an audience speaking
their own language in mind. Texts are formed for source language receivers,
with their implied background, ideas, notions, and frames of references. In
discussing translation in a societal and national context, the point of departure
should therefore be the simplest model of communication:
Sender (and sending culture) message recipient (and receptor culture)
This model implies that translation is not an integral part of your ordinary
source text. Translation is not part of the creation, the existence and the
primary reception. Translation is an outside force in relation to the message
incorporated in the source text. This approach allows for the legitimacy of the
question: "How does translation come about?"
3
Even if this should be the case, such facilitation can only be undertaken with language-
specific translation in mind: i. e. no source text can possibly take into account translation
problems and language pecularities which apply to all other languages in the world.
Cay Dollerup 47
tend to be loyal and literal, whereas educational ones will allow for more
latitude and adaptation.
Adaptation will apply, in particular, to literary translation where successful
translation is characterised by an overall requisitioning attitude. With the
possible exception of educational material, literature differs from the other
types of texts in that, at least previously, translations did not come out of the
blue. All through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, it was people with
some knowledge of the classical languages who would mediate the classics to
their contemporaries: prior to translation, these translators were 'cultural
bridgeheads' for classical lore in their own cultures who then requisitioned the
classics to dress them in new garbs in their own vernaculars.
As vernaculars began to establish their own literatures, the process became
more obvious: the sonnet made it into English because Thomas Wyatt was in
Italy (1527) and could translate Petrarch's work into English. Once back in
England, he (and Henry Surrey) paved the way for the genre's English form,
rather than for specific translations from Italian.4
Throughout subsequent centuries we meet with similar concrete ties
between historical facts and translation. Translation between the contemporary
languages is undertaken by amateurs with anything ranging from the most
superficial to the most thorough command of the source language. Molière's
comedies and the French neoclassical theatre, Corneille and Racine, were
introduced into England thanks to the 'cultural bridgehead' established among
theatre-goers in the British aristocracy and gentry during their exile in France
during Cromwell's Republic (1643-1660). In the next century, Shakespeare and
the English novel travelled in the opposite direction — to the Continent,
notably Germany thanks to the personal union (established in 1714) which tied
part of Germany to Great Britain.
4
In this context I shall leave out a detailed discussion of the implication that this mechan-
ism makes it ontologically impossible to talk about equivalence, no matter whether of
form, content, or effect, between source and target language reception: 'equivalence' is,
at best, a comparable entity between the response of a target language audience which
can read the original source text, and the response of the target language audience which
does not know the source language and therefore needs translation. This last incisive
observation is due to Jens Nørmark Lind and Peter Sestoft (essay, Spanish, University
of Copenhagen 1992).
Cay Dollerup 49
New developments
I shall cut short the chronological overview at this stage because in the late
19th century the mechanisms of translation by requisition were changing. It
was not only translators who were becoming professional. So were target
language publishers with commercial interests and distribution networks. They
began to pay attention to 'pockets of cultural interest' in national cultures that
would make translation from a gateway language profitable. Financially, they
only had to worry about the translator's fee, for there was no international
copyright law protecting authors. With 19th-century improvement in education
and the consequent creation of mass readerships, translation of literature —
and educational material — became a money-spinning industry, a money-
driven activity subject to market forces in capitalist societies. The scene was
set for extending the publishers' financial interest in promoting authors when
the international Berne convention (1886) protected the original authors'
copyright in translation.
5
For Scandinavia and Denmark in particular, I refer to the list in Nielsen (1966: 11-12;
and 1976, various places). For Central Europe to Hans Vermeer (personal
communication).
Cay Dollerup 51
The Communist translation policy in the Soviet Union, which began in full
in the 1920s, introduced yet another new feature in literary translation:
translation was not only requisitioned but also selective and ideologically
driven. The Danish literature that made it into Russian was social criticism,
exemplified by such writers as Martin Andersen Nexø (1869-1954). Since
Russian functioned as the gateway language for other Communist receptor
cultures, Nexø's name dominates in the perception of Danish literature in
China and, I would assume, other previously Communist countries as well.
Jumping to the present Danish scene, there is still imposition. Mainly in terms
of export and import in trade; and toleration of poor quality translation in these
contexts is high. The reason is not hard to find, for as a consumer one is more
motivated to make sense of the opaque instructions than to throw out the newly
acquired dishwasher. Imposition is found in religious contexts within
denominations and sects. Educational texts seem to be just as much of a
mixture as previously. In medicine and the natural sciences, however, English
now functions as the lingua franca.
In the field of literature, there are still idealistic translators and publishers
who try to boost contemporary authors and thus function as bridgeheads for
foreign literature in Denmark, and, to a lesser extent, for Danish or
Scandinavian literature abroad, the latter especially with some minor specialist
publishers in the US. We also find a wish to present the public with Danish
and Nordic 'classics', best exemplified by one or two North American
academic presses which operate without subsidies from the source cultures.
Press-runs are clearly small and production is mostly for libraries, since the
prices are prohibitive for most individual purchasers. It is also interesting that
in both cases translations are, more than ever before, direct translations that
do not pass over gateway languages. This change indicates either that more
emphasis is paid to 'fidelity' or that the translators/publishers assume their
audience knows more of the source cultures than others (perhaps thanks to
previous (and less "loyal") translation by way of gateway languages).
The money-driven market forces are gaining ground, but even so there is
ambiguity in the attitude to translation.
Karen Blixen, better known by her pen-name Isaak Dinesen, bypassed
translation since she preferred to retell her linguistically complicated and
fascinating tales herself in a less convoluted English. In these retellings, she
52 Translation as Intercultural Communication
not only omitted lengthy descriptions localising her stories in Denmark, but she
also changed numerous details (age and name of characters, dates etc.).6 The
procedure worked well, for she was an international success. Others who have
done their own translations or supervised them have fared less well.
Several Danish writers, such as Anders Bodelsen, have made it into
Dutch, German, and English in direct translation, and thanks to success in the
latter gateway language, into other languages such as Spanish and Italian.
Henrik Stangerup has been translated into French. Peter Høeg has been
successful in English and a host of other languages with his Miss Smilla 's
Feeling for Snow (1994; UK title). Without a major research effort (which is
frequently bound to be thwarted because of publishers' trade secrets), it is hard
to find out how these authors got to be known to the 'cultural bridgeheads'.
In some cases, they have clearly not been requisitioned in the same way as
Andersen or Grimm, but sold to (that is 'imposed' on) other countries by the
Danish publishers at international conventions, such as the Frankfurt Book
Fair. The large-scale institutionalised promotion by publishers of in-house
authors is fairly recent but is, as mentioned above, ultimately due to the Berne
Convention.
There is also a Danish national state-operated, money-driven translation
policy for literature which promotes Danish literature abroad by subsidies. The
sum is insignificant (c. 200,000 dollars worldwide per year) and it may be
used only for publications translated directly from Danish. Given these
limitations, its importance is small.
Just for the record: the last twenty-five years or so have also seen the
introduction of translation prizes. They are given out internationally by such
bodies as Unesco (no Danish winners), the European Commission (one Danish
prize-winner), and also by various institutions at the national levels. They are
tokens of appreciation, rewards for good work, and occasionally they are
mentioned briefly in the newspapers. But I have yet to see the day when such
a prize boosts sales substantially.
6
Received opinion has it that Karen Blixen first did her work in English and then retold
it in Danish. Given the types of linguistic and content divergencies, I find this is
extremely unlikely. It must be the other way round in the vast majority of cases. These
linguistic divergencies have been touched upon in Dollerup et al (1990: 273-274). Dr.
Kristine Anderson, Purdue University, is at present (1997) studying 'Karen Blixen as a
bilingual writer'. Her preliminary findings seem to contradict my views. Many nations
actually boast of writers who do their own translations, e.g. Samuel Becket (French into
English). A study of their procedures would provide us with supplementary information
on the issue at hand.
Cay Dollerup 53
Discussion
What I have described so far bears some similarity with the situation in the
Netherlands as discussed by Ria Vanderauwera (1985), but also considerable
dissimilarity. The differences may lie in my having taken a historical bird's
eye view and therefore found more success than she. I also think that Danish
literature is better off for the simple reason that — despite the official policy
— it is not subsidised to any appreciable extent. This means that Danish books
are translated, if at all, on their own merits.
Vanderauwera studied English response to Dutch literature. I have not
studied foreign response to Danish literature systematically: I noted that
Bodelsen was translated into Spanish, because I studied an excerpt and found
it distorted. I vividly remember how the criminal's simple action of hiding
money in a box became an incomprehensible operation in Spanish, and felt
assured that this probably met Spanish expectations about how complicated life
is in Denmark. The inaccuracy corresponds with the results I have met in other
works, so I believe that most real-life literary translation will always show less
fidelity to the original than we accept in translation classes. I even believe that
translations from small language cultures will be more inexact than translations
from major languages into minor language cultures. But to return to the
question of success: I have noticed cursorily in my newspaper that Stangerup
met with French critical acclaim, and that Peter Høeg was on the bestseller list
in the US for a couple of months. On the other hand, I have studied Danish
critical response to foreign literature systematically, and my findings are that,
as a result of some incisive debate, critics have finally come round to taking
translation sufficiently seriously to assess the 'quality', which is normally one
or two sentences on the felicity of the style. They are clearly not bothered with
undertaking a detailed collation with the original.
But otherwise, what are the paradigmatic lessons of this discussion?
First and foremost it is obvious that the models of translation discussed at
the beginning do serve to illustrate the process of translation as communication
at some level or other. But they must not blind us to the fact that the vast
majority of texts are not propelled into translation the moment they are created
and produced. They are translated because of forces which are external to the
text, and they are translated in an interplay between the target culture and the
source message which I have here termed imposition' and 'requisition'. To
illustrate this, the communication model must be modfied as follows:
Sender (sending culture) — message > < translator > < recipient (receptor culture)
54 Translation as Intercultural Communication
The arrows indicate the degree of intense interplay in the process of
cultural transfer in translation.
In a larger perspective, I believe that imposition will continue to exist as
long as there is (a) power and superiority, and (b) tangible objects for
discussion. Democracy and the desire for profit may make for adaptation to
target languages, but not total severance from source texts.
As far as literature is concerned, ideologically-driven translation is
unlikely to survive into the next century, for the simple reason that computer
networks will bypass censorship. From a narrow-minded perspective, one can
make a case that the European Union subsidised translation — whose
importance is negligible anyway — is ideologically-driven, but since the
motive is to further the minor languages in the name of linguistic and cultural
equality, the motive is far different from that of the Soviet state.
Conversely, I do believe that, although there will always be room for
idealism, translation will become an increasingly money-driven activity due to
market forces where publishers will have a much greater say than authors and
translators. The publishers' professional insight into the advertisement
channels, command of the distribution networks, and their intimate knowledge
of the potential audiences, will enable them to monopolise the market.
Compared to the world at large, Denmark (and for that matter the rest of
Scandinavia) may be a special case since we have been around for more than
a thousand years and our polar bears in the streets make us sufficiently exotic
for others occasionally to requisition our literatures.
This is not the case with newly emerging nations which, I pointed out,
have a legitimate wish to have their national cultures recognised. Is there a
lesson in this study? I think so: it is impossible to beat the market forces with
subsidies and any number of prizes for translators. A few authors make their
own translations, and are thus their own 'bridgeheads'. Mention has already
been made of Adam Oehlenschläger and Karen Blixen in Danish letters. For
others, national publishers may establish professional money-driven contacts
with foreign publishers at book fairs, and, as we have (presumably) seen with
Bodelsen and Høeg, the procedure may be successful. In principle there is a
third option: in so far as the cost and effort are accepted by the political
powers that be, it should hypothetically be possible to avoid the inbuilt target-
language directionality we find in normal 'cultural bridgeheads' by having
subsidised translators and teams of professionals to translate and revise
Cay Dollerup 55
References
Dollerup, Cay & Iven Reventlow & Carsten Rosenberg Hansen. 1990. "Reader, text,
translation and interpretative potentials." Multilingua 9, 271-284.
Dollerup, Cay. "Translation as a creative force in literature: the birth of the European
Bourgeois Fairy-Tale". The Modern Language Review 90 (1995), 94-102.
Dollerup, Cay. 1996. "The emergence of the teaching of translation. " In: C. Dollerup & V.
Appel (ed) Teaching Translation and Interpreting 3. New Horizons. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins, 19-30.
Levy, Jin. 1969. Die literarische Übersetzung. Theorie einer Kunstgattung. Frankfurt:
Athenäum.
Möller-Christensen, Ivy York. 1992. Den gyldne trekant: HC Andersens gennembrud i
Tyskland 1831-1850 med tilhørende bibliografi. Odense: Odense University Press.
Monhanty, Nirinjan. 1994. "Translation: an integration of cultures". Perspectives: Studies in
Translatology 2, 194.
7
In principle there are various ways of doing it. The main point is that most countries,
including large ones, do subsidise translations of literature into foreign languages. This
goes for the People's Republic of China (its subsidised journal is available from
embassies [personal communication from Eva Hung]), Slovenia (personal communication
from Meta Grosman), the Netherlands (Vanderauwera). I am sure readers can supplement
this list.
56 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Yan Fu's three principles — fidelity (xin), fluency (da) and elegance (ya)1 —
were widely accepted as essential criteria used to discuss translations ever since
their appearance almost a century ago in Yan's preface to his own translation
of T.H. Huxley's Evolution and Ethics (1898). They have also become the
fundamental tenets of twentieth-century Chinese translation theory, and though
there have been attempts to remove "elegance" from the list or replace it with
other principles, the importance of fidelity and fluency has gone pretty much
unchallenged. Perhaps these three principles are best defined by Yan himself,
1
Yan's three principles have been variously translated: xin also as "faithfulness", da also
as "comprehensibility" or "readability," and ya also as "polish" or "embellishment." The
three translations in this essay have been chosen because they would be readily
understood by those familiar with the current Western discourse on translation theory.
"Fluency" is used in the sense that Lawrence Venuti intends it to mean (Venuti 1995).
Leo Tak-hung Chan 59
rather than by the multitude of translation theorists in his wake who sought to
extract other meanings from them:
Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfil: fidelity, fluency and
elegance. Fidelity is difficult enough to attain but a translation that observes the
rule of fidelity but is not fluent is no translation at all. Fluency is therefore of
prime importance. Since China's opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been
no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to
translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can succeed.2
It is easy to see the degree to which fidelity, elegance, and especially fluency
are terms of an evaluative nature, and indeed, Yan Fu proceeded in his treatise
with a critique of his own translation of Huxley's philosophical work. He noted
how much he had tampered with the original text in the interest of fluency: he
freely added to or deleted from it, since to him the translation should not be
unnecessarily constrained by the linguistic structures of the source text. For a
brief while it appears that he was privileging fluency over and above the other
two terms of reference, though a little later on he observed that, while there
should be room for the translator to re-create, this was nevertheless "not the
right way of doing a translation" (1973:4). Hence, to cut short the ongoing
debate on whether Yan Fu regarded fidelity or fluency as the more central
criterion, we need to note that, in principle (as against even his own actual
practice), he stood on the side of fidelity to the original. In so doing, Yan Fu
falls squarely within the tradition of the majority of Bible translator-theorists
in the West, for whom faithfulness, or respect for the source text, was to be
defended as a virtue.
For some years there have been rather harsh criticisms of Yan Fu's theory
of translation, most of them directed against his principle of elegance, and
some against that of fidelity. Several scholars underlined the uselessness of
"elegance" as an analytical term, and asserted that Yan Fu had included it in
his tripartite model simply because he wanted to suggest that the ornate
classical prose style of the Tongcheng school, in which his Evolution and
Ethics was translated, was the best language for translations.3 Now that such
period tastes have become outmoded (and plainer styles preferred), so should
the criterion of elegance. Others, eager to elevate the criterion of fluency,
2
The translation is adapted from C.Y. Hsu (1973:4).
2
Among those who suggested doing without "elegance" is Qu Qiubai, for whom this
criterion is counter-productive and undermines the effectiveness of the other two criteria.
For Frederick Tsai, another prominent twentieth-century translation theorist, it can be
replaced with "adequacy" (tie) (1972:18).
60 Translation as Intercultural Communication
4
For an extended discussion of Ma's Grammar, see Shen Xiaolong (1992:180-218).
Leo Tak-hung Chan 61
Fu Lei's "likeness-in-spirit"
5
Among the most influential books on translation theory written for a Chinese audience
is Liu Miqing's Present-day Translation Studies (1993). In 11 chapters it deals with
"translation as a discipline", "a model for Chinese translation theory", "translatability and
untranslatability", "the aesthetics of translation", "the translation of style", and so forth.
The contrastive linguistics background that informs Liu's discussion throughout is made
evident in his detailed references to the ideas of Western linguists like Saussure,
Humboldt and Martinet, among others. Ji Di collaborates with Eugene Nida in writing
their book On Translation, again a widely popular text in translation theory currently
cónsulted by both Chinese teachers and students of translation.
6
For Fu Lei's ideas on translation, see his Essays on Fu Lei's Translations (1981). For
a recent study of the various aspects of his life and work, see Serena Jin (1994).
62 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Like Yan's three terms, it has kept theorists busy hunting for exact
connotations for decades, without coming any closer even today (than forty
years ago) to a grasp of its precise implications. Innovative as it may seem at
first sight, when understood in context, this concept has an ancestry traceable
back to discussions of "spiritual assonance" (shenyun or fengyun) in the
twenties and thirties. At the time these terms were most often bandied about
by poetry translators like Guo Moruo (1892-1978), translator of Shelley and
Goethe, and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944), translator of Shakespeare. Guo
Moruo's discussion of "the achievement of spiritual assonance in translation"
in an article he published in 1922 is especially pertinent to the present
discussion. For him:
The translator of poetry does not exercise his skill through checking up the
dictionary for others, nor does he act as if he is deciphering telegrams at the
telegraph office. The life of poetry resides in an inherent musical spirit. . .If we
simply translate poems literally, then we turn out translations not of an artist, but
of a linguist (1992:268).7
Two telling points are conveyed by this passage. First, in spite of the fact that
Guo Moruo shows a keen concern for translating the essential spirit of a work
of art, he still offers little help in clarifying the meaning of the term "spirit"
— which for him seems largely a matter of rhyme and metre. Second, once
again there is an assault on the linguistic approach, this time through a
disparagement of the linguist's concern for capturing the literal meaning, or
"equivalence", in contemporary translatological terminology.
The painter/translator comparison, as well as the dichotomy stipulated
between the outward "shape" and the inward "soul" of a literary work, reminds
us how closely this school of Chinese translation theorists resembles
seventeenth and eighteenth century Western translation theorists like Dryden
and Alexander Fraser Tytler (1747-1814). For example, Tytler — whose
theories were introduced to the Chinese through Zheng Zhenduo (1898-1958)
in an article, "Three Problems in Translating Literature" (1921) — has said
that, even without using the same colors, the translator has to give his picture
the same force and effect of the source text, to re-capture the "soul" of the
author. Yet this is not to suggest any direct Western influence on Chinese
translation theory; quite on the contrary, a term like "conveying the spirit" has
occurred in as ancient a Chinese text as The Book of Changes, and terms like
"Spiritual assonance" have for centuries figured prominently in the poetry-talk
7
For a discussion of Guo Moruo's views, see Chen Fukang A Draft History of Chinese
Translation Theory (1992:262-272).
Leo Tak-hung Chan 63
(or poetry criticism) tradition.8 Hence one would be missing the mark if one
attempted to re-cast Fu Lei's ideas in modern Western linguistic discourse. To
re-interpret "likeness-in-spirit" as equivalent to Eugene Nida's theory of
"dynamic equivalence," for instance, serves little more than to delimit the field
of reference of this term. As is typical of critical terminology used in
twentieth-century Chinese translation theory, their vagueness is also partly the
cause of their continued relevance.9
In common with Yan Fu's three principles and Fu Lei's all important aesthetic
criterion, Qian Zhongshu's "realm of transformation" (huajing) describes what
an ideal translation is like, differentiates the good translation from the bad, and
contains hidden echoes of similar terminology from traditional Chinese poetics
and art criticism. Qian's critical term is marked by even greater imprecision
in that it simply posits a state that the successful translation is supposed to have
reached, and which is out of bounds to poorer translations. Unlike his
predecessors, however, Qian does not define the "realm of transformation"
through a critical discussion of his own work. In his seminal article on Lin Shu
(1852-1924), renowned translator of Charles Dickens, Walter Scott and Rider
Haggard, Qian began by talking briefly about the etymological and semantic
associations of the Chinese character yi ("to translate"), to which we shall
return below. Then he explained what he meant by "transformation":
The supreme principle for literary translations is "transformation." One can be
said to have attained this state when, in converting the words of one language
into those of another, no traces are left of one's having been constrained to
accommodate linguistic differences to which one is habituated, though the "feel"
of the original is fully conveyed. (1984:696)
Lest the sources of Qian Zhongshu's theory be thought of as completely
Chinese, especially given the Buddhist and Daoist overtones carried by the
term "transformation," one needs to be reminded that Qian's sources were in
fact Western. In a footnote, he said that a similar translational criterion had
8
Wong Wai-leung has traced the use of impressionistic critical terms in the discussion of
traditional Chinese poetry. For him, more of the terms are used descriptively and
evaluatively, and the analytical terms are scarce. Wang Wai-leung (1976), esp. Chap. 3.
9
Among those who have registered their dissatisfaction with "likeness-in-spirit" is Huang
Yushi. See Huang Yushi (1995:285).
64 Translation as Intercultural Communication
10
For example, Eugenio Donato (1985:127) has taken advantage of the fact that
Übersetzung has as one of its senses "leaping over an abyss" to make his point on
" specular translation ".
11
There are other semantic links mentioned by Qian that may be of some interest: yi has
been defined by traditional Chinese philologists as referring to the "transmission of the
language of the barbarians, of birds and beasts"; fan refers to "the turaing-around of a
piece of embroidered silk", so that everything faces the opposite direction. One may add
that one of the homophones for yi also means "to change".
66 Translation as Intercultural Communication
hallmarks of Chinese translation theory for the better part of the present
century.
References
Chan, Sin-wai and David Pollard (eds.) 1995. An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-
English, English-Chinese. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong Press.
Chen, Fukang. 1992. Zhongguo yixue lilun shigao (A Draft History of Chinese Translation
Theory). Shanghai: Waiyu jiaoyu chubanshe.
Derrida, Jacques. 1981. Positions. Translated by Alan Bass. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Fu, Lei. 1981. Fu Lei lunwenji (Essays on Fu Lei's Translations). Hefei: Anhui remin
chubanshe.
Holmes, James. 1988. Translated! Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies.
Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Huang, Yushi. 1995. "Form and Spirit." In: C. Sin-wai/D. Pollard (eds.), 277-287.
Jin, Sheng-hua (Serena Jin) (ed.) 1994. Fu Lei yu tade shijie (Fu Lei and His World). Hong
Kong: Joint Publishing Co.
Liu, Miqing. 1993. Present-Day Translation Studies. Taibei: Shulin chubanshe.
Luo, Xinzhang (ed.) 1984. Fanyi lunji (Essays on Translation). Beijing: Shangwu yinshuguan.
McDonald, Christie V. (ed.) 1985. The Ear of the Other: Otobiography, Transference,
Translation. New York: Schocken Books.
Qian, Zhongshu. 1984. "Lin Shu de fanyi" (The Translations of Lin Shu). In: Luo 1984, 696-
725.
Schulte, Rainer and John Biguenet (eds.) 1992. Theories of Translation: An Anthology of
Essays from Dryden to Derrida. Chicago; University of Chicago Press.
Shen, Xiaolong. 1992. Yuwen de chanshi: Zhongguo yuwen chuantong de xiandai yiyi
(Explicating Meaning: The Modern Meaning of the Chinése Linguistic Tradition).
Shenyang: Liaoning jiaoyu chubanshe.
Tsai, Frederick. 1972. Fanyi yanjiu (Studies on Translation). Taibei: Dadi chubanshe.
Venuti, Lawrence. 1995. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. London:
Routledge.
Wong, Wai-leung. 1976. Chinese Impressionistic Criticism: A Study of the Poetry-Talk
Tradition. Ohio State University: unpubl. PhD thesis.
Yan, Fu. 1973. "General Remarks on Translation." Translated by C.Y. Hsu. Renditions 1,
4-6.
Transgression and circumvention through translation
in the Philippines
History
The history of the Philippines is one of colonial rule: three and a half centuries
under Spain, about fifty years under the U.S. and five years of Japanese
occupation result today in a feudal-like dominance of local elites sustained by
their collaboration with foreign interests. The 25 years after the 1946
independence were marked by an increasing political awareness of organized
sectors of the population resulting in widespread popular discontent with the
ruling class. Thus, the late 1960s saw the emergence of nationalist movements
and mass organizations which sought to reform or overthrow the country's
neo-colonial structures and institutions. In January 1970, a student protest
dubbed 'The First Quarter Storm' broke out; its repression initiated a history
of outright state violence against the opposition which eventually resulted in the
declaration of Martial Law on 21 September 1972.
In the years leading to the Marcos dictatorship, the major colleges and
universities saw a surge of militancy: students, teachers and younger members
of religious institutions rallied behind the issues of nationalism, socialism and
democracy. In the Ateneo de Manila University — an institution owned by the
Society of Jesus and noted for its elite and westernized orientation — the
students were agitating for the Filipinization of administration and the
curricula. On 4 August 1970, Trend, a student paper at the Ateneo, spelled out
the meaning of Filipinization as follows:
Involvement in the cause of social transformation must be a characteristic of the
University faculty. It should be fearless and unflinching even to the point of
supporting a radical restructuring of our society, even as it is true the main
contribution of a faculty member to the nation will be along the lines of his
trained competence both within the University and outside. (Trend 1970:3)
68 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Ateneo and Kamao
and mapped-out day by day. 'There', the Left re-organised its resistance in
a precarious legitimacy status where a new coalition had to seek a range of
ways and byways in the often tortuous and tortured struggle against 'the
U.S.-Marcos dictatorship'.
1
All quotations originally in Filipino have been translated into English by M.L. Torres
Reyes.
70 Translation as Intercultural Communication
was scarce and claims that translation in the national language was vital for
building a national awareness and making these texts available to a larger
readership. Interestingly, it added: "... [our] literature is a weapon and a shield
against western literature which has long dominated our country and for so
long tied us to an orientation that blurs our view of the problems of the
country" (Philippine Collegian, 1975b: 16). Far from being in contradiction
with the previous issue, the August publication completes the overall strategy
of the Collegian editors: translations from foreign cultures and from the
various Philippine vernaculars should converge in the creation of the national
language.
To locate more accurately the political space occupied by the Collegian,
one should not forget that Marcos was particularly stern with the press and the
other media. On the day of the declaration of martial law, the national police
shut down all of Manila's media: press, TV and radio stations. In 1976 the
Collegian was ordered to suspend publication again and several editors were
imprisoned. However, the paper continued to circulate through unofficial
channels as it became one of the very few alternative and opposition news
sources available in Manila.
Translation
The three anthologies can be said to have followed a logic of their own as they
appeared in sequence. The overall principle of selection was clearly based on
an anti-canonical commitment since not a single Anglo-American author was
included; they made an explicit political statement in their expression of unity
with writers from a given geo-political space and a quest for international
solidarity on the basis of the right to self-determination and freedom from
domestic and foreign domination. In this way the site of oppression is
transformed into a site of resistance. The three collections were openly and
consciously at odds with the texts and views that passed for news and public
opinion under martial rule. As indicated earlier, apart from a total
militarization of social and political life, the oligarchic and colonial sectors that
supported the dictator tried to wage a blatant psywar through total control of
information. But this highly transgressive strategy was presented in the
ostensibly innocent guise of translations of poems and short fiction into
Filipino. It could be argued that these militant writers were reduced to using
translation in a critical move to circulate transgressive views. Not quite;
deploying translation's power to dodge repression while using repression's own
Ubaldo Stecconi/MariaLuisa Torres Reyes 71
How were these positions elaborated into translation strategies? The scholars
who organized the translation work were operating between a tension: on the
one hand, the western metaphysical tradition of essence, meaning and
faithfulness learned in school; on the other, their own Filipino material
conditions. As to the position towards western values, Tiongson's words were
eloquent; but how was the notion of faithfulness 'translated' into Filipino
practice as kcatapatan? We will try to show, with the help of a story, how
katapatan/faithfulness was caught in the middle of a semiotic tension.
The story is as follows: six hours' drive from Manila is Banawe,
Mountain Province; six hours' walk from Banawe is a place called Batad: a
steep mountain cut into rice terraces with three or four small scattered villages
said to be over two thousand years old. Due to the far-flung location,
everything is in its pristine form: the Ifugao language, huts and g-strings.
Batad is as close as you can get to the Filipino 'original' in the north of the
country. But then, since the huts are made entirely of hard-wood and straw,
at the end of each rainy season the villagers have to partly re-build their
Ubaldo Stecconi/Maria Luisa Torres Reyes 73
homes. In the course of — say — a century or two, every bit of them will be
replaced with new material. But this is immaterial: it is still the same house.
Now, let us make a comparison. Western heritage is affected by adverse
environmental conditions too; the marble of Michelangelo's David in Florence
is attacked by acid rain and pigeons' droppings. If we pasted new marble
powder over every corroded limb and — in time — completely replaced the
material the statue is made of, would we think of it as 'the same' David? We
would not; in fact, the original David is kept safely indoors and what stands
in Piazza della Signoria is a mere copy, no matter how faithful to the original.
This story has some interesting implications. Two parallels can be drawn
between Batad and katapatan. Firstly, both respond to a criterion of nimble
adaptation to reality: the natural environment is pretty hostile in Batad, yet
homes are needed, so they have to be constantly rebuilt; likewise, political
struggle was fierce in the early 1970s in Manila, yet those messages of
resistance and struggle were necessary, so they had to be translated. For the
second parallel, we assume that the clearest observable fact in translation is the
replacement of old words with new ones. Now, a message's words can be
regarded as its material: while essentialistic westerners are always disturbed by
its replacement, a non-western-educated Filipino would be rather indifferent;
it would still be the same message. However, Kamao and the Collegian were
not translated by Ifugao mountain dwellers but by western-educated writers,
this is why faithfulness occupied a place of great tension in our translators'
theory:
Afraid of moving very far from the original, the translations tried to be as
faithful as possible to the English versions, even if often they seemed too literal.
When the meaning became vague in the literal translation, the nearest adaptation
into the Filipino idiom became the solution. Whenever possible, katapatan, clarity
and artistry became our standards. ("Talang Pampatnugutan," Philippine
Collegian 1975a:2)
To conclude, the excerpt maintains that faithfulness — even literality — is a
hallmark of translation, but when we read katapatan, we suspect that it spells
out a notion that contradicts the western metaphysics of the original.
Living in translation
An illustration from the second Collegian issue may provide in detail the
complex and problematic relationship at work in these translation projects. We
will analyze Kasaysayan ng Isang Liham the translation of a short story by the
Filipino writer Carlos Bulosan originally written in English in 1946 with the
74 Translation as Intercultural Communication
title The Story of a Letter, The tale is about a poor peasant boy — the narrator
— who goes to America in the 1930s to escape the grinding poverty of his
feudal countryside of the Philippines. The boy's father needs to find someone
who could read for him a letter sent from America by another son, the
narrator's older brother Berto, who had emigrated there many years earlier.
Since the family is illiterate and the letter is in English, it remains unread for
three years. The narrator says retrospectively: "The suspense was hurting him
and me, too. He wanted me to learn English so that I would be able to read
it to him. It was the only letter he had received in all the years that I had
known him, except some letters that came from the government once a year
asking him to pay his taxes." (San Juan 1983:41).
Almost two decades later, the narrator is in the U.S. He remembers the
letter, writes to his father asking to send it over to him so that he could
translate it. Six months later, he receives the original, translates it, and happily
sends both the original and the translation back to his father. Many months
later he receives mail from his hometown's postmaster saying that his father
had died some years earlier. The letter which, says the narrator, "had driven
me away from my village and had sent me half way around the world" has
remained unread by his father. The very end of the story reveals the text of the
letter; it reads: "Dear Father (my brother wrote): America is great country.
Tall buildings. Wide good land. The people walking. But I feel sad. I am
writing you this hour of my sentimental. Your son. — Berto." (San Juan
1983:45).
The Filipino translation of this story included in the second issue of the
Collegian is among the most competent and moving: the language is poignant
and the narrative flows from a boy's consciousness growing up to be a man
who has learned to face the harsh realities of life. It is a stark image of the rest
of the world's marginalised people, with a tragic-comic touch. At every turn
one senses how the translators — about a dozen young students of the
University of the Philippines — were carefully weaving their way in and out
the source and target texts. But when the translation of the story gets into the
letter proper, one discovers that the only material that gets translated is the
parentetical clause. The translation reads: "Dear Father (anang kapatid ko):
America is great country. Tall buildings. Wide good land. The people walking.
But I feel sad. I am writing you this hour of my sentimental. Your son. —
Berto." (Philippine Collegian 1975b: 15).
What happened here? The translators understood that the passage was calling
out for translation just like the rest of the story; but it called for a very
different translation from the rest of the text: it was asking for a virtual rather.
Ubaldo Stecconi/Maria Luisa Torres Reyes 75
References
Kamao. 1971. Kamao. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila. (Reprint of Katipunan 1 (3 and 4),
Quezon City: Philippine Studies Department, Ateneo de Manila).
Lumbera, Bienvenido. 1975. "Ang Tagasalin at ang Kanyang Mambabasa". Philippine
Collegian 1975b, 3-4.
Lumbera, Bienvenido. 1994. "Interview with M.L. Torres Reyes", 28 December 1994.
Niranjana, Tejaswini. 1992. Siting Translation. History, Post-Structuralism and the Colonial
Context. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Philippine Collegian. 1975a. Philippine Collegian, special issue 4 February 1975, 'Tinig ng
Ikatlong Daigdig". Diliman: University of the Philippines.
Philippine Collegian. 1975b. Philippine Collegian, special issue 14 August 1975, "Tinig ng
Pilipino". Diliman: University of the Philippines.
Rebolusyonaryong... 1992. Rebolusyonaryong Panunuring Masa sa Sining at Panitikan.
Quezon City: Kalikasan Press.
San Juan, E., Jr. 1983. Bulosan: An Introduction with Selections. Metro Manila: National
Book Store.
Tiongson, Nicanor. 1971. "Papaglingkurin sa Pilipinas ang Dayuhan". Kamao 1971, n.p.
Tiongson, Nicanor. 1994. "Interview with M.L. Torres Reyes", 29 December 1994.
Trend. 1970. Trend 2 (1), Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila.
Ubaldo Stecconi/Maria Luisa Torres Reyes 11
Asia
China. Mao Tsetung: Ch 'angsha, Nyebe, Mga Ulap sa Taglamig; Lu Hsun: Taglagas 1935.
Vietnam. Ho Chi-Minh: Ang mga Paang Bakal, Payo sa Sarili, Mga Paghihigpit, Sa
Pagbabasa ng "Antolohiya ng Sanlibong Makata"; To Huu: Tandaan ang Aking mga Salita.
Korea. Yi Kwang-Su: Isang Anemona. Indonesia. Chairil Anwar: Ako. Turkey. Nazim
Hikmet: Isang Sigarilyong Hindi Ko Masindihan.
Latin America
Argentina. Ernesto Che Guevara: Awit kay Fidel. Cuba. Nicolás Guillén: Maipagbibili Mo
Ba?; Félix Pita Rodriguez: Riple Numero 5767; Alcfdez Iznaga: Maybahay at Kasama; Luís
Marre: Awit; Fayad Jamis: Buhay; Pedro de Oraa: Para Kanino?; Domingo Alfonso: Ang
Sining ng Tula. Chile. Pablo Neruda: Ang United Fruit Co., Ang mga Diktador, Gutom sa
Timog. Guatemala. Otto René Castillo: Mga Apulitikal na Intelektuwal; Marco Antonio
Flores: Rekiyem Kay Luis Augusto. Nicaragua. Fernando Gordillo Cervantes: Sa Isang
Yumaong Kabataan, Ang Presyo ng Isang Bansa. Peru. Javier Heraud: Ang Bagong
Paglalakbay.
Europe
Russia. Alexander Blok: Ang Labindalawa; Vladimir Mayakovsky: Mula sa 'Ubos-lakas,
Buong-dahas '. Germany. Bertolt Brecht: Awit ng Mangangalakal (Paglilibing sa Manunulsol
na nasa Kabaong-zink), Walang Sinuman O Lahat, Sa Posteridad.
Africa
Angola. Antonio Jacinto: Monangamba. Congo. Patrice Emery Lumumba: Bukanliwayway sa
Dibdib ng Aprika. Senegal. Leopold Sedar-Senghor: Panalangin para sa Kapayapaan; David
Diop: Makinig mga Kasama.
Asia
Indonesia. Chairil Anwar: Dipo Negoro; Rivai Apin: Bantayog. Malaysia. Usman Awang:
Balita Mula sa Asya, Tatang Utih; Masuri S.N.: Ang Kaning ito na Aking Kinakain. Palestine.
Mahmoud Darweesh: Hinggil sa Pag-asa. Pakistan. Faiz Ahmed Faiz: Magsalita.
Philippines. Amado V. Hernandez: Ang Panday; Benigno R. Ramos: Gumising Ka, Aking
Bayan!. Bangladesh. Zakiul Huq: Paniniwala; Abu Bakr Siddique: Awit ng Bayan. Vietnam.
To Huu: Munting Luom; Anon.: Sa Tagsibol, Tayo'y Ikakasal. Turkey. Cedvet Kudret: Handa
sa Patay. India. Sahir Ludhianvi: Ang Taj Mahal; Shanmuga Subbiah: Pagkabasa ng Diyaryo.
Africa
South Africa. Peter Abrahams: Ako, Maykulay. Ghana. Kwesi Brew: Paghahanap. Liberia.
Roland Tombekai Dempster: Ito ba ang Aprika? Senegal. Birago Diop: Mga Kuwentong
Naging Duyan ng Aking Kamusmusan; David Diop: Sa Kanila 'y Inagaw nang Lahat; Leopold
Sedar Senghor: Itim Na Babae. Cameroon. Mbella Sonne Dipoko: Distiyero. Sao Tome. Aldo
do Espirito Santo: Nasaan ang mga Taong Sinaklot sa Unos ng Kabaliwan? Nigeria. Gabriel
Okara: Noong Araw; Wole Soyinka: Pag-uusap sa Telepono.
Latin America
Peru. Igor Calvo: Pabula; Cesar Vallejo: Masa. Cuba. Nicolás Guillén: Ang Burgesya.
Argentina. Leopoldo Marechal: "Pag naipaghiganti na ang malaking katampalasanang ito na
lumulukob sa Latin Amerika". Puerto Rico. Hugo Margenat: Mga Kawing. Chile. Pablo
Neruda: Mga Digma.
78 Translation as Intercultural Communication
In this paper we shall first observe some of the most salient aspects of the
oldest Near Eastern translations of the collection of stories known in Arabic
and Turkish as the Kalilah wa Dimnah, and Kettle ve Dimne (KD) respectively.
This will be followed by a discussion on (a) the earliest known translation of
KD (by Kul Mesud) into Western (Old Anatolian) Turkish in the 14th century,
which was identified in the late 19th century but has only recently been the
subject of a full scholarly study (Toska 1989; 1991)2, and (b) the need for
descriptive research especially on the medieval rewrites that belong to the
formative period in the Ottoman-Turkish literary tradition. We think that the
concept of "rewriting" (Lefevere 1992:1-9, 47) is especially useful at the initial
stage of research, because it covers the multiplicity of forms in the Turkish
tradition that have been named and/or described as translations in literary
histories in one way or another, but not analyzed in the context of the
translational, literary, social, ideological expectations, constraints or norms that
underlie those forms.
It is generally agreed by modern literary historians that the 13th and 14th
centuries mark the beginnings of literary writing in Old Anatolian Turkish.
That most of the literature produced in this period appeared as rewrites of
Persian sources in the one or the other form, is an issue that has been
1
This paper forms part of a joint project, Studies in the Early History of Literary
Translation into Turkish, carried out at Bogazici University, Istanbul, with the
collaboration of Z.Toska (Dept. of Turkish Language and Literature), S.Paker (Co-
ordinator, Dept. of Translation & Interpreting) and N.Kuran-Burcoglu (Dept. of
Translation & Interpreting).
2
E.g. There is no reference to Kul Mesud's translation or other early Western Turkish
versions in the detailed "Genealogical Table of the Panchatantra" (Grube 1991: inside
cover).
80 Translation as Intercultural Communication
recognized in literary studies on individual works but not explicitly addressed.
Persian and Arabic had already established their respective canons of written
literature. Turkish had not, and was only beginning to develop one through
various rewrites in prose and verse. One of the aims of this study is to draw
attention to this by examining, on the basis of currently available documentary
evidence, some aspects of Kul Mesud's KD and the network of relationships
between the text and the literary/linguistic/social system for which it was
intended.
The second half of the 19th century has long been recognized as an age
of translation in Ottoman-Turkish literature, because the European source
culture and languages were identified as "foreign" (Paker 1991). By contrast,
a very wide-ranging literary/linguistic/cultural transfer from Persian and Arabic
in various forms of translation in the medieval period (and even in the later
centuries) has largely been evaluated in terms of "influence" because it was
appropriated as part of the common Islamic tradition (Paker forthcoming). Our
concluding arguments will therefore emphasize how and why descriptive
translation studies can help us to see if we are dealing with a history of
"concealed" (Toury 1995:70f.) translation in Ottoman-Turkish literature, and
can thus contribute to the understanding not only of translation but of literary
history in the early period and in the classical, leading up to the 19th century.
The origin of the beast fables bearing the title Kalilah and Dimnah (in Arabic),
has been traced back to the earliest (not the existing) written versions of the
Sanskrit Pancatantra, composed according to Hertel c.300 AD (de Blois
1990:1). The five books of the Sanskrit fables, and three stories from the 12th
chapter of the Mahabharata, the Indian national epic, apparently served as the
source-texts for the Pahlavi (Middle Persian) version, the first known
translation that was produced in the reign of the Persian (Sasanian) king
Khusroy I (531-597), also known as "Anoshagruwan" ,"Hüsrev Anu§irvan" in
Turkish (de Blois 1990:1, 13; Toska 1989:9).3 The first known Syriac version
3
François de Blois' excellent textual/critical study on the fables known in Arabic as
Kalilah wa Dimnah, aims to reconstruct the lost Middle Persian version by focussing on
the "oldest segment of the history of the book [...] in the Near East" (de Blois 1990:iii)
which, in fact, is of unique significance for the translation historian since it uncovers the
story of the first (6th century) translation, from Sanskrit to Pahlavi/Middle Persian, and
the translator's (Burzoy's) autobiography, both of which are incorporated in the translated
Saliha Paker/Zehra Toska 81
derived from the Pahlavi/Middle Persian is also from the 6th century, but it is
the Arabic translation by Ibn'al-Muqaffa which dates from the mid 8th century
(750) that has been the most influential as the Near Eastern source text. The
genealogy of the existing translations of the KD into languages of the West and
the East, including Neo-Persian, can be traced back to (the lost) Middle
Persian version, thanks to the extant manuscripts of the Arabic translation and
that of the Syriac version.
The (Arabic) title of the book of fables Kalilah wa Dimnah, bears the
names of the two jackals ("Karataka" and "Damanaka" in the Sanskrit
Pancatantra) who appear in the first chapter in the fable of "The Lion and the
Ox". The story begins with Dimnah's decision to ingratiate himself to the
Lion, king of the jungle, though Kalilah warns against this. Dimnah ensures
a friendly relationship between the Lion and the Ox, but soon becomes jealous
of the friendship, takes no heed of Kelile's warnings, turns the Lion against the
Ox, and makes him kill his friend. The Lion is left to regret his action. In the
Arabic version the Lion not only regrets and repents but brings Dimnah to
trial, proves his guilt, and condemns him to death. He is moved and
encouraged to do this by the mother-Lion (Toska 1989:45, 57f.). The second
framework story/chapter known as "The Judgement of Dimnah" is generally
accepted as an addition by the first Arabic translator, Ibn-al Muqaffa.
It is important to remember that the 'original' Pancatantra was composed
not as a collection of popular beast fables but as a book of practical knowledge
of the politics of life, a text written for the instruction of the ruling Indian
families on the art of survival above all through intelligent conduct in the
private and public domain (de Blois 1990:15ff). Therefore, it is not difficult
to see why and how the proliferation of translations over the centuries helped
to establish the KD as a classical model for the book of political/moral conduct
(or the "Mirror for Princes"). Proliferation also meant variations. Textual
critics working on more than one version and trying to establish a text, often
find it a nuisance to see the 'purity' of a text contaminated with interpolations.
But it is evident in the case of the KD that at least some of the translators also
served in the development of a highly popular narrative genre with the
variations they introduced in the structure and content of the work. Considering
the problem of the differences presented by various manuscript copies of Ibn-al
text as introductory chapters. In our view, these chapters in the first (known) version of
the KD, must be seen as reflecting (a) one of the earliest perceptions of translation as a
medium for the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge and (b) the exceptional
"visibility" of the translator (Burzoy) in the textual transmission itself.
82 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Muqaffa's (8th century) Arabic, the oldest of which is dated five hundred years
(13th century) after the translation was made, de Blois states:
...the Arabic Kalilah wa Dimnah has to a large degree become a victim of its
own popularity... [E]ditors and copyists felt free to alter the text, to add new
stories and rewrite old ones, to combine material from various manuscripts, and
so on, in a way which would have been unthinkable in the case of a 'serious'
work, say on theology. For Kalilah wa Dimnah was generally (if not always)
considered to be a 'popular' work, a piece of entertainment, which one did not
need to approach respectfully. As a result, we cannot truly say that what we
possess today is Ibn-al Muqaffa's translation but rather a variety of Arabic texts
derived in one way or another from it (1990:3).
However, almost to prove our point, the implications of disrespect for the
'original' in the above argument are expressed in more positive terms in the
following observation on the Neo-Persian translation made (from the Arabic)
by Abu 1-Ma'ali Nasr Allah in the 12th century:
[This] version is a literary tour de force. The translator has stuffed it with
quotations from Arabic and Persian poems, from the Qur'an and Hadith, and so
on, which sounds rather quaint in the mouths of animals in the jungles of India.
In order to fit these quotations into the book, the translator has padded the prose
text, too, to a considerable extent. Nonetheless, the mixture of poetry and prose
makes [this] version stylistically more like the original Sanskrit Pancatantra than
most other versions of Kalilah wa Dimnah (de Blois 1990:5).
It is Nasr Allah's version that has served as source text for Kul Mesud's (14th
century) KD, which is among the very first translations into Old Anatolian
Turkish.5 The textual analysis on KD has established that Kul Mesud described
his text as a "translation" ("Türki'ye tercüme olundi"), a "turning into
Turkish" ("Türkce'ye dönderdüm");6 that in translating prose narrative, his
norms led him to a closer adherence to the source text than in rendering verse
4
The detailed descriptive analysis of Kul Mesud's KD, which formed part of the original
paper, had to be omitted for reasons of space in this volume. The full version of the
paper will appear in Turkish translation in the Journal of Turkish Studies, Hasibe
Mazioglu Festschrift, Harvard University.
5
The two existant copies of the translation are in the Süleymaniye Library (Laleli Section
1897), Istanbul and in the Bodleian Library (Marsh 180), Oxford.
6
Cf. Robinson (1991:134ff.) on the conception of translation as "turning".
Saliha Paker/Zehra Toska 83
units; that his consideration for the constraints of the popular poetic tradition
in Turkish as well as those of the Arabic/Persian metre, and his thematic
preferences, reflect a more flexible conception of verse translation; that the
textual designation "Turkish poem" for some verses is curious since it does not
serve to indicate whether the verse units are translations or the translator's own
compositions. While some of these "Turkish poems" are actually based on
those in the source text, if only thematically, others are not (Toska 1989:259).
In rendering the KD in Turkish, Kul Mesud's choice of Turkish
vocabulary in his prose and verse shows he took considerable care to produce
a text that would be accepted as functional by Umur Bey (c. 1309-c. 1347), the
young prince who commissioned it, and by his entourage. Umur Bey, prince
of Aydin on the Aegean coast, came from a line of princes known for their
patronage of the arts and especially of translations of books of canonical status
in Arabic and Persian culture. Including the KD, five translations were
dedicated to Umur Bey, Mehmed Bey, and Isa Bey (Toska 1989:236, 237). It
is also known that in neighbouring pre-Ottoman principalities such as the
Germiyan in the Kütahya region, north-east of Aydin, there was a similar
tradition of patronage. Zajacskowski has drawn attention to the cultural
interaction between the Aydin and Germiyan ruling nobility, remarking that the
"translation of the KD for the court of Aydin might have led to the translation
of another 'Book of Advice', the Marzuban-name, for Süleyman Shah" prince
of Germiyan and son-in-law of Umur Bey (Toska 1989:241). Like the KD, to
which it contains references, the Marzuban-name is a collection of beast fables,
translated by the poet Şeyhoglu from the Persian.
The linguistic constraint that such books of political/moral advice should
be read in Turkish not Persian, has ideological implications, and the patronage
of ruling kings and princes throws light on the linguistic expectations
underlying translations and on the link between language and ideology. The
pre-Ottoman principalities in western and central Anatolia were conscious of
their Turkoman identity and had political reasons for placing emphasis on
Turkish rather than Persian which flourished as the medium of literary writing
and the official language of the Seljuk Sultanate, then the most powerful state
in Anatolia.
We note the decree issued by Mehmed Bey, the ruling prince of Karaman,
when he set up his principality in Konya in 1277, whereby Turkish was to
replace Persian and Arabic in all forms of communication (Silay 1994:15).
What is primarily important about the Karaman prince's decree of the 13th
century is that in authorizing the use of Turkish, particularly of prose, in
official communication, it must have also provided impetus for translation
84 Translation as Intercultural Communication
activity of a much broader scope, which evidently found its way into other
principalities. A translator's dedication from the 15th century shows that royal
patrons still demanded translations that were accessible in Turkish. Mercümek
Ahmed, who translated the Kabus-name, another "mirror for princes", by King
Kay Ka'us ibn Iskender, explains that it was in response to the following
words by the Ottoman Sultan Murad II (1421-1451) that he translated the book:
"This is a very good book [with]...much advice and useful information in it.
However it is in Persian. Someone rendered it into Turkish but it is not clear.
He did not translate it into plain language" (Silay 1994:15f.).
Linguistic constraints operating in a certain period are no doubt important
in the study of literary translations but they cannot be considered independently
of poetic/stylistic norms or expectations dominant in the same period. To
examine both, a descriptive study of the rewrites in the 14th century will have
to move beyond the sphere of the individual translator to look for links
between his work/s and those of other poets/translators. This point seems to
be particularly relevant in placing Kul Mesud's translation in a certain context.
Nothing is known about Kul Mesud apart from the fact that he completed
the translation of KD for the prince of Aydin before 1334 (Toska 1989:237).
His name does not appear in any of the known biographies. However, another
Mesud, a well-known poet designated as Hoca (Master) Mesud, is known to
have written Süheyl ü Nevbahar (1350), one of the first "mesnevi" romances
in Turkish, and the Ferhengname-i Sadi (1354) a "book of advice" derived
from the Bostan by Sadi, the Persian poet. Both of these works have been
considered translations, although no source text has yet been established for
Süheyl ü Nevbahar which could, after all, have been a pseudo-translation.
A descriptive study on the works of Kul Mesud and Hoca Mesud primarily
as translators could reveal hitherto unnoticed affinities between their texts. In
this group could be included the verse translation of the AD, (known as the
Gotha manuscript) that dates from the 15th century, dedicated to Sultan Murad
I (1359-1389) by an anonymous translator who states his work was based on
a previous prose version, which H. Ethé established as Kul Mesud's KD
(Toska 1989:19f.). In view of the extensive studies on the Near Eastern
transmission and translations of the KD which any modern bibliography can
reveal, it seems necessary also to examine subsequent Ottoman-Turkish
versions which call for research within the field of modern translation studies.
The most important of these is the 16th century Hümayun-name by Ali b. Salih
Çelebi who translated it from Husayn Vaiz Kashifi's (d.1505) well-known
Anwar i Suhayli, having spent twenty years improving on the Persian source
text before finally dedicating it to Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent. As Toska
Saliha Paker/Zehra Toska 85
7
Lefevere (1992:11) quotes Steiner on the "complex system of systems" without reference
to the "polysystem theory". Lambert's (1995) detailed, and timely, critical survey (which
also provides an excellent bibliography) is extremely useful in drawing attention to the
discussion on polysystemic studies and their importance for research.
86 Translation as Intercultural Communication
fundamental components were taken over by Persian, Turkish and Urdu (each
belonging to a different language group), but not fully adapted ("not 'bent' to
'suit' each language") (1992:31; see also Silay 1994:34). Quoting Bombaci,
Lefevere points out that when Turkish "adapted itself to Arabic-Persian
metrical forms, it did violence to its own nature, since it is a language unsuited
to quantitative meters" (1992:31). While this argument can be accepted in
theoretical terms, it is certainly worth investigating how Ottoman poetry
developed and survived for over five hundred years in a language that "did
violence to its own nature". A question of considerable importance, it underlies
the problem of "literary diglossia" also mentioned by Lefevere (1992:17), and
recognized by all literary scholars; for it was not only the "aruz" metre and the
various genres that were adopted from the Persian system but also the
vocabulary conveying poetic images (see Silay 1994:31). Kul Mesud's
translations of Persian and Arabic verse are fairly simple examples of the ways
that could be found for adapting Turkish vocabulary to the metric requirements
of "aruz" in the 14th century. However limited it may have been, the
"movement for plain Turkish" ("Turki-i Basit") in the 15th century was an
attempt to avoid Persian/Arabic vocabulary in poetry (Silay 1994:16-19). To
what extent rewrites were prominent in this "movement" is a question that
should be looked into carefully, as the major area of investigation into the
process of lexical appropriations, primarily from Persian but also from Arabic,
is quite evidently that of rewrites.
Silay provides us with a highly illuminating modern experiment in
translating a Persian poem into Ottoman, as an example of "the easy
transaction between the Arabic, Persian and Ottoman poetic traditions"...
showing, "with minimal syntactic changes" ...the "possibility and
appropriateness of a direct and easy translation from Persian into Ottoman,
since the crucial element, the vocabulary is stunningly similar" (1994:33). But
should not the real focus of attention be on the existing translations of which
there seems to be such a large corpus, rather than probable versions? Silay
himself states that "While the current state of scholarly understanding of
Ottoman poetry is hardly adequate, on the basis of what has been done, we
know that the earliest works of medieval Ottoman poetry [13th-15th centuries]
are direct imitations of Iranian models" (1994:32). What is meant by
"imitation" in the Ottoman tradition, how it was perceived by the poet-
rewriters and early historians, the notion of"direct"ness, the nature and degree
of linguistic and literary appropriation, deviations from sources, all await
analytical description in order to help clarify the notion of literary dependency
on the Persian/Arabic systems.
Saliha Paker/Zehra Toska 87
References
De Blois, Francois. 1990. Burzoy's Voyage to India and the Origin of the Book of Kalilah wa
Dimnah. Prize Publication Fund Vol.XXIII. Royal Asiatic Society.
Grube, Ernst, J. 1991. (ed.) A Mirror for Princes from India. Bombay: Marg Publications.
Holbrook, Victoria Rowe. 1994. The Unreadable Shores of Love. Turkish Modernity and
Mystic Romance. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Lambert, José. 1995. "Translation, Systems and Research: The Contribution of Polysystem
Studies to Translation Studies". In: Yves Gambier (ed.), Orientations Europeennes en
Traductologie.TTR. VIII (1), 105-152.
Lefevere, André. 1992. Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame.
London/New York: Routledge.
Paker, Saliha. 1991. "The Age of Translation and Adaptation 1850-1914. Turkey". In: R.
Ostle (ed.) Modern Literature in the Near and Middle East 1850-1970. London/New
York: Routledge. 17-32.
Paker, Saliha. Forthcoming. "The Turkish Tradition". In: Mona Baker (ed.). Encyclopedia of
Translation Studies. London & New York: Routledge.
Robinson, Douglas. 1991. The Translator's Turn. Baltimore/London: John Hopkins University
Press.
Silay, Kemal. 1994. Nedim and the Poetics of the Ottoman Court. Medieval Inheritance and
the Need for Change. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Turkish Studies
Series: 13.
Toska, Zehra. 1989. Türk Edebiyatinda Kelile ve Dimne Çevirileri ve Kul Mesud'un Çevirisi.
Vol.1: Textual Analysis. Vol II: Modern Turkish Transcription of the Süleymaniye
Library Manuscript of Kul Mesud's Translation. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Forthcoming:
Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, Harvard University.
Toska, Zehra. 1991. "Kelile ve Dimne" nin Türkçe Çevirileri". In: G.Kut and G.A.Tekin
(eds.) Journal of Turkish Studies, 15, Fahir Iz Festschrift II, Harvard University, 355-
380.
Toury, Gideon. 1995. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond. Amsterdam/Philadelphia:
John Benjamins.
Translating plays or baking apple pies: A functional
approach to the study of drama translation
Sirkku Aaltonen
All people are designers, wrote Victor Papanek, and maintained that design
and planning underlie all human activity (1973:21). Whenever a particular goal
needs to be achieved, some design and planning become essential. This applies
to a whole range of different tasks, such as the writing of a novel, executing
a wall painting, and composing a concerto. It is also needed in the clearing and
cleaning of a drawer, extracting a decaying tooth, baking an apple pie and
raising children. Naturally design is involved in finding a suitable form for a
bridge or a bottle of vitamin pills. Papanek defined functionality in such a way
that it takes into account both aesthetic considerations and associations.
According to him (1973:25), although a product is designed to serve a
particular need, it also reflects the social and historical circumstances of its
creation and results from a particular combination of material and method of
working. Functionality, as Papanek understood it, has the dynamic dimensions
and inter-relationships of Method, Need, Telésis, Association, Aesthetics, and
Use. In a well-designed product, all these aspects are in good balance.
A translated theatre text, like any theatre text, can be analysed and studied
through these different dimensions of functionality. All these dimensions
influence the shape a translation takes when it is created, only the emphasis
given to different aspects varies. The different dimensions may overlap in the
translation work, but they can still be used to explain certain regularities and
features of translated play texts. In what follows, I shall apply the various
dimensions of functionality, as described by Papanek's (1973: 25-39), to the
analysis of drama translations.
Method
One of the dimensions of a translated play text is the Method which grows out
of the combination of the material which is available and the circumstances
where the translation work takes place. It involves the various relationships
between the source text, the translator, and the translation. One perspective the
Method offers for the study of drama translations is whether the receiving
polysystem perceives the translator as a mediator or creator, which is related
to a number of characteristics of the theatrical polysystem.
Sirkku Aaltonen 91
The copyrights
The variation between creation and mediation tends to be linked with the
medium of transmission in that borrowing or intersection are not acceptable
when a play text is published in printed form in the literary system, whereas
the use on stage, on TV or in film makes manipulation possible.
A particular Method may also grow out of the perception of the relationship
between a translation and its source text. The first steps of the Finnish national
theatre and drama translation offer several examples. One of the Finnish
theatre historians (Tiusanen 1969:59f.) mentions a play which was first
translated from German into French and then back into German, at which stage
the text had dropped the name of its German playwright from the credits.
French drama was translated into Swedish through German, and the same play
could arrive in Finland in different forms by different routes. This is still
possible, but in contemporary theatre both transformations and intersections are
credited to the playwright of the source text. For example, the Irish playwright
Sean O'Casey wrote his play Purple Dust in 1939-40, and it was translated
first into Finnish from English in 1966. In 1974, however, a new translation,
an intersection, of the play arrived which was based on a German translation
commissioned by the Berliner Ensemble. Both are regarded as translations of
the play which O'Casey wrote in the 1940s.
Sirkku Aaltonen 93
When theatre practitioners are asked to describe a "good" theatre text, their
immediate reaction is usually that "it must work". What they actually mean by
this is more diffiicult to establish. In my view, the use of a play text can be
viewed from two perspectives of which one is the compatibility of the play
with socio-cultural, generic and theatrical conventions and the other is the level
of the individual stages.
In order to be accepted by both the theatre practitioners and the audience,
texts can be expected to match the circumstances of their use in observing the
dramatic and performance conventions of the receiving system as well as the
competence of their audience of cultural, behavioural or ideological
conventions. In order to understand what is going on on stage, the audience
needs to be able to decode, if not all, at least a sufficient minimum of the signs
and sign systems within the text. In consequence, adjustments may be made in
the translation process in relation to the general cultural conventions covering
the language, manners, moral standards, rituals, tastes, ideologies, sense of
humour, superstitions, religious beliefs etc. There are also the specific
dramatic and performance conventions of a culture, society or Subculture as
well as the conventions of a specific dramatic Medium (TV, stage, radio) or
sub-genre (soap opera, comedy) which are followed.
The plays also need to meet the requirements of a particular theatre. The
fact that a play text is chosen for the repertoire results partly from its
suitability for the economic and human resources of the theatre, compatibility
with the repertoire and the assumed relevance for contemporary audience.
Adjustments may be necessary if only one setting is financially and technically
possible, if the number of actors is not sufficient for the play or if the
practitioners assume changes in the audience's reception of the play.
Need
Telésis
Associations
stereotypes which are recognisable within our Western culture. The third type
of naturalisation is made up of conventions of the genre. Fourthly, there may
be either an implicit or explicit indication that what we are receiving is not a
generic convention.The audience may be drawn into the play, either concretely
in a performance, or when it is being addressed directly by dramatic figures.
The fifth and last category of naturalisation is the complex claim of reality
related to recognisable intertextuality. A play or a film borrows an idea and
uses another known text as its material. Medieval mystery plays draw on Bible
narratives, and Kurosawa's film The Throne of Blood on Macbeth,
Aesthetics
References
Marta Mateo
different ways, since each production realizes what each producer can or wants
to read and see in the text.
The reception of translated texts in general and that of source language
performances have therefore some interesting points in common. In this paper
we shall study the factors which make up the situation in which both activities
interact, i.e. translated drama. But we shall first have to look at the elements
which shape audience response in theatre performances, both in a target and
in a source language context.
As opposed to other forms of presentation, a stage performance is live,
and this has some important consequences for the communication process
involved, which Törnqvist (1991:13) has summarised as the following:
1. A stage performance involves a two-way communication process: the actors
may respond to reactions from the audience.
2. A theatre visit is a social event: the reactions are those of a mass audience.
3. Every stage performance is unique, unrepeatable.
4. A stage performance is determined by the spatial facilities available.
5. The spatial limitation necessitates abundant use of proxemics and the
distance from stage to auditorium requires special kinesics and para-
linguistics.
6. A stage performance has a plurimedial and unrepeatable nature and it is
therefore difficult to notate.
These characteristics of stage performances affect the three types of interactive
relations that are established with the audience in a theatre: "audience-stage
interaction in the field of fiction, audience-actor interaction, and interaction in
the audience" (Passow 1981, in: Bennett 1990:162).
The audience's role in the theatre is a very active one. While in other
modes of presentation — such as a printed text, a film or a television program-
me — all that the reader/spectator can do is read, listen or watch since the
communication is one-way, the theatre audience interferes with what is being
presented on stage to such an extent as to determine the success or failure of
a production on the very night of the performance. Mackintosh (1993:2) talks
of the "sense of danger" that accompanies the shared experience of a drama
performance: "[a]nything might happen" and that distinguishes live theatre
from eg. the experience of cinema.
Audience-stage interaction is established according to the spectators'
cultural assumptions, horizon of expectations and theatrical conventions on the
one hand, and the direct experience of a production with its own internal
horizon of expectations, on the other (Bennett 1990:180). The spectators'
response to the fiction presented on stage will depend on multifold factors and
is already shaped before the performance proper begins: things such as the
Marta Mateo 101
play's title, familiarity with the drama text or with the playwright, the amount
of information that can be read in the programme before the performance
actually starts, the price of the ticket or such practical questions as how the
spectator travelled to the theatre or what day of the week it is, determine the
audience's reaction together with some more crucial factors such as performan-
ce time or, more importantly, performance place, and the verbal and non-
verbal signs on the stage. The spectators come to the show with some
preconceived ideas about it, and when the performance starts and proceeds they
test those hypotheses against the fictional world that is being offered to them.
This is done within the time constraints of the performance, which imply that,
unlike the reader, the spectator will have to ckeck or confirm his/her
expectations as the actors perform: their reception will be marked by a sense
of temporariness, since they cannot go back to a previous stage of the play.
The audience also interacts with the actors. A "good" performance from
the actors will — hopefully — provoke a positive attitude on the audience's
part and an appreciative audience will in turn encourage the actors. This
interaction may also be affected by other factors such as the area designated
for the accommodation of the audience — the percentage of seats occupied will
affect the quality of the performance (Bennett 1990:140) — and the audience's
familiarity with the actors, since the spectators will then have some expecta-
tions about them and will not only be aware of the actor's fictional part but
also of his/her actual work during the performance. We may sometimes extend
this interaction to the director and even to the playwright: the potential
audience of a performance will exert a feedback effect on the text and on the
production when they are being prepared, since both the playwright and the
director will have an audience in mind when creating their work; this effect
sometimes comes from the real audience, which provokes changes in the
director's decisions or in the text itself after a preview or even during a run.
As regards interaction in the audience, we must bear in mind that the
audience forms a group as a whole and that individual spectators normally
expect confirmation of their reaction to the play from the other spectators'
responses and will usually suppress a reaction which goes against the general
trend (Bennett 1990:164). Group responses will also be affected by the seating
area and the number of seats occupied, since "[t]he experience of the spectator
in a packed auditorium is different from that of one in a half-empty theatre"
(Bennett 1990:140), as well as by the fact that some responses such as laughter
and applause are very infectious. Meyerhold tried to develop a code for the
notation of audience reaction and, among the common responses, he noted the
following: silence, noise, loud noise, collective reading, singing, coughing,
102 Translation as Intercultural Communication
knocks, scuffling, exclamation, weeping, laughter, sighs, action and animation,
applause, whistling, catcalls, hisses, people leaving, people getting out of their
seats, throwing of objects and people getting onto stage (Stourac and McCreery
1986:20, in Bennett 1990:7).
The success of a drama performance depends on the skills of people
working on very different areas — play-writing, directing, stage-design,
acting, lighting, producing, music and sound, make-up, theatre management,
etc. — so that we may clearly state that performed drama is, with opera, a
particularly complex and plurimedial activity.
So far we have dealt with the reception of drama in general. We shall now
turn to the study of the implications that this may have for the transposition of
a source play to a target context. Since the text is only one of the elements of
the performance, the translator of plays for performance will have to base
his/her translation decisions on a very complex set of factors: the literary and
cultural dimension of the text together with the semiotic intricacy of the
production and the social characteristics of the target audience. We shall here
look at some of the extra-textual features that determine the reception of a
target text in performance and that therefore may play a key role in some of
the decisions taken during the translation process of a source play: the channel,
the theatre-building and the use of the stage.
The channel
channels: while the cinema director enjoys the power afforded him by the
editing camera, which enables him to select characters or things for the picture
at any moment, thus guiding the receptor's attention, "[o]n the stage one of the
challenges that faces a director, a writer and the actors is how to focus the
attention of the audience, how to bend the focus... when there are so many
other things to look at on the stage" (Pinter in: Törnqvist 1991:145). The
reading mode of reception coincides here with the listening mode: in both,
attention is usually just paid to speaking characters, while silent characters are
normally disregarded by readers and radio listeners. In a performance, how-
ever, the audience is always aware of all the characters on the stage, so that
their attention is not necessarily centred exclusively on the speaking characters.
An interesting example of the different effect that silent characters exert
on the audience in the various forms of presentation is provided by the opening
scene of Willy Russell's play Shirley Valentine (1986), which was made into
a film in 1989. While, on the stage, the audience immediately realizes that the
actress is talking to a wall, in the screen version, since this is something we
do not expect, we assume that there is someone else in the room whom Shirley
is talking to and who is not in picture at the moment. It is only after we have
heard Shirley say "Wall!" several times that we realize the wall is her
interlocutor, something we are aware of in the theatre from the moment the
curtain opens and she starts to speak. The translator may feel the need to give
a silent character from the source play some lines to speak in e.g. a target
radio version so as to make his/her presence felt. The change in the origin or
nature of some lines is sometimes due both to a new medium and to different
cultural conventions: in a 1967 Spanish TV version of Sheridan's The School
for Scandal, the characteristic 18th-century asides were either deleted or turned
into lines addressed to some other character in the play, in order to make them
fit in with the realism that the TV medium generally leans towards.
Stage directions are usually subject to some type of transformation in the
translating process, particularly if this is accompanied by a change in the
medium. The written stage direction of the drama text is usually converted into
props and into kinesic, proxemic or other non-verbal signs on the stage, but
it may sometimes be turned into an acting direction (an indication for the
actors) or even into a verbal sign to be uttered by a character — as in
Elizabethan plays. This may simply be due to directorial preferences but it is
often grounded on the facilities provided by the medium chosen for the target
text. As Törnqvist (1991:2) suggests, the polysemic range of the written text
is in a sense much wider than any performed version of it since we may
imagine various ways of realising a speech or a stage direction when we read
104 Translation as Intercultural Communication
it, whereas we only receive the director's and the actors' interpretation of the
playwright's instructions when we watch or listen to it. The director's and the
translator's decisions as regards non-verbal signs are frequently mediated by
the channel. An example is provided again by the 1967 Spanish TV version of
The School for Scandal, in which long and descriptive stage directions have
been inserted for the settings so as to help to visualize the play. Special
emphasis has also been given to the actors' movements and gestures, all of
which turns it into a very visual and performable version, although it has also
become rather inconsistent from the plot's point of view.
The emphasis on the visual component is particularly characteristic of
cinema versions, which tend to show more of the environments in which plays
take place and frequently transpose parts of the dialogue into visual images. A
very important difference between stage performances and screen versions in
general is that the former tend to show fewer settings and make use of
continuous space — we remain practically within the same locale in each
act/scene-, while screen versions present discontinuous space, showing a great
variety of settings, particularly in the case of cinema (Törnqvist 1991:19). A
case in point is Shirley Valentine, a two-set play in which the action takes place
within the limits of the kitchen walls in the first act and moves to a Greek
summer resort for the second act. The confinement to a single set per act is a
symbol of the claustrophobic and dull life that the heroine leads, particularly
in the first act. This unity of setting would obviously seem uninspiring for
cinema versions and has therefore been divided for the film into the different
places that Shirley mentions in the account that she gives to the wall of her
past and present life.
Similarly, the unity of time and a limited number of characters are factors
that will bear greatly on a director's decision to transpose a play into another
medium: while they both favour adaptation for the radio and TV, they will
discourage the transposition of a play into a cinema film, which normally asks
for discontinuous time — moving backwards and forwards —, a large number
of characters and extras and a greater reliance on the visual than on the verbal
component. This may seem to have little to do with translation proper but in
fact the choice of medium may form part of the preliminary norms of the
translation process, as it will determine which plays lend themselves to one
mode of presentation or to another and will therefore decide which plays to
translate at a given moment. In the era of the reign of audiovisual media, the
choice of medium may explain why certain plays become known in a foreign
culture, while others occupying a more central position in the source culture
cannot go across the border: their being limited to stage performances might
Marta Mateo 105
prevent them from becoming known in a target context for which a different
mode of presentation is usually chosen.
Duration or running-time may be another factor to consider when deciding
whether or not to translate and/or transpose a play, and indeed most TV and
film adaptations of plays — particularly the classics — entail considerable cuts
in the dialogue. Thus, of all the four Spanish versions of The School for
Scandal, it is the 1967 TV production that has the shortest duration. This has
been achieved by cutting lines, drastically reducing scenes, removing some
secondary characters and replacing verbal signs with gestures.
We must not, however, overstate the influence of the medium chosen on
presentation decisions, particularly as regards stage directions. The different
solutions to the various versions of a play do not seem to depend entirely on
the choice of medium and frequently appear to be related to directorial
preferences: as Törnqvist has shown (1991:180-1), most decisions on gestures
and movements come from the director, while cuts in the dialogue are closely
associated with the channel chosen — stage performances tending to retain
more of the text than screen productions, and TV versions retaining more than
film versions. However, there is frequent overlap between directorial and
media differences, there being diverse approaches within each medium and
some directors' visions lending themselves better to one medium than to
another.
The performance of a play at a different theatre from that for which it was first
conceived — both in terms of context and of the structure of the theatre —
may entail a completely different reception of the play. The translation
strategies for a drama text will therefore be partly determined by the cultural
location and the design of the theatre at which it will be performed.
Due to the close communication between addresser and addressee in the
theatre, plays are usually subject to alterations so as to fit the established
theatrical conventions and cultural expectations of the target audience. This and
the fact that spoken language changes more quickly than written explain why
there are often several translations of the same play, as every new generation
would ideally require a new translation with which to share a new experience.
The drama translator will have to confront the same type of cultural
differences that are present in most other translation activities. What sets
drama apart from other genres is that the communication between the receptor
106 Translation as Intercultural Communication
and the target text in the theatre implies a very complex process of shared
experience with an attached quality of immediacy. Receptors decode messages
in terms of their own experience and cultural expectations; in the case of
drama, their decoding and feedback reach the actors and director at the very
moment of the performance. This implies that the need to bridge the gap
between the two cultural systems involved will loom large in the mind of the
drama translator if the communication between the actors and the audience is
to succeed. Even so, a sense of danger will always be there.
An extreme case is provided by Fotheringham (1984:32-33), who recalls
a failed performance of The Legend of King O'Malley by Michael Boddy and
Robert Ellis in Australia. The performance was not a failure because of bad
acting or technical problems, but because of one teenage aboriginal girl sitting
three rows behind the fifty white people that formed the bulk of the audience
and to whom the play was clearly addressed. Social jokes about aborigines
were met with "an electrified silence" and proved that the play had been
written for the "white, urban, middle-class Australian". As Fotheringham
(1984:32) puts it, "the meaning of any play is modified by the structure of the
audience." This "structure" must sometimes be understood in more practical
terms than the cultural make-up of the audience, since it may be given by the
way the spectators are sitting in the theatre, which may easily determine their
response as a group:
In May 1989 RSC director Adrian Noble was reflecting upon his difficulties in
getting a laugh when directing Twelfth Night in Japanese at [a theatre] in Tokyo.
This theatre was new, it was well-equipped. At first he thought the reason why
the audience did not laugh was because in Japan laughter in public places is
thought impolite and therefore the audience had better hold their programmes up
to their faces and giggle quietly behind their fans. In a letter to this author he
recalled that he changed his mind when he realised that the problem lay
elsewhere: "The seats were very comfortable to sit in, but designed with a very
high back, so that one disappeared into the chair, as on an aircraft, and had no
sense of the surrounding audience at all. [...] [F]or a comedy like Twelfih Night,
[this] was very destructive, as it made it extremely difficult for the audience to
become welded into one group." (Mackintosh 1993:126-7)
It is therefore not only the context of the target theatre but also its structural
design that will determine audience reception and hence may influence
translation strategies. Each different type of playing space with its specific
stage-auditorium arrangement shapes the relationship established between
actors and audience, who are respectively provided with different acting
possibilities and theatrical expectations depending on their physical and
perceptual relationship.
Marta Mateo 107
1
I am grateful to Eva Espasa, from the University of Vich in Barcelona, for this
information. The translation used for this performance was made by Josep Maria de
Sagarra. 1980. Les alegres casades de Windsor. Barcelona: Bruguera - Publications de
l'Institut del Teatre.
2
"Less densely packed auditoriums dilute the response received by the performer"
(Mackintosh 1993:171).
108 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Something which varies from country to country and which is very rarely
remarked on is the viewpoint taken for stage-directions referring to space:
"right" and "left" may be interpreted either from the actor's or from the
spectator's position, and this is not usually specified by playwrights, probably
because each nation has its own conventions and there is no need to. But it
may create a problem for translators, who very often overlook this difference.
An exception is a translator of Strindberg into English, who turned the Swedish
playwright's indication for the entrance to the house in The Ghost Sonata —
"to the left upstage" — into English "at the rear, right" and explained the
change in the "Translator's Foreword": "For the purpose of conforming to the
American stage custom, I have reversed the author's directions — Right and
Left — to their opposites. Thus they are given here from the viewpoint of the
actor on the stage" (Arvid Paulson in: Törnqvist 1991:104).
This shows that translators must be as careful with stage directions as with the
dialogue, since they form part of the whole network of signifiers in the drama
text. The value each direction has for the words spoken by a character at a
given moment and the cultural differences that may be attached to a certain
gesture, movement or prop must be taken into account in the analysis prior to
translation decisions, even if these finally entail deleting the stage direction
altogether.
The cultural value that kinesic and proxemic signs may have is shown in
a Spanish translation of The School for Scandal published in 1868, in which
the adaptation to the target culture was not only done on the textual level but
was also present in the kinesic signs: the translator inserted many stage
directions which conveyed Spanish people's supposedly emotional expressive-
ness, including roars of laughter and some hugging and crying which were not
present in Sheridan's source text and which added to the acceptability of the
target text.
The translation process may be affected by the unavailability of props
referred to in the dialogue in the new theatre and by the different emphasis that
cultures lay on the visual and verbal systems in drama. But, thanks to the
complexity of the semiotics of drama, the translator is then afforded the
possibility of resorting to any type of sign — linguistic, kinesic, musical, etc.
— to solve a problem raised in a different sign-system (Mateo 1995:25-28).
Arnott explains that Greek verbal imagery can easily be translated into visual
Marta Mateo 109
3
In The Merry Wives of Windsor ed. by H.J. Oliver for The Arden Shakespeare, London:
Routledge, (1993/1971:83).
110 Translation as Intercultural Communication
other elements, and the starting point for the approach taken need not always
be the text. It may sometimes be a paralinguistic feature of the dialogue:
apparently Chekhov's plays are usually translated into English with a Southern
American accent since the rhetoric of the language of the warmer regions
seems to fit the feelings of his plays better; this decision about dialect is then
followed by the corresponding setting, cultural references and so on. At other
times, it is the question of costuming that sets the viewpoint taken for the other
aspects of the translation and production (Hollander 1959:227).
Finally, another performance element which may affect drama translation
concerns the theatrical institutions that commission the plays for production.
Bennett (1990:119) explains that the strong reliance on lighting, theatre size
and technical effects of some modern London theatres — such as the National
Theatre and the Royal Shakespeare Company's Barbican — has shaped the new
drama commissioned by these theatres, so that plays written specifically for
them have tended to be "epic" dramas with large casts and multiple scenes.
This may also determine the type of foreign plays chosen for translation and
production in those theatres, which shows that preliminary norms need not
always come from purely literary or cultural values but may derive from
practical factors such as a theatre's production facilities or more financially-
oriented factors, like the need to make a mainstream theatre venue profitable.
References
Arnott, Peter. 1961. "Greek Drama and the Modern Stage". In: W.R. Arrowsmith/R. Shattuck
(eds.) 1961. The Craft and Context of Translation: a Symposium. Austin: University of
Texas Press, 83-94.
Aston, Elaine/Savona, George. 1991. Theatre as Sign-System. A Semiotics of Text and
Performance. London: Routledge.
Bennett, Susan. 1990. Theatre Audiences: a Theory of Production and Reception. London:
Routledge.
Elam, Keir. 1993. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. London: Routledge.
Fotheringham, Richard. 1984. "The Last Translation: Stage to Audience". In: O. Zuber (ed.),
29-39.
Heylen, Romy. 1993. Translation, Poetics and the Stage. Six French Hamlets. London:
Routledge.
Hollander, John. 1959. "Versions, Interpretations, Performances". In: R. Brower (ed.) 1959.
On Translation. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 205-231.
Mackintosh, Iain. 1993. Architecture, Actor and Audience. London: Routledge.
Mateo, Marta. 1995. "Constraints and Possibilities of Performance Elements in Drama
Translation". Perspectives. Studies in Translatology 1, 21-33.
Pulvers, R. 1984. "Moving Others: the Translation of Drama". In: O. Zuber (ed.), 23-28.
Törnqvist, Egil. 1991. Transposing Drama. Studies in Representation. Basingstoke: Macmillan
Education.
Zuber, Ortrun. (ed.) 1984. Page to Stage: Theatre as Translation. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
From saint to sinner: The demonization of Oscar
Wilde's Salomé in Hedwig Lachmann's German
translation and in Richard Strauss' opera
Rainer Kohlmayer
For the history of the German reception of the play, it was not the original
French but rather the English version that was of primary importance — a fact
that had remained undiscovered until today. The French edition of the play
appeared in 1893 in book form, the English translation by Lord Alfred Douglas
with illustrations by Aubrey Beardsley came out in 1894. Wilde criticized this
translation heavily and most likely corrected parts of it (Ellmann 1987:379-
381). On the whole, the translation only rarely does justice to the musicality
of the original. Most noticeable is the archaic solemnity of intonation. Wilde's
French was the language of the day; the English translation, in contrast,
historicizes the work. It is not only the prophet Jochanaan who speaks using
the syntax of the Bible translation of 1611, the official King James version:
"The Lord hath come. The son of man hath come" (Wilde 1987:555) etc.,
which could be most easily justified, but also Salomé and Herod. For example,
after Salomé's dance the 'French' Herod turns to the dancer in easy
confidence: "Approchez, Salomé! [...] Ah! je paie bien les danseuses, moi.
114 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Toi, je te paierai bien. Je te donnerai tout ce que tu voudras. Que veux-tu,
dis?" (Wilde 1908:66). In English the passage is as follows: "Corne near,
Salomé [...]. Ah! I pay the dancers well. I will pay thee royally. I will give
thee whatsoever thy soul desireth. What wouldst thou have? Speak" (Wilde
1987:570).
"[T]hee", "royally", "thy soul" etc. is reminiscent of a fairy tale removed
from the present. This also applies to Salomé's manner of speaking. Her
everyday statement: "Viens ici. Tu a été l'ami de celui qui est mort, n'est-ce
pas?" (Wilde 1908:11) becomes solemn stage rhetoric in the English: "Come
hither, thou wert the friend of him who is dead, is it not so?" (Wilde
1987:573).
To Wilde himself, Beardsley's illustrations appeared to be
too Japanese, while my play is Byzantine. [...] My Salomé is a mystic, the sister
of Salammbo, a Sainte Thérèse who worships the moon; dear Aubrey's designs
are like the naughty scribbles a precocious schoolboy makes on the margins of
his copybook (Qtd. in Jullian 1969:218).
Beardsley's sketches had and have still today a strong influence on the stage
reception of Salomé. Salomé's costumes and posture are often designed in
imitation of Beardsley's drawings.
Apparently without Wilde's knowledge, the play was published in the June
1900 edition of the art magazine Wiener Rundschau under the title Salome.
Tragödie in einem Aufzug von Oscar Wilde (London). Deutsch von Hedwig
Lachmann. Mit Zeichnungen von Beardsley. This is the translation which set
a precedent for the whole German reception, including the opera by Strauss,
and was reprinted time and again. The place reference on the title page Oscar
Wilde (London) was probably intended to be a discret indication of the fact that
Lachmann's translation was based on the English version of the play. Later
editions omitted such allusions. The most recent Reclam edition (1990) asserts
explicitly and incorrectly: "Aus dem Französischen übersetzt von Hedwig
Lachmann."
Obviously, Lachmann followed the English text from beginning to end;
however, she must have used a partially corrected English version or the
French text as a reference, as several lexical errors in the English translation
were corrected.
Hedwig Lachmann (1865-1918) deserves the fame critics have bestowed
upon her since her translation appeared. Her text sounds like a powerful
German original; since it follows the English text rather closely, it is, on the
whole, rougher and more solemn than the French, but does not imitate the
archaizing, historicizing fairy-tale style of the English version. Lachmann
Rainer Kohlmayer 115
1
"I will not stay. I cannot stay. Why does the Tetrach look at me all the while with his
mole's eyes under his shaking eyelids? It is strange that the husband of my mother looks
at me like that. I know not what it means. In truth, yes I know it" (Wilde 1987:555).
Rainer Kohlmayer 111
2
"Let the war captains pierce her with their swords, let them crush her beneath their
shields" (Wilde 1987:565).
118 Translation as Intercultural Communication
3
In the book edition of her translation (1902) Lachmann changed the opening sentence
into: "Wie schön ist die Prinzessin Salome heute Nacht!". Richard Strauss' libretto of
1905 is based on Lachmann's text as published in 1902.
120 Translation as Intercultural Communication
root syllable stress of the individual words be respected. Hence, he wrote to
Romain Rolland concerning the composition of Salomé:
Im 4/4 ist jedes erste und dritte Viertel fast stets notwendig ein Accent, dem nur
die Wurzelsilbe jedes Wortes anvertraut werden kann. Seit Wagner natürlich!
Vorher nahm man es nicht so genau, wenn nur die Melodie schön war (Qtd. in
King et al. 1991:79).
Lachmann's interpretation was heightened and transformed by Strauss into a
monumental world of sound by an orchestra consisting of more than one
hundred musicians, a work which suggestively evokes the "mental underworld"
(Schmidgall 1977:281) of the main characters. Jochanaan, however, whom
Strauss despised (Del Mar 1962/1:250), must make do without a subconscious.
Alfred Kerr's ridicule that, in Strauss, Jochanaan had become "fast ein
Kreuzritter mit Marschmotiv; ein Gottesmann in B-Dur, ein deutscher
Jochanaan; im Kern ein blonder Prophet" (Kerr 1954:271) must be passed on
to Hedwig Lachmann, who had paved the way for Jochanaan's musical
sanctification.
Through his condensing of the text, musical commentary and symphonic
interludes (Mahling 1991:9If), Strauss focused attention even more on
Salomé's wildness as a femme fatale than Lachmann had. For example,
Salomé's first — 'childlike' — monologue is truncated to a few seconds, while
the pause before her first meeting with Jochanaan or her rising thoughts of
revenge after Jochanaan's maledictions are expounded upon with strikingly
forceful music.
Six months after the Dresden premiere, Strauss began working on a
French version of his opera. He did not, however, wish to have his libretto
translated, but preferred to replace Lachmann's text with Wilde's French
original, naively assuming that Hedwig Lachmann's "literal" translation would
be a quantité négligeable that had not left any traces on his musical
interpretation. His correspondence with Romain Rolland on this topic is not
without a comic element; for example, Strauss criticizes Debussy's post-
Wagnerian score of Pelléas, which Rolland had recommended to him as an aid
in learning the technique of French phrasing, because of its lack of agreement
between the word stress and musical accent (Strauss/Rolland 1951:44). For
these comments, he is in turn rebuked by Rolland: "Vous êtes trop orgueilleux
en ce moment, en Allemagne. Vous croyez tout comprendre, et vous ne vous
donnez aucune peine pour comprendre. Tant pis pour vous, si vous ne nous
comprenez pas!" (Strauss/Rolland 1951:47).
Strauss was willing to learn, and let Romain Rolland teach him the
differences between German and French stress and phrasing. After three
Rainer Kohlmayer 121
months of hard work, he had adapted all of the phrasing of the voice lines to
Wilde's French text, and Romain Rolland corrected the score for him. The
changes in the composition that, for example, were necessary to transform
sentences such as "Wie schön ist die Prinzessin Salome heute nacht! " back into
"Comme la princesse Salomé est belle ce soir!" were considerable.
Strauss' 'original version' in French, however, was not able to establish
itself. In 1909, he had Lachmann's text translated back into the French.
Singers performing internationally then only had to relearn the French text and
not the whole voice part. It was only in 1989/90 that Strauss' and Rolland's
French version was taken out of the drawer and performed at the Opéra de
Lyon. The most recent French production at the Opéra de Paris-Bastille in the
spring of 1994, however, uses Lachmann's German text once again.
In summary, it can be stated that Hedwig Lachmann played a decisive role
in the reception of Salomé in German by transforming Wilde's French
symbolist-impressionist "piece of music" (Wilde 1987:922) into a pre-
expressionist drama.
References
Becker, Marie Luise. 1901/02. "Salome in der Kunst des letzten Jahrtausends". Bühne und
Welt 4, 157-165, 201-208.
Block, Paul. 1902. "'Salome* und 'Bunbury'. Zwei Werke von Oskar Wilde im Kleinen
Theater". Berliner Tageblatt 16.11.1902.
Del Mar, Norman. 1962. Richard Strauss. A Critical Commentary on His Life and Works.
Vol. I. London.
Ellmann, Richard. 1987. Oscar Wilde. London: Hamish Hamilton.
Jaron, Norbert et al. 1986. Berlin — Theater der Jahrhundertwende. Bühnengeschichte der
Reichshauptstadt im Spiegel der Kritik (1889-1914). Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Jullian, Philippe. 1969. Oscar Wilde. London: Constable.
Kafitz, Dieter (ed.) 1991. Drama und Theater der Jahrhundertwende (Mainzer Forschungen
zu Drama und Theater 5). Tübingen: Francke.
Kerr, Alfred. 1954. Die Welt im Drama. Köln, Berlin: Kiepenheuer & Witsch.
King, Julia et al. 1991. Salomé. Booklet for the First Recording of the French Version by
Richard Strauss Using Oscar Wilde's Original Text. Mainz: B. Schott's Söhne.
Lachmann, Hedwig. 1905. Oscar Wilde. Berlin, Leipzig: Schuster und Loeffler.
Mahling, Christoph-Hellmut. 1991. "'Tönendes Schweigen' und Ausdruckstanz. Bemerkungen
zu zwei Komponenten des Musiktheaters der Jahrhundertwende". In: D. Kafitz (ed.), 87-
99.
Schmidgall, Gary. 1977. Literature as Opera. New York: Oxford University Press.
Schmidt, Conrad. 1902. "Theater". Vorwärts 18.11.1902.
Strauss, Richard. 1905. Salome. Drama in einem Aufzuge nach Oskar Wilde's gleichnamiger
Dichtung in deutscher Übersetzung von Hedwig Lachmann. Musik von Richard Strauss.
Berlin: Adolph Fürstner.
Strauss, Richard et Romain Rolland. 1951. Correspondances. Fragments de Journal. Paris:
Éditions Albin Michel.
122 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Wilde, Oscar. 1900. Salome. Tragödie in einem Aufzug. Deutsch von Hedwig Lachmann. Mit
Zeichnungen von Beardsley. Wiener Rundschau 4 (12), 189-212.
Wilde, Oscar. 1902. Salome. Tragödie in einem Akt. Übertragung von Hedwig Lachmann.
Leipzig: Insel-Bücherei.
Wilde, Oscar. 1908. Salomé. A Florentine Tragedy. Vera. London: Methuen.
Wilde, Oscar. 1987. Complete Works. With an Introduction by Vyvyan Holland. London and
Glasgow: Collins.
Wilde, Oscar. 1990. Salome. Tragödie in einem Akt. Mit Illustrationen von Aubrey Beardsley.
Aus dem Französischen übersetzt von Hedwig Lachmann. Nachwort von Ulrich
Karthaus. Stuttgart: Reclam Universalbibliothek.
Translation as a process of power: Aspects of cultural
anthropology in translation
Michaela Wolf
as translation studies are concerned, it was recognised at a very early stage that
there were common issues with anthropology (see Nida 1945; Göhring 1978).
The real breakthrough, however, did not occur until it was understood that
translation is an act of culture-specific communication (Vermeer 1986), and
that ethnography, as textualization of oral discourses, is a social act, addressing
the "dialectical reformulating of the 'other'" (Ulin 1991:69).
Thus, "translating between cultures", in ethnography as well as in
translation, means interaction, intercultural activity. This paper will concentrate
on the kinds of activity which refer to the transfer between "Third" and "First
World". The basis for discussion in the translatological context will be texts
which refer to literary and political contents (without specific examples), as in
these fields the asymmetries of the transfer become specially visible (cf. Wolf
1995).
The discussion on asymmetrical power relations in the "translation
between cultures" is made evident in a series of publications in translation
studies as well as in ethnography — mainly in a colonial or post-colonial
context. Power as a social principle of development and integration, as it is
understood by Michel Foucault (1972; 1976), will serve as a basis for
demonstrating these asymmetries.
1
At a later stage, Foucault relativizes his hypothesis of repression, pointing out the
manifold mechanisms of power (cf. Foucault 1976:125).
Michaela Wolf 125
2
In another article, Tyler goes even further by saying: "Because the text can eliminate
neither ambiguity nor the subjectivity of its authors and readers, it is bound to be
misread, so much so that we might conclude (...) that the meaning of the text is the
sum of its misreadings" (Tyler 1986:135).
128 Translation as Intercultural Communication
3
Following Althusser, Venuti defines as follows: "ideology, a term I shall define
generally as an ensemble of social representations, values and beliefs that are realised
in lived experience and in the last instance serve the interests of a definite class"
(Venuti 1986:186).
130 Translation as Intercultural Communication
What does this mean for representation in ethnography and translation? What
are the approaches in the two disciplines that deal with these problem sets?
What is the potential for co-operation provided that common scientific
questions can be raised? An answer to all these questions, in the framework of
this paper, can only be fragmentary and limited to a few aspects.
In the context of post-structuralism we will recognise that in the
discussion of representation, the status of an ethnographic text is being
increasingly questioned. Classical concepts like text, author or meaning are
challenged. More attention is being paid to the construction of knowledge in
the writing process. In translation studies, the principle of mimesis was
abandoned long ago, and Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida or Jean-François
Lyotard are being increasingly used as models (cf. Arrojo 1992; Niranjana
1992; Hirsch 1995; Tyler 1986:137).
As far as text production is concerned, we see models in ethnography
and translation studies which are amazingly similar to one another. Post-
modern ethnography prefers discourse to text, dialogue to monologue.
Ethnography is now supposed to be the result of the collaboration of all
partners. The discourse to be produced should be the result of a reciprocal,
joint, dialogic process. Ideally, the product is supposed to be a "polyphonic
text". Holz-Mänttäri (1986), from the field of translation studies, believes that
the translator, in the ideal case, should contact the initiator (the one who
commissioned the translation) and the target public in order to specify the
translation project. The production of text is therefore no longer — always
ideally speaking — the sole decision of the translator/ethnographer (this is true
for both even if the former works with the author of a text and the latter
cooperates with the informant), but evolves as a joint project with the active
participation of all partners.
Here we can locate a common domain of activity, where
interdisciplinary collaboration could bring fruitful results for both partners,
with special regards to the methodological elaboration or differentiation of
discourses inspired by Western thought and to the elaboration of endogenous
cultural discourses. If we take into consideration that — still in the context of
Michaela Wolf 131
4
In the context of the production of postcolonial literature in Arabic countries, Mehrez
says: "It was crucial for the postcolonial text to challenge both its own indigenous,
conventional models as well as the dominant structures and institutions of the coloniser
in a newly forged language that would accomplish this double movement. Indeed, the
ultimate goal of such literature was to subvert hierarchies by bringing together the
'dominant' and the 'underdeveloped', by exploding and confounding different
symbolic worlds and separate systems of signification in order to create a mutual
interdependence and intersignification" (Mehrez 1992:122).
132 Translation as Intercultural Communication
References
Ammann, Margaret. 1990. "Fachkraft oder Mädchen für alles? Funktion und Rolle des
Translators als Dolmetscher und Begleiter ausländischer Delegationen". In: H J .
Vermeer (ed.), 15-30.
Arrojo, Rosemary. 1992. Oficina de tradução. A teoria na prâtica. São Paulo: Editora Ática.
Asad, Talal. 1986. "The Concept of Cultural Translation in British Social Anthropology". In:
J. Clifford and G.E. Marcus (eds.), 141-164.
Barthes, Roland. 1984. Le bruissement de la langue. Paris: Seuil.
Berg, Eberhard and Fuchs, Martin (eds.) 1993. Kultur, soziale Praxis, Text. Die Krise der
ethnographischen Repräsentation. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp.
Clifford, James and Marcus, George E. (eds.) 1986. Writing culture. The Poetics and Politics
of Ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Dreyfus, Hubert L. and Rabinow, Paul. 1987. Michel Foucault. Jenseits von Strukturalismus
und Hermeneutik. Frankfurt/Main: Athenäum.
Foucault, Michel. 1972. L'ordre du discours. Paris: Gallimard.
Foucault, Michel. 1976. Histoire de la sexualité, I: La volonté de savoir. Paris: Gallimard.
Geertz, Clifford. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.
Göhring, Heinz. 1978. "Interkulturelle Kommunikation, Die Überwindung der Trennung von
Fremdsprachen- und Landeskundeunterricht durch einen integrierten Fremdverhaltens-
unterricht". In: W. Kühlwein and A. Raasch (eds.), 9-14.
Hatim, Basil and Mason, Ian. 1994. Discourse and the Translator. London: Longman.
Hirsch, Alfred. 1995. Der Dialog der Sprachen. Studien zum Sprach- und Übersetzungsdenken
Walter Benjamins und Jacques Derridas. München: Fink.
Holz-Mänttäri, Justa. 1986. "Translatorisches Handeln — theoretisch fundierte Berufsprofile".
In: M. Snell-Hornby (ed.), 348-374.
Koskinen, Kaisa. 1994. "(Mis)translating the Untranslatable — the Impact of Deconstruction
and Post-Structuralism on Translation Theory". Meta 39 (3), 446-452.
Kühlwein, Wolfgang and Raasch, Albert (eds.). 1978. Kongreßberichte der 8. Jahrestagung
der Gesellschaft für Angewandte Linguistik GAL. Stuttgart: Hochschul verlag.
Lefevere, André. 1992. Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame.
London: Routledge.
Mehrez, Samia. 1992. "Translation and the Postcolonial Experience: the Francophone North
African Text". In: L. Venuti (ed.), 120-138
Nida, Eugene. 1945. "Linguistics and Ethnology in Translation-Problems". In: Word 1, 194-
208.
Michaela Wolf 133
Niranjana, Tejaswini. 1992. Siting Translation. History, Post-Structuralism, and the Colonial
Context. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1986. "Übersetzen, Sprache, Kultur". In: M. Snell-Hornby (ed.), 9-29.
Snell-Hornby, Mary (ed.) 1986. Übersetzungswissenschaft — Eine Neuorientierung. Zur
Integrierung von Theorie und Praxis. Tübingen: Francke.
Todorov, Tzvetan. 1982. The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other. New York:
Harper and Row.
Tyler, Stephen. 1986. "Post-Modern Ethnography: From Document of the Occult to Occult
Document". In: J. Clifford and G.E. Marcus (eds.), 122-140.
Tyler, Stephen. 1993. "Zum 'Be-/Abschreiben' als 'Sprechen fur'. Ein Kommentar". In: E.
Berg and M. Fuchs (eds.), 288-296.
Ulin, Robert C. 1991. "Critical Anthropology Twenty Years Later. Modernism and
Postmodernism in Anthropology". Critique of Anthropology 11 (1), 63-89.
Venuti, Lawrence. 1986. "The Translator's Invisibility". Criticism 28, 179-212.
Venuti, Lawrence. 1991. "Genealogies of Translation Theory". Traduction, Terminologie,
Rédaction TTR 4 (2), 125-150.
Venuti, Lawrence (ed.) 1992. Rethinking Translation. Discourse, Subjectivity, Ideology.
London: Routledge.
Vermeer, Hans J. 1986. "Übersetzen als kultureller Transfer". In: M. Snell-Hornby (ed.), 30-
53.
Vermeer, Hans J. (ed.) 1990. Kulturspezifik des translatorischen Handelns. Vorträge anläßlich
der GAL-Tagung 1989. Heidelberg: Universität Heidelberg.
Wolf, Michaela. 1995. "Interkultureller Transfer in entwicklungspolitischen Texten.
Überlegungen zu einer bewußtseinsorientierten Translation". TextConText 10 (1), 5-
23.
Astérix — Vom Gallier zum Tschetnikjäger:
Zur Problematik von Massenkommunikation und
übersetzerischer Ethik
1
Zu den wenigen Arbeiten können Spillner (1980), Hartmann (1982), Grassegger (1985)
und Schwarz (1989) gezählt werden.
136 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Gerade aufgrund der semiotischen Komplexität sowie der massenmedialen
Verbreitung, die aus Comics einen festen Bestandteil der Alltagskommunika-
tion machen, ergeben sich für den Übersetzer eine Reihe von Anforderungen,
die eine eingehendere Beschäftigung lohnenswert erscheinen lassen.
Übersetzungstechnische Kompetenz
der dem zielsprachlichen Text zur Verfügung stehende Raum begrenzt ist"
(1985:11). Daß gerade diese Teilkompetenz, die zur Lösung von, was den
kognitiven Aufwand betrifft, einfachen Problemen dient, so stark betont wird,
ist wohl auch Ausdruck einer gewissen Geringschätzung der Comics-Sprache,
die von einer literarisch-ästhetischen Position heraus zumeist als "Pängsprache"
kritisiert wird. Ohne eine Wertung vornehmen zu wollen, kann sicherlich
festgestellt werden, daß sich die Sprache der Comics von anderen literarischen
Textsorten wesentlich unterscheidet, wodurch vom Übersetzer eine auf Comics
ausgerichtete textsortenspezifische Sprachkompetenz verlangt wird.
Textsortenspezifische Sprachkompetenz
2
Hünig unterscheidet insgesamt 7 Kategorien sprachlicher Erscheinungen, die jeweils
unterschiedliche Funktionen erfüllen können: gesprochen dargestellte Sprache, gedacht
dargestellte Sprache, sprachliche Imitation von Geräuschen, Kommentare des Erzählers,
Etikette wie z.B. Plakataufschriften im Bild, Textbegrenzungsanzeiger und Editorials
(vgl. 1974:221).
3
Eine der wenigen Ausnahmen stellt Schopp (1994) dar.
138 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Gestaltung und auch ihr Einsatz sind dabei kulturspezifisch. In der Übersetzung
werden diese Zeichen z.T. im Original belassen, was besonders bei Abenteuer-
und Science Fiction-Comics aus dem englischsprachigen Raum der Fall ist,
z.T. werden sie auch gemäß den zielkulturellen Konventionen vertextet, etwa
bei Comics aus dem franko-belgischen Raum aber auch bei den sogenannten
Funny-Comics wie Donald Duck und Micky Maus. Damit wird auch hier
wieder deutlich, daß der Übersetzer nicht immer nur allein für die Wiedergabe
des sprachlich Gemeinten verantwortlich ist, sondern auch darüber hinaus auch
für die in das Bild integrierte "visualisierte Akustik" (Müller, 1979:191).
Semiotische Kompetenz
Der bildliche Text im Comic erfüllt laut Oomen (1975:257) drei wichtige
Funktionen: "er bettet die Sprache in die Situation ein, er läßt die Sprach-
abläufe zum Handlungsspiel werden und er kommentiert die Abläufe." Mit
anderen Worten: Das bildhafte Element liefert über den verbalen Text hinaus
Informationen, die den sprachlichen Teil ergänzen, fortführen, widersprechen
oder bestätigen können. Dadurch wird dem Leser ein Teil der Visualisie-
rungsarbeit abgenommen. In seiner Verwendung und seinen Funktionen können
dabei sowohl Parallelen zum Film als auch zum Theater festgestellt werden.
Ähnlich wie im Film kann durch Strukturierung des bildlichen Teils, wie etwa
die Perspektivierung, Reduzierung auf das Wesentliche etc. die Interpretation
gesteuert und in eine bestimmte Richtung gelenkt werden. Gleichzeitig können
durch visuelle Zeichen das Äußere bzw. die emotionale und geistige Ver-
fassung der einzelnen Figuren charakterisiert werden. Sie können auch den
situativen Raum, in dem die Handlung abläuft, mehr oder weniger detailliert
gestalten.
Sowohl die personenbezogenen als auch die raumbezogenen Zeichen
können dabei kulturell determiniert sein. Werden diese kulturspezifisch
geprägten visuellen Elemente, wie es heutzutage oft gemacht wird, in der
Übersetzung übernommen, so erkennt der Zielleser zumeist lediglich die
graphische Darstellung. Die Information, die dem Ausgangsrezipienten
aufgrund seines soziokulturellen Erfahrungshintergrundes darüber hinaus
vermittelt wird, geht jedoch verloren. Bildliche Zeichen, die auf soziokulturelle
Inhalte hinweisen und somit mehr bedeuten als sie konkret darstellen, sind
gerade in Astérix häufig zu finden. Durch topographische, politische, kulturelle
und historische Anspielungen wird immer wieder das soziokulturelle Wissen
Mira Kadric/Klaus Kaindl 139
der Leserschaft gefordert,4 ein Wissen, über das der Leser der Übersetzung
aufgrund seines anderen kulturellen Erfahrungshintergrundes allerdings nicht
verfügt.
Ethische Kompetenz
Die hier genannten übersetzerischen Teilkompetenzen ergeben sich alle aus der
spezifischen Textgestalt des Comics. Gerade bei Comics als Medium der
Massenkommunikation spielt jedoch auch, wie wir zeigen wollen, die ethische
Kompetenz des Übersetzers eine wesentliche Rolle.
Ein wesentliches Kriterium für den Erfolg von Comics stellt das
Identifikationsmoment des Lesers mit der erzählten Geschichte dar. Guttmann
stellt dazu fest, daß "Massenzuspruch, gemeinhin Erfolg, von Comics graduell
auf der intensiven affektiven Bindung des Lesers, auf der Involvierung des
Rezipienten mit dem Comic-Geschehen beruht" (1984:35). Diese affektive
Identifikation wird für den Comicsleser durch die Darstellung der Inhalte und
Figuren in Form von Stereotypen und Klischees erleichtert. Dabei kann die
Wirkungsmöglichkeit allerdings nicht auf den rein ästhetischen Bereich
eingeschränkt werden, da es ein wesentliches Charakteristikum von Massen-
kommunikationsmedien ist, "die Ängste, psychischen Widersprüche, un-
eingestandenen Hoffnungen, [...] Allmachtswünsche und Ohnmachtserfahrun-
gen, Aggressionsbedürfnisse und Verzweiflungsgefühle" des Alltagslebens
darzustellen (Doetinchem/Hartung 1974:147). Daraus folgt, daß Mittel der
Massenkommunikation auch ideologische, politische und religiöse Werte
vermitteln bzw. den Leser in diesen Bereichen beeinflussen können. Für
Guttmann ergibt sich daraus ganz allgemein bei der Beschäftigung mit Comics
als Massenmedium auch eine "ethische Problemstellung" (1984:6). Eine solche
ist natürlich auch bei der Übersetzung vorhanden, wird allerdings unseres
Wissens nirgends systematisch thematisiert.
Eine Theoretisierung der Übersetzung sollte jedoch auch den ethischen
Aspekt translatorischen Handelns berücksichtigen, denn ethisches Verhalten ist
nicht nur privater Natur, sondern bedarf auch der theoretischen Begründung.
Dabei sind unseres Erachtens drei Aspekte zu unterscheiden.
1. Das berufliche Ethos: Dieses wird zumeist in den verschiedenen
Berufsverbänden thematisiert und betrifft einerseits die Verantwortung des
Übersetzers für die bestmögliche Arbeit, andererseits beinhalten diese Kodizes
auch Verhaltensnormen in Hinblick auf eigene Interessen des Übersetzers (wie
4
Zahlreiche Beispiele hierfür finden sich in Stoll (1974).
140 Translation as Intercultural Communication
etwa Kostenfragen) und auf Interessen von Kollegen (z.B. Werbeverbot).
2. Die retrospektive Ethik: Diesen Aspekt findet man in der Debatte um
die Treue gegenüber dem Autor des Originals wieder. Dieses Verantwortungs-
bewußtsein des Übersetzers ist somit nach rückwärts gerichtet, es geht darum,
die Intentionen des AT-Produzenten zu wahren, nicht jedoch um die Frage,
welche Auswirkungen eine Übersetzung in einer Zielkultur haben kann. Gerade
letzterer Aspekt scheint uns jedoch für übersetzerische Entscheidungen
besonders bedeutsam und wesentlicher als die beiden bisher genannten.
3. Die prospektive Ethik: Hier geht es um die Verantwortlichkeit des
Übersetzers gegenüber den Folgen seiner Übersetzung. Übersetzen als
translatorisches Handeln impliziert somit auch die Bereitschaft, gegebenenfalls
universalmoralische Verantwortung für die Folgen seiner Handlungen zu über-
nehmen. Dazu bedürfte es jedoch einer umfassenden Ethikkonzeption, die
bisher im Bereich des Übersetzens noch fehlt,5 sodaß der Übersetzer lediglich
sein eigenes Gewissen als moralische Instanz befragen kann. Wie notwendig
eine Einbindung ethischer Fragestellungen in die übersetzungswissenschaftliche
Debatte ist, soll anhand einer kroatischen Übersetzung der Comicsserie Astérix
aufgezeigt werden.
Als Astérix 1959 in Frankreich auf den Markt kam, war das Alltagsleben vom
konservativen Geist de Gaulles geprägt. Diese Situation wird von den beiden
Autoren Goscinny und Uderzo auf satirisch-burleske Weise dargestellt. Die
verschiedenen Lebensbereiche, die in Astérix behandelt werden und von "Krieg
und Militär" über "Häusliche Beziehungen" bis zu "Kriminelles" und "Fremde
Länder" reichen (vgl. Guttmann, 1984:125f), werden mittels Sprachparodien,
Anachronismen in der bildlichen und sprachlichen Darstellung sowie der
parodistischen Darstellung von Klischeevorstellungen und Stereotypen
dargestellt.
Wenn nun in Zusammenhang mit Astérix von Ideologie zu sprechen ist,
so ist dieser Begriff hier nicht in politischem Sinne zu verstehen, sondern
meint eine Reihe von "Einstellungen, Haltungen und Wertungen, die [...] als
Anschauungsmodelle von einer großen Anzahl von Personen geteilt werden"
5
Dieses Manko einer prospektiven Ethik wird besonders deutlich, wenn etwa Vermeer die
Hauptaufgabe des Übersetzers darin sieht, "to promote the achievement of the skopos"
(1994:11), bei den ethischen Implikationen dabei jedoch vor allem den Berufsethos, d.h.
Bezahlung und Arbeitsbedingungen (vgl. 1994:13), thematisiert.
Mira Kadric/Klaus Kaindl 141
(Fisch 1979:73). Obwohl es das erklärte Ziel der Autoren war, ihr Publikum
zu unterhalten und nicht in irgendeiner Form zu beeinflussen, war es klar, daß
diese satirische Darstellung des französischen Ideensystems sehr wohl auch
politisch instrumentalisiert werden könnte.
Ein solcher Fall von (rechts)ideologischen Manipulation fand kürzlich in
Kroatien statt. Dabei ging es darum, die affektive Identifikation des Lesers mit
der Comics-Handlung für politisch motivierte Ziele auszunützen.
Bis zum Zerfall Jugoslawiens gab es für den ganzen serbokroatischen
Sprachraum (Bosnien, Kroatien, Montenegro, Serbien) eine einheitliche
Ausgabe der Comicserie Astérix. Nach der Unabhängigkeitserklärung Kroatiens
wurde diese "jugoslawische" Version durch eine kroatisierte Fassung ersetzt,
die als das "Unternehmen des Jahres des kroatischen Verlagswesens" im
kroatischen Fernsehen vorgestellt und gepriesen wurde.
Der neue Astérix ist dem "Heimatkrieg"6 angepaßt. Die Anspielungen auf
den Heimatkrieg werden zwar nicht durchgehend und konsequent gemacht,
dennoch wird versucht, den Leser durch gezielte kulturelle, sprachliche und
politische Anspielungen in seinen negativen Gefühlen gegenüber den Serben
bzw. seiner nationalistischen Einstellung zu bestärken.
Im französischen Original wird erzählt, wie die Römer versuchen, hinter
das Geheimnis der Zauberkräfte der Gallier zu kommen. Dazu entsenden sie
einen Spion in das gallische Dorf; dieser wird zwar entlarvt, kann aber
entkommen und den Römern von dem geheimnisvollen Zaubertrank des
Druiden erzählen. Daraufhin wird der Druide und in der Folge auch Astérix,
der gerade keinen Zaubertrank zu sich genommen hat, gefangen genommen.
Statt des gewünschten kräfteverleihenden Mittels braut der Druide für die
Römer jedoch ein schnellwirkendes Haarwuchsmittel. Der Lagerkommandant
verspricht ihnen die Freiheit, wenn sie ein Gegenmittel herstellen. Den beiden
Galliern gelingt es, die Römer zu übertölpeln und der gerade eintreffende
Julius Caesar kann nicht anders, als ihnen die Freiheit geben.
Die bildhaften Elemente wurden in der Übersetzung generell nicht
verändert. So stellt die Eröffnungslandkarte weiterhin Frankreich dar und auch
die kroatische Episode Asterix Gal beginnt wie gewöhnlich mit der Be-
schreibung des gallischen Dorfes. In sprachlicher Hinsicht werden jedoch
zahlreiche ideologische Manipulationen vorgenommen, von denen hier einige
beschrieben werden sollen.
Um die geheimnisvollen Kräfte der Galliern zu bekommen, entscheiden
sich die Römer, einen Krieger als Gallier zu verkleiden und ihn als Spion
6
So wird der jugoslawische Bürgerkrieg in Kroatien genannt.
142 Translation as Intercultural Communication
einzusetzen. Er wird in Ketten gelegt und in die Nähe des gallischen Dorfes
gebracht, damit die Gallier ihn "befreien". Astérix tut dies mit dem Ausruf:
F: "Par Toutatis, on y va"! (Goscinny/Uderzo, 1961:13)
K: "Za dom i slobodu" (Goscinny/Uderzo, 1992:13)
["Für die Heimat und die Freiheit"]
Der Schlachtruf "Za dorn" wurde während des unter Hitlers Protektion
ausgerufenen "Unabhängigen Staates Kroatien" von der Ustascha, dem
kroatischen Pendant zur Waffen-SS, verwendet und entsprach dem deutschen
"Heil Hitler". Dieser Gruß wurde im Balkankrieg von den rechtsextremen
Kroaten wieder verwendet. Obwohl dieser Gruß in der Astérix-Übersetzung den
Zusatz "...i slobodu", also "... und die Freiheit" erhält, weiß jeder kroatische
Leser, daß dies die Anspielung auf den Ustascha-Gruß ist.
Nachdem Astérix und der Druide Miraculix in römische Gefangenschaft
geraten, versuchen die Römer mit Foltermethoden, aus den Galliern das
Geheimnis ihrer Zauberkraft herauszulocken:
F: Que Ton lie ce Gaulois sur cette table! Que l'on convoque le bourreau! (1961:31)
K: Vežite malog Gala na stol. Dovedite mučitelja Čedusa Seselijusa! (1992:31)
[Bindet den kleinen Gallier auf den Tisch! Holt den Folterknecht Tschedus
Seselius!]
Der namenlose römische Folterknecht bekommt in der Übersetzung den Namen
Tschedus Seselius, eine Anspielung auf den Tschetnik-Führer Šešelj. In der
Übersetzung macht man sich dabei die zufällige Korrespondenz zwischen der
bildlichen Darstellung dieser Figur und der stereotypen Physiognomie eines
Tschetniks, der in der Regel als Bartträger bekannt ist, zunutze. Der
dümmliche Gesichtsausdruck des Folterknechts läßt den verhaßten Tschetnik-
Führer dabei als lächerlich erscheinen7 (siehe Abbildung 1 im Anhang).
Nachdem sich der Druide bereit erklärt hat, den Zaubertrank zu brauen,
werden einige Legionäre in den Wald geschickt, um die für die Jahreszeit
kaum zu findenden Erdbeeren zu holen. Der Lagerkommandant kann die
Rückkehr der Legionäre kaum erwarten; als er sie erblickt, ruft er:
F: Ave, ave les enfants! Alors vous avez les fraises? (1961:33)
K: Ave, ave drugovi vojnici. No, gdje su jagode? (1992:33)
[Ave, ave Genossen Soldaten. Na, wo sind die Erdbeeren?]
7
Auch in der typographischen Gestaltung unterscheiden sich die beiden Fassungen.
Während im Französischen durch Fettdruck und Schriftgröße eine mit der wilden Gestik
des Römers korrespondierende Schriftart gewählt wurde, vermittelt die dünne Schrift der
Übersetzung nicht die Gefühlsintensität, mit der der Römer seine Äußerung macht.
Mira Kadric/Klaus Kaindl 143
8
Inzwischen wurde in Kroatien eine neue Währung eingeführt, die Kuna, die auch in der
Zeit zwischen 1941 -1945 die Währung des Unabhängigen Staates Kroatien war.
144 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Wertlosigkeit und des alten, maroden Systems. Diese Auffassung wird durch
die Übersetzung — Sesterzen im Vergleich zu Bergen von Jugodenarius —
bestätigt. Und deshalb reagiert der Druide sogar auf das Angebot von "Bergen
von Jugodenarius" nur mit einem verächtlichen "Pih". Im Original antwortet
er bekanntlich mit einem "non". Der Gesichtsausdruck, vor allem die Mund
partie, ist dabei bewegungslos, seine Verärgerung wird lediglich an den gerun
zelten Augenbrauen deutlich. Da die Artikulation des verächtlichen "Pih" eine
andere Mundstellung erfordern würde, entsteht hier in der Übersetzung ein
unstimmiges Verhältnis zwischen sprachlicher und visuell wahrnehmbarer
Reaktion (siehe Abbildung 2 im Anhang).
Auch durch die Wiedergabe der gesprochenen Sprache, in der vor
liegenden Fassung in Form verschiedener serbisch-kroatischer Dialekte, wird
die Geschichte auf die Situation der Leser zugeschnitten. Im folgenden Beispiel
droht der römische Lagerkommandant den gefangenen Galliern, sie "aufspießen
zu lassen":
F: Cette fois-ci, Gaulois je vais vous faire embrocher! (1961:47)
K: A sad Gali, ću da vas pržim na roštiljče. (1992:47)
[Und jetzt werde ich euch auf dem Spieß braten, Gallier]
Um der Aussage zusätzliche Kraft zu verleihen, wird sie in südserbischem
Dialekt gesprochen bzw. geschrieben, wobei das Serbische dieser Äußerung
eine zusätzliche Dosis an Gefährlichkeit und Gemeinheit verleihen soll.
Mit diesen Beispielen sollten neben den zahlreichen Anforderungen, die
die Übersetzung von Comics an den Übersetzer stellt, vor allem die ethischen
Implikationen dieser Tätigkeit aufgezeigt werden. Von den Comicsherstellern
wurde die moralische Dimension bereits in den 50er Jahren erkannt. Verleger
in den USA, Frankreich und Deutschland verabschiedeten Ethik-Kodizes, in
denen moralische Maßstäbe für die Produktion von Comics festgeschrieben
wurden. Damit ist zwar noch keine Durchsetzungsgarantie verbunden, durch
die Institutionalisierung von ethischen Normen wird jedoch die Chance einer
Bewußtmachung und Sensibilisierung erreicht. Von einer solchen Institutionali
sierung ist man im Bereich der Übersetzung noch weit entfernt. Gerade die
Skopostheorie, die translatorisches Handeln als zielgerichtete Tätigkeit versteht,
birgt ohne eine Einbindung ethischer Aspekte die Gefahr in sich, insofern
mißbräuchlich angewendet zu werden, als sie dahin gehend interpretiert werden
kann, der Zweck heilige jedes Mittel. Um dies zu verhindern, bedarf es einer
translatorischen Ethik zum einen im Sinne einer allgemeinen Ethik auf der
Makroebene, in der die Legitimität einer anzufertigenden Übersetzung geprüft
werden und zum anderen im Sinne einer angewandten Ethik auf der Mikroebe
ne, wo es um die ethische Bewertung übersetzerischer Einzelentscheidungen
Mira Kadric/Klaus Kaindl 145
Bibliographie
Doetinchem, Dagmar v. und Hartung Klaus. 1974. Zum Thema Gewalt in Superhelden-Comics.
Berlin: Basis.
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senschaften. Frankfurt/M.: Fischer, 13-75.
Goscinny und Uderzo. 1961. Astérix le Gaulois. Neuilly-sur-Seine: Dargaud.
Goscinny und Uderzo. 1992. Asterix Gal. Zagreb: Izvori.
Grassegger, Hans. 1985. Sprachspiel und Übersetzung: eine Studie anhand der Comic-Serie
Astérix. Tübingen: Stauffenburg.
Guttmann, Karl H. 1984. Asterix. Erfolg und Ideologie. Multiple Rezeptionsebenen als
Qualitätskriterium populärer Mediennutzung. Wien: unveröffentl. Diss.
Hartmann, Regina. "Betrachtungen zur arabischen Version von Astérix. Ein Übersetzungsver-
gleich ". Linguistische Berichte 81, 1-31.
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semiotischen Analyse narrativer Comics. Hildesheim/New York: Olms.
Knigge, Andreas C. 1986. Fortsetzung folgt. Comic-Kultur in Deutschland. Frankfurt a.
M./Berlin: Ullstein.
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unveröffentl. Diss.
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Schwarz, Alexander. 1989. Comics übersetzen — besonders ins Deutsche und besonders in der
Schweiz. Lausanne: CTL.
Schopp, Jürgen. 1994. "Typographie als Translationsproblem". In: M. Snell-Hornby et al.
(eds.), 349-360.
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An Interdiscipline. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Spillner, Bernd. 1980. "Semiotische Aspekte der Übersetzung von Comics-Texten". In: W.
Wilss (ed.) Semiotik und Übersetzen. Tübingen: Narr, 73-86.
Stoll, André. 1974. Asterix, das Trivialepos Frankreichs. Bild und Sprachartistik eines
Bestseller-Comics. Köln: Dumont.
Vermeer, Hans J. 1994. "Translation today: old and new problems". In: M. Snell-Hornby et
al. (eds.), 3-16.
Wienhöfer, Friederike. 1979. Untersuchungen zur semiotischen Ästhetik des Comic Strip. Unter
der besonderen Berücksichtigung von Onomatopoese und Typologie. Zur Grundlage einer
Comic-Didaktik. Dortmund: unveröffentl. Diss.
Anhang:
Abbildung 1
Französisch:
Kroatisch:
Abbildung 2
Ethics of translation
Andrew Chesterman
Truth
Of my four basic norms, the relation norm is the only one that deals
exclusively with translation, for the others are of course relevant to other kinds
of communication too. The value behind this norm has traditionally been
defined as fidelity or faithfulness or loyalty, and this in turn has usually been
interpreted as some kind of equivalence — to the original text, the author's
intention, the original effect, etc. However, equivalence itself is then usually
defined in terms of identity or sameness, which has meant that the translator
is typically bound to fail to achieve it.
I emphasize that the relation norm is a linguistic one, between two texts
(not between a person and a text, as suggested by terms like fidelity and
loyalty — see below), one of which is some kind of representation of the other.
I suggest that the value underlying this relation is that of truth. Roughly
speaking, we say that something is true if it corresponds to reality. "Truth" in
this sense is a quality characterizing a relation between, say, a proposition and
a state of affairs. The proposition is not "the same as" the state of affairs it
describes, but the relation between the two can nevertheless be a true one, not
false. The truth relation has many forms: passport photos bear "a true
likeness", a report of an event can be "true", a photocopy can be "a true
copy", and so on. Similarly, translations can relate to their originals in many
different ways, each of which can be called a "true resemblance" (recall
Wittgenstein's family resemblances). A translation will be rejected by the
target community (or by the client) if it is not considered to bear any kind of
"true" resemblance to the original (or, the text in question will simply not be
called a translation).
In deontic logic, the truth relation is perhaps best represented in terms of
preventive action. In a given state of affairs, unwanted change must be
prevented as far as possible. A relation of some kind must be maintained
between the two texts, and it must be one that the receiving culture (the one
in which translations are defined as translations) accepts as being "true" in
some appropriate way. Whatever the relation is, it must not be false. (Compare
the Gricean maxim of quality, that one should forbear from saying what one
knows is false.)
Douglas Robinson's provocative book The translator's turn (1991) has a
long section on translation ethics that has precisely to do with this truth
relation. What Robinson is arguing is that there is indeed a vast variety of
relations that can validly subsist between a source text and its translation, and
that translators should be aware of the full range of possibilities. The point is
152 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Trust
incorporation (of the translation into the target culture), and finally by
restitution. This last seems to be the only point at which ethics enters the
process: restitution is necessary in order to redress the balance, to balance the
books between source and target. However, it is not clear how the translator
is to achieve this redressing of the balance: restitution comes across rather as
something that simply happens, in that the very fact of translation endows the
original text with a greater value. Steiner's translation ethics, and his view of
trust, seem unnecessarily narrow.
It is worth comparing the concept of trust with that of loyalty. Loyalty is
commonly used in two ways in translation theory: to describe the translator's
relation to the original writer or the source text, and also the relation to the
target readership (e.g. Nord 1991:29). In our deontic framework, the relation
with the source text is governed by the value of truth, which I take to be a
quality of the relation between that which represents and that which is
represented; in translation, this is an intertextual value. Trust, on the other
hand, is an interpersonal value.
One point of difference between trust and loyalty concerns the relative
status of the people involved. To be loyal to something or someone is to
maintain firm support, friendship or service. Yet this something or someone
is often understood to be "higher" than whoever is being loyal: one speaks of
being loyal to the king, of an army being loyal to the government, of being
loyal to a cause. Loyalty is commonly thought of as allegiance, as duty to a
liege or master. Its prevalence in translation studies perhaps goes back to the
days when the source text and/or its writer were raised on a pedestal above all
the other factors involved in translating, with the translator in a servant's role.
Trust, on the other hand, describes something more like a relation between
equals, and specifically between people. As a translator, I trust that the original
writer has something to say that is worth translating (cf. Steiner's point,
above); I also trust that the client will pay me; and I trust that my own readers
will read my translation in good faith, trusting in turn that there is "something
there".
More importantly, whereas loyalty is presented as a requirement of
translators alone (not the other parties in the communicative act), trust is a
value that must be subscribed to by all parties concerned. The client must trust
the translator, and so must the original writer if he or she is present; so must
the readers. Without such mutual multidirectional trust, communication fails.
In fact, trust is precisely the value which motivates loyal behaviour: one is
loyal in order not to lose trust; it is not the case that one trusts in order not to
lose loyalty. Trust is therefore the underlying and primary value here.
154 Translation as Intercultural Communication
This is where Pym (1992) makes a central contribution to translational
ethics. Taking a sociological perspective, Pym is interested in extending the
cope of translation ethics to include broader questions, such as who decides
what shall be translated and who validates the norms governing translation
action in a particular culture; who accredits licensed translators, for instance?
Pym's basic argument is that translators have a higher loyalty than to source
or target organs: the whole accountability of professional translators is
grounded in the profession itself, in other professionals. Translators check each
other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their
norms from the existing professional context, but the profession itself is not
bound to a particular culture. Like the international scientific community,
translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and
balances: we validate each other. In Pym's words: "Translators' prime loyalty
must be to their profession as an intercultural space" (1992:166).
If we then ask why a translator must be accountable in the first place to
the profession, the answer is of course trust. Trust is the glue that holds the
system together. Translators, in order to survive, must be trusted as
translators. They will be trusted (a) if the profession is trusted, (b) if they are
deemed to be bona fide members of the profession, and (c) if they have done
nothing to forfeit this trust.
Trust is typically lost rather than gained: one's default reaction is to trust
someone unless events undermine this. In deontic action theory, then, we can
again make use of the concept of preventive action: we aim to translate in such
a way as to prevent a change in the default state of affairs in which trust exists.
Initiation into the profession, perhaps via a special examination or the like
(administered usually by other professionals who are presumably trusted in turn
both by the profession and by society at large), counts as establishing the trust,
and the purpose of the accountability norm is to set a standard so that this trust
will be maintained. In other words, we seek to leave the status of trust
unchanged, or at least unimpaired.
The value of trust is directly relevant to the translator's visibility. It used
to be argued, by some, that the translator should be invisible, a window
through which the original could shine unimpeded. But if you accept that trust
is one of the fundamental values of translation ethics, visibility often seems
more important than invisibility. It goes without saying that a translator's name
should always be mentioned, as a minimum degree ofvisibility; but translator's
prefaces to longer literary translations are also valuable, particularly when the
translator is seeking to challenge rather than conform to readers' expectations
(as in the examples mentioned in the previous section).
Andrew Chesterman 155
Pym associates the importance of loyalty to the profession with the aim of
translation as such. The translator profession exists in an intercultural space,
and the aim of translation is simply to improve intercultural relations. In terms
of the trust value, this could be paraphrased as "creating more trust".
Understanding
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Part II
Erkka Vuorinen
1
Lewin himself also suggested that his theory of channels and gatekeepers is applicable,
among other things, to the "traveling of a news item through certain communication
channels in a group" (Bass 1969:71; see also White 1950:383; Shoemaker 1991:9).
Lewin developed the gatekeeper concept as a means of understanding how cultural
habits, specifically the population's food habits, could be influenced.
162 Translation as Intercultural Communication
in what form and substance these messages are allowed to pass. Here is an
example of a schematic model depicting the step-by-step flow of an
international news story through a series of gatekeepers. The model was
presented by John T. McNelly in 1959:
According to the model, a story (S) is written about a newsworthy event (E)
by a foreign correspondent (C1). The story (Sn) then passes through a chain of
other gatekeepers, or intermediaries (Cn), each of whom may edit, rewrite or
cut it, combine it with a related story, or otherwise shape it. The story may
also be eliminated. In addition to foreign correspondents, the gatekeepers en
route may include editors, rewritemen, deskmen, telegraph editors of
newspapers, or radio or television news editors. Ultimately, the story reaches
the receiver (R), who may pass on an oral version of the story to other people
(Rn). The broken arrows represent feedback.
of translation: "Every translation shall be faithful and render exactly the idea
and form of the original — this fidelity constituting both a moral and legal
obligation for the translator." (Translator's Charter, Section 1 point 4)
Very little has been written or said about translation in the context of
international news transmission. Typically, in studies dealing with international
mass communication, translation is either completely ignored or only
mentioned in passing. In those cases where it is identified as one of several
processing operations, the implicit assumption seems to be that translation is
something different from "editing," "modifying", or "editorial selection and
processing". Consider the following quotes:
(...) much of the world's news undergoes a process far more radical than editing
within the same language. Translation between languages is a major language
function of the international agencies. (Bell 1991:66)
News processing is the handling and adapting of news copy. It consists of
copy editing, translating or modifying for local needs, heavily or lightly as
policy dictates. (Bass 1969:72, orig. emphasis)
A piece of news destined for a foreign audience typically must run an
obstacle course of reportorial error or bias, editorial selection and
processing, translation, transmission difficulties, and possible suppression
or censorship. (McNelly 1959:23)
Since none of the writers chooses to elaborate on the particular nature and
consequences of translation, it remains unclear what the translation process
actually involves. The statements quoted are also mutually contradictory in the
sense that, while Bell seems to suggest that translation results in considerable
changes, Bass and McNelly distinguish translation from other, inherently
manipulative textual operations. At the same time, the latter two also seem to
imply that translation is essentially a non-manipulative and reproductive
operation — which is, of course, fully in line with the above excerpt from the
Translator's Charter.
In his article dealing with news translation in Japan (1988), Akio Fujii
looks at translation from the gatekeeping point of view. Adopting the well-
known Westley-MacLean model of the mass communication process as his
point of departure, he revises the model to account for the translation of
Japanese news into English. The extended model is shown in Figure 2.
164 Translation as Intercultural Communication
The model depicts a process in which a news reporter (or a news organization)
(C1) transmits to a group of receivers (B1) a message formed by C 1' s selections
from messages from a news source (A) and C !, s selections and abstractions
from objects (Xn) in his/her own sensory field (X3C1, X4C1), which may or
may not be Xs in A's sensory field. According to Westley and MacLean (Fujii
1988:33), C is one who can select the abstractions of objects X that are
appropriate to B's needs, satisfactions or problem solutions, transform them
into some form of symbol containing meanings shared with B, and transmit
such symbols by means of a channel or medium to B. Messages to C1 are
indicated by x', and messages from C1 by x". Whenever translation is
involved, a translator or translating organization (C2) steps in, and produces a
new message (x"') for a new group of receivers (B2). The new message is
constituted by C2's selections from the message from C1, and selections and
abstractions.from objects in C2's own sensory field (X3C2, X4C2). Not included
in the figure are arrows indicating possible feedback between the actors.
Drawing on an example, Fujii (1988:36) identifies four gatekeeping
functions performed by news translators:
1. Controlling the quantity of message, i.e., cutting the original;
2. Message transforming, i.e., altering the expressions of the original (e.g., by
replacing a date with a weekday);
3. Message supplementing, i.e., adding expressions/information to the
original;
4. Message reorganization, i.e., changing the structure of the original.
What makes Fujii's article somewhat confusing, however, is his conclusion
where he argues that performing the four gatekeeping functions "goes beyond
the work of mere translation," and that the operations "could well elevate the
Erkka Vuorinen 165
It would seem that the problems pertaining to Fujii's approach are to some
extent connected with the gatekeeping model adopted. Namely, the Westley-
McLean model is rather an abstract one and pays little explicit attention to the
various external factors governing the gatekeeping process. To account for this
aspect of gatekeeping, there is a more recent — and concrete — model
available, presented by Pamela J. Shoemaker in her book on various strands
of theory and research in gatekeeping (1991).2 Shoemaker discusses
2 Shoemaker's model also seems to avoid some of the shortcomings that earlier
gatekeeping models have been criticized for. The early gatekeeping studies were in some
disagreement over the proper level of analysis. Some scholars, like David Manning
White (1950), stressed the role of the individual gatekeeper's personal values and
subjective decisions in the process, while others, like Walter Gieber (1956), saw the
technical and organizational constraints of news production as more important governing
factors. According to O'Sullivan et al. (1994:126f.), in most gatekeeping studies the
pressures influencing or prejudicing the gatekeepers' decision process have been seen to
stem from 1) the gatekeepers' subjective value system, likes and dislikes; 2) their
immediate work situation; and 3) legal, commercial and bureaucratic controls
constraining their work. The phenomenon is, however, more complex than that, which
is probably why the gatekeeper concept has sometimes been rejected as "oversimplified
and of little Utility" (O'Sullivan et al. 1994:126f.), or "sociologically inadequate and as
implying a passivity alien to journalism as a process of construction" (Schlesinger
1992:308).
166 Translation as Intercultural Communication
gatekeeping theoretically at five different levels of analysis: the individual
level, the communication routines level, the organizational level, the
extramedia and social/institutional level, and the social system level. Drawing
on her discussion, she (1991:70-75) presents a new, more comprehensive
multilayered gatekeeping model, shown in Figures 3a, 3b and 3c. It should be
noted that the models seen in Figures 3b and 3c are not independent models
but enlargements of portions of Figure 3a.
3
The "groupthink phenomenon" included in Figure 3b refers to a "mode of thinking that
people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive ingroup, when the
members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise
alternative courses of action..." (Janis 1983, as quoted in Shoemaker 1991:28). The
symptoms of groupthink may include overestimation of the power and morality of one's
own group, closed-mindedness, and pressures on the group's members towards
uniformity (Shoemaker 1991:29).
Erkka Vuorinen 169
making strategies, and values that all impinge on the decision to reject or
select (and shape) a message. But the gatekeeper is not totally free to follow
a personal whim; he or she must operate within the constraints of
communication routines to do things this way or that. All of this also must
occur within the framework of the communication organization, which has
its own priorities but also is continuously buffeted by influential forces
from outside the organization. And, of course, none of these actors — the
individual, the routine, the organization, or the social institution — can
escape the fact that it is tied to and draws its sustenance from the social
system." (1991:75; cf. also Boyd-Barrett 1980:73)
What becomes evident on the basis of Shoemaker's model is that translation
which takes place in an institutional setting cannot be examined as isolated
from the whole individual, institutional, social, and cultural framework
surrounding it. On the contrary, it is an inseparable part of this framework,
and, at the same time, it is governed by a multitude of factors both internal
and external to the organization/institution in question. Consequently,
distinguishing translation from other text processing operations, such as
editing, or postulating, as Fujii does, a "mere translation" or "translation
proper" which aims at a total reproduction of the source text, seems to be
arbitrary in the sense that it does not take into account the complex
interrelatedness of the various processes and factors (cf. Delabastita
1989:214).
But is it translation?
References
Bass, Abraham Z. 1969. "Refining the 'Gatekeeper' Concept: a UN Radio Case Study".
Journalism Quarterly 46, 69-72.
Bell, Allan. 1991. The Language of News Media. Oxford UK & Cambridge MA: Blackwell.
Boyd-Barrett, Oliver. 1980. The International News Agencies. London: Constable.
Delabastita, Dirk. 1989. "Translation and Mass Communication. Film and T.V. Translation
as Evidence of Cultural Dynamics". Babel 35 (4), 193-218.
4
Cf. also Brian Mossop (1990:351), according to whom "The existing literature on
translation most often refers to the process of finding equivalents as if this were
something done by the translator as an individual rather than the translator as an agent
of an institution. "
Erkka Vuorinen 171
Fujii, Akio. 1988. "News Translation in Japan". Meta XXXIII (1), 32-37.
Gieber, Walter. 1956. "Across the Desk: A Study of 16 Telegraph Editors". Journalism
Quarterly 33, 423-432.
Kukkonen, Tiina. 1989. Translatorinen ja journalistinen toiminta Suomen Tietotoimiston
ulkomaantoimituksessa. Unpublished MA thesis. Tampere: University of Tampere,
Department of Translation Studies.
McNelly, John T. 1959. "Intermediary Communicators in the International Flow of News".
Journalism Quarterly 36, 23-26.
Mossop, Brian. 1990. "Translating Institutions and 'Idiomatic' Translation". Meta XXXV (2),
342-355.
O'Sullivan, Tim; Hartley, John; Saunders, Danny; Montgomery, Martin; Fiske, John. 1994.
Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies. 2nd edition. London and New
York: Routledge.
Offor, Marja-Riitta. 1993. Kulttuurispesifinen adaptaatio uutissähkeiden kääntämisessä.
Unpublished MA thesis. Turku: University of Turku, Department of Translation Studies.
Rosenblum, Mort. 1981. Coups and Earthquakes. Reporting the World for America. New
York, etc. : Harper Colophon Books.
Scannell, Paddy; Schlesinger, Philip; Sparks, Colin (eds.) Culture and Power. A Media,
Culture & Society Reader. London/Newbury Park/New Delhi: Sage.
Schlesinger, Philip. 1992. "From production to propaganda". In: P. Scannell; P. Schlesinger;
C. Sparks (eds.), 293-316.
Shoemaker, Pamela J. 1991. Gatekeeping (Communication Concepts 3). Newbury Park: Sage.
The Translator's Charter, published by the International Federation of Translators.
van Dijk, Teun A. 1985. "Introduction. Discourse Analysis in (Mass) Communication
Research". In: T. A. van Dijk (ed.), 1-9.
van Dijk, Teun A. (ed.) 1985. Discourse and Communication. New approaches to the analysis
of mass media discourse and communication. Berlin: de Gruyter.
Vuorinen, Erkka. 1990. Kääntämistyön ohjautumisesta sanomalehden toimitusprosessissa —
esimerkkitapauksena Turun Sanomat. Unpublished MA thesis. Turku: University of
Turku, Department of Translation Studies.
White, David M. 1950. "The 'Gate Keeper': A Case Study in the Selection of News".
Journalism Quarterly 27, 383-390.
Advertising — A five-stage strategy for translation
To the consumer, advertising is a very high profile activity but in fact in terms
of the overall marketing strategy, it represents only one very small step in this
process which involves: "planning and executing the conception, pricing,
promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges
that satisfy individual and organisational objectives." (American Marketing
Association 1985:1)
The relatively minor role that text plays within the context of the whole
marketing communication process is probably the reason why the major
handbooks of advertising devote very little attention to matters of language.
The translation of advertisements receives virtually no mention at all.2 This,
in turn, is probably the reason why the language in some international
advertising is very poor (cf. Klein-Braley and Franklin 1989; Snell-Hornby
1992): there appears to be little awareness of the importance of checking
culturally dependent discourse and pragmatic features in the translation as the
final step in the production of an advertisement in another language.
The translation is more likely to be poor if the prestige, importance or
dissemination of the text is low: in-house literature, hotel brochures and tourist
information material frequently suffer from major linguistic howlers, as
anyone working in the field of translation studies can testify. These trans-
lations are not the result of the best professional practice. When we get to the
1
It is important to point out that English may well need to be modified depending on
whether the target market is the USA, UK, Australia etc.. Similarly the German
language market is not a monolithic one, but consists of Austria, Germany and
Switzerland. A comparison of two tubes of a particular brand of toothpaste (Elmex)
purchased in Germany and in Austria showed that although the colour scheme and
appearance of the tubes was identical, the information offered in the texts differed
considerably.
2
The translation of brand names is an important issue. Rolls Royce could only with
difficulty be persuaded not to name a new car "Silver Mist" (German Mist = manure).
There are many more examples in the literature (cf. Ricks 1983; de Mooij 1994:109).
Veronica Smith/Christine Klein-Braley 175
These approaches need to be modified in accordance with the target market for
the advertisement. Legal restrictions, for instance, may be in operation. In
176 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Germany Diet Coke has to be sold under the name of Coca Cola Light
because the word diet can only be used for products which fulfil certain
medical requirements (Belch and Belch 1992:746). Advertisements comparing
two products are not permitted in the German market. Different codes of
behaviour may operate: for instance, nudity is more acceptable in some
cultures than it is in others (Belch and Belch 1992:764).
One linguistic difference which must be taken into consideration is the
degree of context demanded by the language in question. Wells et al. explain
how differences between low-context and high-context cultures can influence
textualisation:
Advertising messages constructed by writers from high-context cultures might be
difficult to understand in low-context cultures because they do not get right to
the point. In contrast, messages constructed by writers from low-context cultures
may be difficult to understand in high-context cultures because they omit
essential contextual detail. (Wells et al. 1992:675)
Although Wells et al. label English as a mid-context language, and German as
a low-context one, the degree of contextuality needed in translating advertise-
ments seems to change according to circumstances. The following
advertisement for Heineken beer was very successful in the British market:
Brewers don't have to be good talkers (Exhibit 1 : HEINEKEN)
It did not, however, enjoy the same success outside the English market
because the translators failed to add context in the translated versions (Belch
and Belch 1992:742).
A German translation reading "Brauer müssen nicht gut reden" leaves
much open to the imagination. The reason is that the intonation, which
disambiguates the spoken text, is not available to the consumer reading the
print advertisement. One might ask why the marketing experts allowed
translations of this advertisement to be printed without considering this point,
but since they knew the English original they were judging it from an
"insider" position. Moreover they probably heard the text spoken. A
translation for the outsider needs to change the text to include the
"intonation", producing something like "Braumeister müssen nicht auch noch
gut reden können". This conveys the joke of the original - "provided their
beer is good enough" (cf. Smith & Klein-Braley 1985:62ff.).
The reverse situation is encountered with an advertisement placed in the
Economist by Kommunalverband Ruhrgebiet (Exhibit 2) in which the English
reader needs more context. Although disjunctive syntax is typical for
advertising language (Leech 1966:113), basic disambiguating information is
Veronica Smith/Christine Klein-Braley 111
Exhibit 2: KVR
These examples (Exhibits 1-2) imply less that languages differ significantly in
the degree of contextualisation needed in the absolute, but rather that the
translation process usually involves adding context for the L2 target audience.
This is why, as de Mooij (1994:213), points out, translations are generally
longer than the original text: "A television commercial with lengthy copy will
be difficult to adapt: translation of an English text into French requires on
average a 15% increase in time; if it is translated into German this figure rises
to 50%."
The need to take this expansion of text into consideration often leads to
compression of the message in the translated version. At the same time the
focus of information often shifts as we see in Exhibit 3. The text of these
advertisements for Canon photocopiers is accompanied by a "Peanuts-style"
strip cartoon of two children bragging about what their respective fathers have
achieved in terms of status and office equipment. The English body copy,
which is assumed to be the original, is considerably longer than the German
version. The brevity and conciseness of the German version can be explained
partly by the high/low context phenomenon. The English copy: "Both colour
copiers ensure the highest overall colour quality available while dramatically
increasing the value of everything you communicate on paper" is adequately
rendered in German as "... setzen mit ihrer bisher unerreichten Farbqualität
178 Translation as Intercultural Communication
neue Maßstäbe". This example also illustrates the varying perspective of the
consumers and their needs. The English advertisement presents an evaluation
of how the product benefits will positively affect the company's
communication with the world outside, and maximise productivity inside,
whereas the German advertisement assumes the consumers will be in a
position to evaluate the benefits for themselves, so no evaluative statements
are required. The English advertisement contains direct affective consumer
appeals: "your disposal", "your productivity", "your company" and reassures
the consumers that the product is "user-friendly", even adding the information
that the paper cassettes have a high capacity, implying that once the cassette
has been filled in the morning, there will be no need to worry about
incompetent, non-technically-minded staff having to refill it during the day.
The German advertisement in contrast focuses on information, including
more details which are not available to the English-speaking consumers, and
highlighting what is perhaps the most innovative feature of the copier, its
capacity for double-sided copying as an additional underlined rubric:
"Weltpremiere beim ..."
This advertisement also reveals a second difference which is important in
translating advertisements, namely the expectation of the target language
consumer as to what advertising should be like. Empirical studies showed that
British and German consumers characterised their own national advertising
differently, thus demonstrating that expectations differed:
The British described their commercials as primarily humorous, entertaining and
emotive but relatively low on information, understandability and credibility. [...]
Germans view their commercials as relatively less humorous, although
entertaining in an emotional way. [...] Germans also regard their commercials
as reasonably informative, (de Mooij 1994:241)
Whilst humorous appeals are common in the United States and Britain, they are
not used often in Germany, where consumers tend to be more serious and do not
respond favorably to humor in advertising. (Belch and Belch 1993:763)
We can predict that humour might have to be added to an advertising
campaign presenting a German product to the English market, and that more
and possibly more precise information might need to be added for English
product being introduced to Germany. In other words, the approach would
generally focus on an emotional/affective appeal for the English market and on
an informational/cognitive appeal for the German market.3
1
Lack of space prevents us from demonstrating this with the advertisment for a "high
involvement" cosmetic product originally included in the conference presentation.
Veronica Smith/Christine Klein-Braley 179
To find out more, please contact Wenn Sie mehr über Farbcopierer
your Canon distributor. von Canon wissen wollen, rufen
Sie 0222/68 36 41-533
Canon Canon
A pleasure to work with kann's
Exhibit 4: CANON
180 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Untidy garden hoses have been known to make some people fall about.
But please excuse our German designers if they don't laugh. You see
they've just expended a lot of time and effort perfecting our range of
garden hose reels. They worked with only the finest, most resilient
grades of thermoplastics to ensure the reels were light yet immensely
strong. They gave each one an ergonomically designed carrying handle
and, where necessary, a low centre of gravity to improve stability.
Whilst designing an ingenious device that guides hoses round corners
without snagging, they even found time to calculate the appropriate
crank length for effortless hose rewinding. And the exact angle at which
to set the central hose connector to avoid kinking. (It's 45 degrees if
you're interested). Of course a range of hose reels designed to store
hose with maximum efficiency provides little opportunity for old-
fashioned British humour. Trust the Germans to take all the fun out of
gardening.
GARDENA
II Serious gardening equipment from Germany
Exhibit 4: GARDENA
A comparison of advertisements originating in a third language demonstrates
each country's favoured styles. These two advertisements (Exhibit 5) are based
on a French original. They form one of a series announcing improvements in
the services for business passengers. The important sememe RIGHT occurs
twice in each text. In the English version, containing THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY
and AIR FRANCE INTRODUCES PASSENGER'S RIGHTS, the word is used both
times with the meaning of entitlement. The German copywriter does not
Veronica Smith/Christine Klein-Braley 181
Exhibit 6: A I R FRANCE
182 Translation as Intercultural Communication
The humour in both versions is based on this situation and it does come
across, although at different points: in the headline "The chances of her being
seated next to you ..." / "Ihre Chancen stehen schlecht", and later in the
German "Oder zur Nachbarin", which makes a linguistic joke impossible in
English.
The German picks up the theme of the visual at the end of the body copy
"Und auch für ein anregendes Gespräch" but the English at this point has the
inept "you take your seat in space".
It is interesting to note that at two points in the adaptation of the
advertisement for the German market we have more precise specification of
activities than in the English version. The English travellers are going to
"concentrate on their work" while the Germans are going to "Akten studieren,
Zeitung lesen oder sich in Ruhe auf eine Sitzung vorbereiten". Moreover the
Germans need space to "lesen, essen und entspannen"; there is no attempt to
inform the English travellers why they need space. The English advertisement
also contains more direct affective consumer appeals expressed by frequent
repetition of "you" and "your" in the body copy; this direct address is
restricted to the headline and slogan in the German advertisement. A close
study of both texts also reveals quite a number of small ineptitudes. This
advertisement clearly sticks too close to the original.
In this paper we have only been able to use a very small sample of the
material we have collected. It is possible, however, to group the approaches
to the problem of translating advertisements into five broad categories.
Don't change advertisement: retain both graphics and text
This strategy can be adopted where the brand name is very strong, and the
product needs very little verbal support. Prime examples of the no-change
strategy are those products which adopt an affective approach, e.g. perfumes,
cigarettes, alcohol, soft drinks, jeans, CDs etc. The main targets for this type
of global advertising are businessmen and young people (de Mooij 1994:200
ff.).
Export advertisements: play on positive stereotypes of the originating culture,
retaining logo, slogan etc. in the original If necessary, have additional copy
in target language.
Veronica Smith/Christine Klein-Braley 183
This approach is used for many of the same products as above. Here the
cultural origin of the product is felt to be an asset, and therefore needs to be
stressed in the advertising. At the same time an additional appeal is addressed
in the target market language copy.
Straight translation
At the level of international marketing this, the most obvious strategy, seems
to be the least frequent and the least preferred. It is unsuitable because it fails
to adjust to the cultural demands of the new market. It is precisely this
technique which is found in the lower level texts (e.g. tourist materials, hotel
brochures etc.) and which cause the howlers so much enjoyed by native
speakers.
Adaptation: keep visuals, change text slightly or significantly
This is the technique which makes necessary tactical adjustments in terms of
addressee needs and expectations, cultural norms, frames of reference.
According to Belch and Belch (1992:757), this is the dominant strategy used
by international advertisers. It is also the type of advertising which is most
interesting to examine in terms of translator training.
Revision: keep visuals, write new text
This strategy is somewhat problematical because the visuals of a campaign are
designed with a specific communication strategy in mind and so the message
cannot deviate substantially from the original concept. It is, however,
important to point out that it is easier to build on an existing original than to
start again from scratch.
But there are products whose appeal is entirely different in different
cultures. French women drink mineral water to retain their slender figures;
German women drink it because it is healthy (de Mooij 1994:218); English
women drink it because it is considered trendy. Thus advertisements may be
angled to stress these different marketing objectives in the different countries,
while the visual might well be a picture of the bottle in all three cases.
Naturally a sixth strategy exists but it cannot generally be identified:
independent local advertising campaigns produce different advertisements with
different visuals and texts for each country. This is not relevant for our
investigation here.
184 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Conclusion
One of the major problems encountered in training translators is that they are
unwilling to leave the safe haven of a "straight translation". Examination of
translated advertisements shows how far professionals are prepared to deviate
from their original in order to achieve success with the target audience.
Moreover since translators of advertisements have to deal in a succinct and
successful way with many of the purely language-oriented difficulties of
translation: puns, jokes, assonance, metaphor, alliteration etc., strategies for
dealing with these components can be derived from such analyses. Comparison
of paired translations is therefore a useful tool for translator training.
References
The present study is based on the corpus data comprising press consumer
advertisements and television commercials translated in recent years from and
into Czech, Latvian and Polish. The corpus shows the impact of the respective
target cultures on translation strategies applied to this specific textual category.
Advertisement translation has emerged as a topical problem in many
cultures, and has acquired scope due to the recent switch away from canonised
literature studies to non-canonised texts. In post-communist countries like the
Czech Republic, Latvia or Poland, advertising of consumer products and
services has emerged as a new text type in consequence of the swift transition
from planned economy, which rendered advertising futile, to market economy,
which is advertisement-dependent. A domestic genre of advertising in these
countries was non-existent apart from announcement-like advertisements
between 1945 and 1989 whose function was different in the state-monopolised
non-competitive market. There are no established generic conventions in the
receiving system which would guarantee the new function of advertising (to
promote sales on a competitive market), whereas the communicative and
persuasive strategies of the pre-war conventionalised advertising genre are
generally outdated.
The phenomenon of current translations brought about by the socio-
economic and political changes after 1989, offers the translator and the
translation scholar interesting material for research and contrastive analyses.
Unfortunately, the common ground for investigation seems to be provided by
unsatisfactory performance in advertisement translation. What poses major
obstacles for efficient translation is not only the language but primarily cross-
cultural unawareness.
186 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Cultural stereotyping
Because of the fact that various aspects of advertisements are closely bound up
with cultural phenomena, intercultural and not merely intertextual comparisons
have to be made and appropriately considered in translation. Consumer
orientations and cultural stereotypes constitute translation determinants, thus
establishing the pragmatic level of equivalence as the translator's priority. The
advertising message is considered as a whole. Verbal and non-verbal
components complement each other, the former frequently being less important
for the function and efficiency of the advertising discourse.
Major strategies implemented in advertisement translation are three-fold:
1. total transfer = literalness (image and semantic contents preserved, exotic
features of the original highlighted)
2. translation with minimum changes = advertising compromise = partial
adaptation (various degrees of departure from the original, partly adapted
discourses)
3. adapted translation = cultural transplantation = total adaptation (images
and text transformed to appear more alluring to the target audience,
exchange of picture and sound or text for a domestic milieu.)
Literalness and adaptation constitute extreme variants of translational policy,
the continuum in between the two opposites being filled in by various degrees
of departure from the original advert (cf. Hervey & Higgins 1992:28-35). The
advertising compromise uses devices like dubbing, voice-over or subtitling of
the verbal component leaving the picture or sound only transposed, e.g.
television commercials of Wash-and-Go, Wella, Procter and Gamble, Tchibo,
Wrigley Spearmint, etc. during the period from 1990 to 1992. This is a
strategy of partial and overt translations since the non-verbal
semantics/semiotics and the verbal content are perceived as alien to the target
text audience. Cultural transposition of the same commercials advanced in the
years 1993-1995. A further degree of adaptation requires the domestic setting
of the advertisement, while the macrostructure of the discourse and the content
of the verbal message remain unaltered since the original scripts have been
literally translated from the English originals.
For obvious reasons, the present review can neither be treated as an exhaustive
report on advertising techniques, nor a detailed study of the linguistic and
social phenomenon of advertising. A question beyond any doubt here is the fact
that it is essential to consider the importance of cultural information coming
from images brought into adverts, cultural implications and allusions created,
stereotypes built into adverts.
Literalness conceived as a translational strategy operating on the semantic
level, has been a global method in the advertisement translation in the Czech
Republic in the formative period of the free economy. It was especially
predominant during the period from 1990 to 1992 and has been declining since
then, although it still covers about 90% of all advertisement translation.
Marketing research, consumer articles in periodicals and letters of television
viewers reveal that the Czech consumer generally tends to prefer the hard-sell
Zuzana Jettmarova/Maria Piotrowska/Ieva Tauberberga 191
References
Chesterman, Andrew. Oy Finn Lectura Ab, Finland (eds.) Readings in Translation Theory.
1989, 105-116.
Delabastita, Dirk. 1989. "Translation and Mass Communication". Babel 35 (4), 193- 218.
Duff, Alan. 1989. Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dyer, Gillian. 1982. Advertising as Communication. Boston, Massachusetts: Auburn House
Publ.
Hervey, Sandor & Higgins, Ian. 1992. Thinking Translation. A Course in Translation Method.
London: Routledge.
Jänis, Marja & Priiki, Timo. 1994. "User Satisfaction With Translated Tourist Brochures: The
Response of Tourists from the Soviet Union to Russian Translations of Finnish Tourist
Brochures". In: C. Robyns (ed.) Translation and the (Re)production of Culture. Leuven:
The CERA Chair, 49-56.
Lefevere, André. 1992. Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame.
London/New York: Routledge.
Leiss, William, Kline, Stephen, Jhally, Sut. 1993. Social Communication in Advertising.
London/New York: Routledge.
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O'Donnell, W. R. & Loreto, Todd. 1991. Variety in Contemporary English. London, New
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Pym, Anthony. 1992. Translation and Text Transfer. An Essay on the Principles of
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Reiss, Katharina. 1976. "Text Types, Translation Types and Translation Assessment". In: A.
Chesterman, Oy Finn Lectura Ab, Finland (eds.) Readings in Translation Theory. 1989,
105-116.
Toury, Gideon. 1995. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins.
Vestergaard, Torben & Schröder, Kim. 1985. The Language of Advertising. Oxford: Blackwell
Publ.
Williamson, Jane. 1981. Decoding Advertising. London: Marion Boyars.
Getting the message across — Simultaneous
interpreting for the media
Ingrid Kurz
In media interpreting, speed is of the essence, i.e. the interpreter's voice must
coincide as much as possible with that of the person being interpreted. In an
interview situation with fast, brief questions, an interpreter lagging too far
behind would make the whole exercise unpalatable and unacceptable (Kurz
1990). Ideally a television interpreter should be able to work at supersonic
speed (Bros-Brann 1994).
Since 'revoicing' on TV replaces only one element of the entire opus —
the spoken text — without affecting the visual component, it is both more and
less than conventional translation. Audiovisual language transfer incorporates
an editorial element (Luyken 1991). Interpretation for the media, too, is a form
of communicative language transfer requiring editorial decisions, content-
related judgments and cultural considerations.
The TV interpreter works for a very heterogeneous audience which is
likely to comprise a wide cross-section of the population, part of which may
have no (or very little) knowledge of the program-originating country and its
culture. According to TV professionals (Mayer 1994), the TV interpreter
should therefore try to coordinate his/her interpretation with the images the
viewers are receiving and should occasionally add commentary to provide the
audience with contextual information to render the speaker's message
meaningful.
In view of all these demands, some authors feel that TV interpretation
requires a "hybrid" or new breed of interpreter (Laine 1985), a new job profile
198 Translation as Intercultural Communication
TV interpreting in Austria
nineties, ORF used live interpretation mainly for news and current affairs
programs, a review of the author's assignments is reminiscent of leafing
through a contemporary history book.
For the sake of simplicity, the data for 1970 -94 were compressed into 5-
year periods. The figures for 1995 are shown separately. An overview of the
data is given in Table 1.
— the advantage that the presenter does not have to concentrate on a foreign
language and can therefore focus on his/her questions.
The most noticeable changes in the Austrian media interpretation 'scene',
however, came with the beginning of this decade. The nineties brought a
sizeable expansion of the total amount of interpreting for TV. The average
number of assignments in the period 1990-94 was 21; the total for 1995 was
20. They mirror the many decisive political events and changes of the time: the
Bush/Gorbachev summit meeting and the signing of the CSCE Paris Charta in
1990; the Gulf War and trouble in the Soviet Union in 1991; elections in Great
Britain and the U.S. and the crisis in Yugoslavia in 1992; events in
Yugoslavia, the Middle East, Moscow, South Africa, and the U.N.World
Conference on Human Rights in 1993; the war in Bosnia, Austria's accession
to the European Union, Clinton's visit to Berlin, and Nixon's funeral in 1994;
the war in Bosnia and its conclusion with the signing of the Dayton Peace
Agreement, and Rabin's funeral in 1995.
Despite this increase in the absolute number of news programs using
interpretation, their share in the total number of interpreted programs went
down to 70.5% in 1990-94 and 50% in 1995 owing to the more frequent use
of interpretation in other programs, such as infotainment (1990-94: 15.2%;
1995: 40%), sports (14.3% and 5%, resp.), and religion (1995: 5%).
The absolute figure quoted for 1995 is less representative than the figures
for previous years, as — for interviews at least — ORF has increasingly begun
to use voice-matching, i.e. male interpreters for male voices and female
interpreters for female voices.
Certainly, one of the factors contributing to the increased use of
interpreters on ORF's broadcasts was foreign competition. Since the Austrian
public has ready access to broadcasts from other countries, ORF's coverage
needs to be cosmopolitan (cf. Mayer 1994). In this context one might add that,
of course, coverage of the events in eastern Europe has also added to the
number of languages. However, English is frequently used by non-native
speakers and remains by far the most important source language.
The author's TV interpretation schedule for 1993 (Fig. 1) may serve as
an illustration of the wide variety of subjects a media interpreter has to expect.
It lends support to those authors who feel that media interpreting can rightly
be considered an "additional specialization of experienced conference
interpreters" (Daly 1985:203) and that flexibility is probably the next most
important thing after speed (Bros-Brann 1994).
202 Translation as Intercultural Communication
TV people
(N=19) 2.84 3.47 3.32 3.68 3.84 2.53 2.79 3.32
delegates
(N=124) 2.37 2.5 3.1 3.46 3.69 3.2 2.5 3.4
This paper has tried to throw some light on the quality expectations and
standards governing language use by interpreters on TV. It has provided
statistical and empirical evidence in support of the claims that, apart from
encountering all the difficulties of 'ordinary' conferences (a wide range of
technical subjects, unavailability of texts, different accents, excessive speed,
etc.), the interpreter working in the media is also confronted with special
requirements and restraints.
Recently, empirical research has been extended to two more 'down-to-earth'
questions:
1. Do media interpreters know what they are in for ? (Kurz 1996) and
2. How does the actual output of the media interpreter compare with the
standards it is supposed to meet? (Pöchhacker in this volume)
These are another two small steps designed to gather and analyze 'hard data'
in an effort to learn more about a field of work for interpreters that is here to
stay and obviously has a great potential for the future. Members of the
profession are aware of the fact that interpretation is never an end in itself and
that "the chain of communication does not end in the booth" (Seleskovitch
1986:236). Their aim as cross-cultural communicators must be to satisfy their
audience (Déjean le Féal 1990). An understanding of what quality is in the ears
of their listeners should help them in getting the message across even more
efficiently.
References
Franz Pöchhacker
The use of simultaneous interpreting for live television broadcasts is one of the
more specialized forms of language transfer in the audiovisual media.
Compared to dubbing, subtitling and other major techniques of mediated
intercultural communication, simultaneous interpreting has a narrower scope
of application, being confined, ideally, to "live unscripted material" (Daly
1985:204) such as interviews, discussions or talk-show-type programs produced
in the TV studio or transmitted via satellite. As a rule, the interpretation into
the language of the audience is broadcast as a voice-over, with the original
speaker still audible in the background.
Notwithstanding the particular difficulties and constraints involved in live
broadcast interpreting (Daly 1985; Kurz 1990 and this volume), the quality
standards by which the performance of media interpreters is judged are at least
as stringent as those for "ordinary" conferences (cf. Kurz 1990:169), and in
some respects the level of output quality expected in media interpreting is even
considerably higher.
In a study by Kurz (in this volume) the quality expectations of various
groups of conference participants (Kurz 1989, 1993) were compared with those
of 19 representatives of Austrian and German TV organizations. The respective
ratings for Bühler's (1986) eight "linguistic" quality criteria (native accent,
pleasant voice, fluency of delivery, logical cohesion of utterance, sense consi-
stency with original message, completeness of interpretation, correct gram-
matical usage, and use of correct terminology) indicate that TV professionals
who employ and work with (simultaneous) interpreters in their programs give
a distinctly higher rating to pleasant voice, native accent, fluency of delivery
and correct grammatical usage but attached significantly less importance to the
criterion of completeness. These research findings clearly support the
208 Translation as Intercultural Communication
The case under investigation is the formal address to the citizens of Berlin
delivered by U.S. President Bill Clinton at the Brandenburg Gate on 12 July
1993. The live transmission of the speech was broadcast on Austrian Televi
sion (ORF) with simultaneous "voiceover" interpretation into German by one
of Austria's most reputed and experienced media interpreters.
The speech which Clinton delivered from a carefully crafted manuscript
to an audience of thousands assembled at the Brandenburg Gate followed a
short address by Chancellor Helmut Kohl and lasted just over nine minutes.
The manuscript was not available to the interpreter working in the studio of the
ORF from a monitor.
Fluency of delivery
(2) when those trapped in the East threw stones at the tanks of tyranny.
als diejenigen, die im Osten gefangen waren, die Panzer der Tyrannei mit Steinen
bewarfen.
Franz Pöchhacker 211
Since the interpretation contains approx. 20% more syllables and, at the same
time, one third more pause time than the original speech, the interpreter must
clearly be producing very dense speech bursts. This indication of fluency is
confirmed by the actual pausing pattern, which is best investigated here with
respect to the special delivery characteristics of the original. Of the 13
extended pauses (≥2 seconds) in the original, six are in the range of 2-5
seconds (Ø = 3.3 sec.), another six in the range of 11-15 seconds (Ø = 12.2
sec.), and one pause is of no less than 28 seconds in duration. (It occurs when
Clinton's address to the Germans culminates in the pledge "America is on your
side, now and forever", pronounced in German!) With only one exception,
each of these pauses has its more or less exact counterpart (typically + 0.5
sec.) in the interpretation. Only once the interpreter uses 4.5 seconds of the
speaker's 15-second pause to finish up a complex utterance ("scalding words
about race, ethnicity, or religion") after some initial hesitation. In addition to
these 13 speaker-induced pauses, the interpretation contains 12 pauses in the
narrow range of 2-3.5 seconds which have no counterpart in the original. The
majority of these are clearly a reflection of the interpreter's start-up distance
or time lag at the beginning of distinct utterances. Only about a third of these
processing-related "interpreter's pauses" can clearly be identified as hesitations.
Two of these occur in the following passage, which must be seen as almost the
only exception to the rule of smooth delivery in the case under study:
(3) The quiet courage to lift children above the Wall
Der stille Mut, Kinder über die Mauer zu lassen,
so that their grandparents on the other side could see those they loved but could
not touch.
so dass die Grosseltern auf der andern Seite sie wohl sehen aber nicht berühren
konnten.
It is unmistakably the ambiguous expression "lift children above the wall"
which made the interpreter think twice (3 sec.) and then opt for "über die
Mauer zu lassen", which, when it proved incongruent with the rest of the
utterance, engendered yet another (2.5-sec.) brief interruption in the flow of
the interpretation. It must be emphasized that none of the "interpreter's pauses"
occur within syntactic consituents, so that they are much more akin to ordinary
planning pauses in speech production rather than what Shlesinger (1994) refers
to as "interpretational intonation".
The entire 9-minute stretch of interpretation, which, unlike the original
speech, was produced impromptu without any written support, contains not a
single "false start" and only one instance of voiced hesitation (uh) in the
passage about "race, ethnicity, or religion" referred to above.
212 Translation as Intercultural Communication
All things considered, the degree of fluency and smoothness of the
interpretation under study seems to be as close to the ideal as it could possibly
be.
It is worth noting that the two crucial demands made on simultaneous inter-
pretation by conference participants and TV professionals alike, i.e. sense
consistency with original message and logical cohesion of utterance, are met
in the case under study to the highest degree. One needs to mention that the
original speech contains many passages in which an idea is developed over a
number of parallel utterances. In two instances, the interpreter, unable to
foresee the unfolding of the rhetorical cascade, opted for non-matching clausal
structures, within which the original semantic material acquires a slightly
different though perfectly plausible meaning or sense. In one case, the sentence
"Already the new future is taking shape" was used by the speaker as a stem
from which four complement phrases, each beginning with "in", were to
branch out. The interpreter, who had ended the preceding sentence with a "full
stop" rather than a "colon", went on to use more self-contained structures by
rearranging or adding the appropriate syntactic constituents. In the example
given below, the predicate "gehören dazu" ("are part of it") is added to round
off the sentence:
(4) In the growing economies of Western Europe, the United States, and our
partners.
Die aufblühenden Wirtschaften Westeuropas, der Vereinigten Staaten und unserer
Partner gehören dazu.
In two other instances the slight deviations, if any, from the "sense" of the
original affect even smaller utterance segments. In one case the interpreter
clearly misperceived the words "no wall" in the original as "no one" and
produced the corresponding utterance in German. The resulting "sense
inconsistency" hardly deserves that label, since it makes little difference
whether "no wall" or "no one" "can forever contain the mighty power of
freedom." In the other case, the interpreter had just caught on to the overall
structure of a rhetorical cascade and made the appropriate output adjustments,
most likely with some compromise to listening attention. In the subsequent
utterance the indirect pledge of "American forces who will stay in Europe to
guard freedom's future" is turned into a politically neutral statement of
historical fact about the "amerikanischen Soldaten, die in Europa den Frieden
Franz Pöchhacker 213
In the list of quality criteria used for user expectation surveys the issue of com
pleteness appears as a separate, seemingly quantitative parameter. In fact,
however, it is closely tied in with the qualitative issue of "sense consistency",
since an omission of part of the original speech is likely to have some impact
on the sense of the message in the interpretation. The real issue implied by the
criterion of completeness is therefore that of message redundancy, i.e. the
question of what can safely be left out without detracting from the information
content of the speech.
It would be foolhardy to assume that an objective method for measuring
information content or a deficit thereof could be readily applied to the
comparative analysis of an original speech and its interpretation. Luckily,
however, the material under study presents few, if any, methodologically
challenging cases. On the contrary: The German interpretation is a remarkably
close rendering of the English original; it is so "faithful" that it contains hardly
any "omissions" which deserve that label. Take this example:
(6) We stand where crude walls of concrete separated mother from child
Wir stehen, wo Betonmauern Mütter von Kindern trennten
214 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Conclusion
References
Alexieva, Bistra. 1988. "Analysis of the simultaneous interpreter's output". In: Paul Nekeman
(ed.) Translation, our future. Proceedings of the Xlth World Congress of FIT.
Maastricht: Euroterm, 484-488.
Bühler, Hildegund. 1986. "Linguistic (semantic) and extra-linguistic (pragmatic) criteria for
the evaluation of conference interpretation and interpreters". Multilingua 5 (4), 231-
235.
Bühler, Hildegund (ed.) 1985. Translators and their Position in Society. Proceedings of the
Xth World Congress of FIT. Wien: Braumüller.
Daly, Albert F. 1985. "Interpreting for international satellite television". In: Bühler (ed.), 203-
209.
Galli, Cristina. 1990. "Simultaneous interpretation in medical conferences: A case study". In:
L. Gran and C. Taylor (eds.) Aspects of Applied and Experimental Research on
Conference Interpretation. Udine: Campanotto, 61-81.
Gile, Daniel. 1995. Regards sur la recherche en interprétation de conference. Lille: Presses
Universitaires de Lille.
Kalina, Sylvia. 1994. "Analyzing interpreters' peformance: Methods and problems". In: Cay
Dollerup and Annette Lindegaard (eds.) Teaching Translation and Interpreting 2.
Insights, Aims, Visions (Benjamins Translation Library 5) Amsterdam/Philadelphia:
Benjamins, 225-232.
Kopcynski, Andrzej. 1980. Conference interpreting: some linguistic and communicative
problems (Seria Filologia Angielska 13) Poznan: A. Mickiewicz University Press.
Kurz, Ingrid. 1985. "Zur Rolle des Sprachmittlers im Fernsehen". In: Bühler (ed.), 213-215.
Kurz, Ingrid. 1989. "Conference Interpreting: User Expectations". In: Deanna L. Hammond
(ed.) Coming of Age. Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of the American
Translators Association. Medford NJ: Learned Information, 143-148.
216 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Kurz, Ingrid. 1990. "Overcoming language barriers in European television". In: D. Bowen and
M. Bowen (eds.) Interpreting — Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow (ATA Scholarly
Monograph Series IV) Binghamton NY: SUNY, 168-175.
Kurz, Ingrid. 1993. "Conference interpretation: Expectations of different user groups". The
Interpreters' Newsletter 5, 13-21.
Kurz, Ingrid and Pöchhacker, Franz. 1995. "Quality in TV interpreting". Translatio. Nouvelles
de la FIT — FIT Newsletter (Nouvelle série) XIV (3/4), 350-358.
Mona, Tiziana. 1995. "The choices and politico-cultural impact of simultaneously-translated
television programmes in Switzerland" [Ms.], publ. in French as: "Les choix et
l'impact politico-culturels de la traduction simultanée d'émissions de télévision en
Suisse". Translatio. Nouvelles de la FIT— FIT Newsletter (Nouvelle série) XIV
(3/4), 329-336.
Pöchhacker, Franz. 1994. Simultandolmetschen als komplexes Handeln. Tübingen: Gunter Narr
(Language in Performance 10).
Russo, Mariachiara. 1995. "Media Interpreting: Variables and Strategies". Translatio. Nou-
velles de la FIT— FIT Newsletter (Nouvelle série) XIV (3/4), 343-349.
Shlesinger, Miriam. 1994. "Intonation in the production and perception of simultaneous
interpretation". In: S. Lambert and B. Moser-Mercer (eds.) Bridging the Gap.
Empirical Research in Simultaneous Interpretation (Benjamins Translation Library 3)
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 225-236.
Vik-Tuovinen, Gun-Viol. 1995. "Progress in simultaneous interpreting — an evaluation of the
development of four students". Hermes. Journal of Linguistics 14, 55-64.
Bridging the gap: Verb anticipation in German-
English simultaneous interpreting
Udo Jörg
1
A small-scale study carried out by the author with final-year students at Heriot-Watt
University, Edinburgh, showed that linguistic anticipation (above all on the basis of
collocations) had been mastered to a greater extent than extralinguistic anticipation
(1993).
Udo Jörg 219
semantically relevant element of the verb phrase is often in end position (cf.
Wilss 1978:347), and, if the clause is convoluted with many subordinate
clauses or complementing phrases embedded in the complex verb phrase,
waiting for the main verb may overtax the interpreter's short-term memory and
result in a loss of information (cf. Kirchhoff 1976:61). One way out of this
dilemma is the anticipation of the verbal component at the end of the sentence.
Wilss investigated what he referred to as syntactic anticipation (anticipation
triggered off by syntactic cues) in German-English SI and concluded (mainly
on the basis of research work by Mattern 1974)
...that syntactic anticipation normally is something quite different from blind
textual hypothesising. It is rather the result of intelligent textual prediction
triggered by linguistic units (morphemes, lexemes or lexeme combinations)
which, within the framework of specific communication situations, serve as
important cues for the achievement of high-quality SI performance (1978:349).
The phenomenon of verb anticipation in German-English SI is occasionally
mentioned in the literature. Usually, however, it is not given extensive
coverage and the difficulties of the process sometimes tend to be played down
(cf. Lederer 1981:257 or Dalitz 1983:157).
Within the framework of this study, the intention was to shed some light
on the phenomenon of verb anticipation in German-English SI by means of an
empirical investigation.
Experiment
Source Text
Subjects
Objectives
Procedure
The Herzog speech contained 26 sentences and clauses where verb anticipation
was likely to occur. In all these instances, complex German verbal structures
were split by other complex phrases which would have to be memorised unless
the verbal component in end position was anticipated. These 26 sentences and
clauses from the 12 recordings were transcribed.
In order to ascertain whether verb anticipation had taken place, three
categories for the simultaneously interpreted sentences were devised. One
category contained clauses where interpreters had successfully anticipated the
relevant German verbal component in end position (successful anticipation),
the second category comprised clauses where no verb anticipation had occurred
(no anticipation), and the third category consisted of those instances where the
verb had been wrongly anticipated (incorrect anticipation).
Category 1 (successful anticipation) was further divided into two subcategories
(exact anticipation and more general, but still successful, anticipation). The
German clause Millionen...waren zum Opfer gefallen, for example, was
interpreted (with anticipation) by one subject millions...had fallen victim to,
which would constitute a case of exact anticipation, whereas another inter-
preter's version millions...were destroyed by would also be a case of
successful but less exact anticipation. The former rendition would qualify as
exact anticipation, the latter as more general, but still successful anticipation.
I deemed the differentiation between exact and more general anticipation
necessary, as both types occurred frequently in the various interpretations, but
could be commented on differently. Whereas instances of exact anticipation
indicated that the subjects had indeed predicted the verb in an intelligent way,
i.e. by inferring it from linguistic and extralinguistic clues, the case was not
as clear-cut when it came to more general anticipations. At times, subjects
might not have anticipated in the way just described, but simply came up with
a make-shift, stop-gap verb, usually as non-committal and semantically void
as possible, and yet, in doing so, managed to stay in line with the gist of the
sentence and speech. In other words, instances of exact anticipation can be
regarded as evidence of intelligent predictions, whereas more general
anticipations might at times also be the result of damage minimisation
strategies, which are more erratic and much less based on inferences drawn
from linguistic and extralinguistic clues. For this reason it was thought
worthwhile to differentiate between the two types of successful anticipation.
Udo Jörg 223
Results
In Figure 2, two scores lie outside the field of the standard deviation (standard
deviation: 4.05; outsiders: SG3 & PG32). The remaining ten scores are
relatively evenly distributed around the mean value of 13 (corresponds to
anticipation in every other anticipation-likely sentence). A closer look reveals
that the scores of the professional interpreters cluster more closely around the
mean value, which indicates that their anticipation performance is more
consistent and regular than that of the student interpreters.
The fact that there are two extreme values, one on either side beyond
the standard deviation, could be interpreted as evidence that every interpreter
This is in line with some of Chernov's findings about probability prediction. In his
experiments, simultaneous interpreters interpreted in 50.89% of cases according to
their predictions when working from their mother tongue, as opposed to 28.68 % when
working into their mother tongue (1978:82).
226 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Figure 3 shows that in spite of the fact that the total number of verb anticipa-
tion instances is almost identical for English and German mother tongue
interpreters, the latter have over 10% more exact anticipation scores than the
former, thus confirming the hypothesis that anticipation skills (in the sense of
intelligent predictions) are probably better developed in the mother tongue.
This statement could also be underpinned by the distribution of incorrect
anticipation scores as shown in Figure 4.
The scores for incorrect anticipation are in general very low. It is almost non-
existent in native speakers of German (one single incident of incorrect
Udo Jörg 227
anticipation in SGI) and occurs, if only rarely, more often in the English
mother tongue students than in the English mother tongue professionals.
This shows that anticipation certainty seems to be higher when
interpreting from one's mother tongue. When working from a foreign
language, professionals seem to be better at anticipating. The scores for exact
anticipation are also worth examining:
Figure 5. Individual anticipation scores: exact anticipation
Figure 5 demonstrates quite clearly that students hit the absolutely correct verb
less frequently than professionals (only one student scores above-average and
only one professional scores below-average in exact anticipations). From this
we can conclude that, as a rule, anticipation proficiency increases with
experience, even though (as SG2 shows) exceptional performances by non-
experienced interpreters are possible.
In summary, then, the performances of 12 interpreters (students and
professionals), who interpreted a political speech which was read out when
they did not have a copy of it, revealed the following:4
On average, verb anticipation took place in half of the anticipation-
likely sentences. In more spontaneous speeches, anticipation would probably
be more frequent. ■■
Even though there is an individual anticipation potential, it was found
that anticipation performance was more consistent among professional
interpreters than among students.
For further analyses and results relating to verb anticipation in German-English SI and
correlations with quality features such as precision, style, fluency of delivery, etc. cf.
Jörg 1995.
228 Translation as Intercultural Communication
References
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Drescher, Horst W./Scheffzek, Sigrid (eds.) 1976. Theorie und Praxis des Übersetzens und
Dolmetschern: Bern: Peter Lang.
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Jörg, Udo. 1995. Verb Anticipation in German-English Simultaneous Interpreting: an
Empirical Study. University of Bradford: Unpublished MA Dissertation.
Kirchhoff, Helene. 1976. "Das Simultandolmetschen: Interdependenz der Variablen im
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S. Scheffzek (eds.), 59-71.
Lambert, Sylvie and Moser-Mercer, Barbara (eds.) 1994. Bridging the Gap — Empirical
Research in Simultaneous Interpretation. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Lederer, Marianne. 1978. "Simultaneous Interpreting — Units of Meaning and other
Features". In: D. Gerver/ H.W. Sinaiko (eds.), 323-332.
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Moser, Barbara. 1978. "Simultaneous Interpretation: A Hypothetical Model and its Practical
Application". In: D. Gerver/H.W. Sinaiko (eds.), 353-368.
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A thinking-aloud experiment in subtitling
Irena Kovačič
Although subtitlers themselves usually claim that they are not aware of using
any particular strategies in the process of deciding what from the original text
(dialogue) they are going to preserve in the subtitle, what to render in a
reduced form and what to leave out altogether, comparison of subtitles with
original texts reveals consistent regularities (Kovačič 1992). Could scrutiny of
the subtitling process itself reveal more about the mechanisms underlying
subtitlers' selections and decisions while translating? This decision-making
process may be regarded as a typical example of problem-solving behaviour,
and as such eligible for investigation by thinking-aloud experiments. Subtitling,
like any translation, is a case of the same input possibly (usually) leading to
different outputs. Mere observation of differences among the outputs cannot
tell us much about how they came about. Therefore, as Lörscher (1991:48)
puts it, "the assumption seems justified that the quality of the hypotheses on
the processing of information on the brain can be improved by taking into
account data from the production process which the language user has been
asked to externalise while producing the language output". However, it is
necessary to emphasise that such experiments can be regarded only as an
attempt to gain some insight into the process and by no means as a definitive
account of the functioning of the subtitler's brain. Mental processes can be
influenced by many different factors, frequently unobservable, which cannot
be controlled in an experimental situation.
Thinking-aloud experiments
In the field of translation studies, the most explicit criticism comes from
Toury (e.g. Toury 1991, slightly revised in Toury 1995:234-9). Toury holds
that in the case of verbalised translations, the main problem is "the possible
interference of two modes of translation", claiming that (in experiments
"involving the gradual production of a written translation of a written text")
"the need to verbalize aloud forces the subjects to produce not just mental, but
spoken translation before the required written one; and that there is a real
possibility that spoken and written translation do not involve the exact same
strategies" (Toury 1995:235; italics in the original). I will argue below that this
objection does not hold for TAP experiments in subtitling, where translators
attempt to reproduce a written version of dialogue, which is spoken discourse
by its very nature. Subtitles appear to be that strange marginal hybrid of
spoken-written translation characterised by external symptoms of 'inner
speech', whose existence Toury (1995:236) is willing to recognise, yet
questioning "its relevancy for the establishment of a general 'psycholinguistic'
model of translation".
The experiment
Six subtitlers were asked to subtitle in Slovene a passage from the 1986 Miles
Company television adaptation of a Broadway production of Eugene O'Neill's
Long Day's Journey into Night, starring Jack Lemmon, Bethel Leslie, Peter
Gallagher and Kevin Spacey. With its rapid dialogues, abundant overlapping
and American culture-specific concepts, this play seemed particularly
appropriate for the experiment. It could be anticipated that the subtitlers would
have to apply a number of specific subtitling procedures to allow Slovene
viewers access to the meaning of the original text, notably:
232 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Experimental subjects
The TAPs obtained in the experiment confirm that less experienced subtitlers
are a richer source of introspective data (cf. e.g. Lörscher 1991:35 for an
Irena Kovačič 233
Types of verbalisations
in the protocols which arises from the subjects' awareness of being observed
and analysed.
Conclusion
On the most general level, the initial analysis of the protocols in our
experiment yields results that are consistent with findings of similar research
in other fields of translation: a significant amount of the translation/subtitling
process does not get verbalised; the more experienced an experimental subject,
the less he or she verbalises. What prevails in verbalisations, is 'browsing'
through various straight-forward alternative wordings of a subtitle. In this,
particularly salient is the search for optimal balance between the need to reduce
and the need to sound natural, which coincides with the choice between
registers of written and spoken discourses. Among more analytical thoughts,
efforts to understand plot or discourse relevance of individual utterances is
verbalised, sometimes directly, even more frequently indirectly. Not
verbalised, however, are 'categorisablé' criteria underlying the final selection
among the several options reviewed in the browsing section of verbalisation.
Further experiments, in combination with interviews and product-oriented
analysis (i.e. analysis of subtitles) will be needed; what seems obvious at this
stage is that one of the most interesting aspects of the subtitling process, viz.
what guides subtitlers in their selective translation, is not accessible through
TAPs.
References
Paul Kussmaul
For some time now in translation studies the comprehension process has
become a focus of interest. Psycholinguistic notions such as bottom-up and
top-down processes, prototypes, scenes-and-frames, schemas and scripts
have been applied to the translation process (e.g. Vannerem/Snell-Hornby
1986; Snell-Hornby 1988:79ff.; Neubert 1988; Vermeer/Witte 1990; Kuß-
maul 1994:9ff.; Kußmaul 1995). We are turning away from purely
linguistic, system-based models to those which include the language user.
This is surely the right thing to do. There has been little work, however, on
observing how this process actually works when we translate.
On a small scale I have tried to do just this. In this paper I shall report
on TAP-experiments that focus on comprehension. My first hypothesis is: If
we can observe "scenic" notions in the TAPs, then there is a good chance
that subjects will understand the text correctly. A correct understanding will
in turn lead to a good translation. Making use of scenic notions would thus
be part of a successful translation strategy and could be used for training
purposes. If, however, we can observe that in spite of correct
comprehension, the text is not translated in a satisfactory way, the subjects
most likely will have had problems with verbalising what they have
understood. By analysing the TAPs we might be able to find some of the
causes of their problems.
My other hypothesis concerns creativity. Creativity is usually regarded
as a special gift or at least a special state of mind. It has always had strong
connections with art. The processes involved in producing creative products,
so the thinking goes, do not just happen in the normal course of events.
They have a semi-mystical flavour about them. Words like "inspiration" and
"illumination" suggest that these processes are out of our conscious reach.
Stories about creative ideas in dreams support this opinion. If we want to be
240 Translation as Intercultural Communication
creative, special arrangements such as brainstorming sessions have to be
made. I have a feeling that creativity is not all that special. It is an everyday
affair. My observations of comprehension processes, which are basic to the
human mind, and the resulting translations suggest that they involve a large
amount of creativity, and if we make conscious use of these comprehension
processes, we can be creative as translators.
I examined 4 dialogue protocols of students in their 3rd year who were
acquainted with psycholinguistic notions and models. The text to be
translated described the economic improvement in the eastern parts of
Germany. It ran:
Sleek new cars speed along straightened and repaved autobahns. Shiny service
stations come equipped with well-stocked convenience stores and gleaming
self-service restaurants. Enormous supermarkets, furniture stores and shopping
emporiums dot the east German landscape, and giant cranes stand tall against
the sky. Every seat is filled at Dresden's magnificent neoclassical opera house:
comfortable burghers sip French champagne during the intermissions. Even in
grimy Bitterfeld, a mining and chemicals centre notorious for its pollution,
well-dressed women from a nearby retirement home gather for creamy coffee
and gigantic pastries at a Swiss-owned coffee shop. {Newsweek, February 28,
1994, p. 14)
The subjects were given the fictitious translation assignment that they should
translate the text for the News Department of the German Government
under the general heading "How Germany is seen abroad". When analysing
the protocol I examined how the following phrases of the text were
understood and translated:
1. Shiny service stations ... gleaming self-service restaurants
2. well-stocked convenience stores
3. comfortable burghers
4. gigantic pastries.
These items, I found, were especially suited to create a scene in Fillmore's
sense in the reader. Given 4 text items and 4 protocols there were 16
solutions altogether. 8 of them were good, 4 were satisfactory, and 4 were
not quite bad, but could have been improved. How were the 8 good
translations achieved? 6 of them were prepared by the subjects visualising a
scene, for 2 of them no scene could be observed, which does not mean that
it was not there; it only means that it was not verbalised by the subjects.
Let us look at some of the examples in the TAPs were scenes appeared.
Paul Kussmaul 241
Successful processes
When translating this phrase some of the subjects visualised scenes which
led to good translations. I shall pick out and discuss two possibilities of
creating a scene (for the term see Fillmore 1976, 1977). A scene can
originate in the translator's own personal experience and knowledge stored
in his or her long-term memory. It can also originate in the translator's
experience and interpretation of the given text stored in his or her short-
term memory. Here is an example of the first type. The subjects were not
quite happy with their translation "gutausgestattete Geschäfte" for "well-
stocked convenience stores":
B: convenience stores? Man könnt' höchstens noch anhängen: Dinge des
täglichen Bedarfs.
A: Aber das ist ja nicht unbedingt nur so, also in Raststätten, diese
Geschäfte, z.B. an den Tankstellen, die haben ja auch Sachen, die du
nicht für den alltäglichen Bedarf brauchst, irgendwelche besondere
Geschenke, Landkarten.
B: aber auch in Kühltheken, Joghurt, Getränke und Zeitungen, alles
mögliche, ich weiß nicht wie man das passender ausdrücken könnte, oder
wir lassen's dann einfach.
A: Man kann's umschreiben: mit gut ausgestatteten Geschäften, in denen
man alles finden kann, was das Herz begehrt.
B: Ja, oder so.
A: So könnte man's umschreiben.
B: Ja, ich glaub, das wär doch, das ist gut (Text wird wiederholt)
(Lachen)
A: Oi, oi. Jetzt sind wir fertig.
This protocol passage is well suited to show the connection between
comprehension and creative processes. When visualising the scene the
subjects here make use of divergent or lateral thinking as opposed to
convergent or vertical thinking (for the terms see Guilford 1975; de Bono
1970). If the subjects had used vertical thinking, they might have proceeded
in the way a dictionary does and tried to find a definition for well-stocked
based on a logical sequence of semantic features, such as: "having a
sufficient supply of goods for future use". The list of scenic details the
subjects mention in our protocol, however, cannot be reached by convergent
thinking. There is no direct logical link between the notion well-stocked and
words like maps or yoghurt or newspapers. Such words can only be arrived
242 Translation as Intercultural Communication
The second type of scene, which results from the interpretation of the text
in question, was observed in another protocol when the subjects were
discussing the translation of "shiny service stations ... gleaming self-service
restaurants":
A: Ich meine, das Hauptaugenmerk ist ja da drauf, daß alles brandneu und
wunderbar und alles schön und
B: Hm (zustimmend)
A: Und tja, Traum des Westens ist
For the final translation "brandneu" is taken up, and the whole phrase then
runs: "brandneue Autobahnraststätten mit gut sortiertem Warenangebot und
blitzsauberen Selbstbedienungsrestaurants". This translation again is rather
"removed" from the phrase in the source text, but it exactly renders its
meaning. Here again we may also say that it has been brought about by
processes of creative thinking. When subject A interprets the meaning of
"shiny" and "gleaming" she displays obvious features of fluency and lateral
thinking. In a short space of time she mentions quite a number of
characteristics of the situation in the new German Bundesländer which are
not connected with shiny and gleaming on a structural semantic level:
"brandneu, wunderbar, schön, Traum des Westens".
I would like to point out another phenomenon. There is an extremely
close relationship between the comprehension and the reverbalisation phase.
"Brandneu", one of the words used in the interpretation phase, as we saw,
actually turns up in the translation. The traditional notion that in the
translation process we can distinguish two separate phases should, I think,
be replaced by a model that leaves room for overlapping of the phases.
Indeed, in my teaching I have observed, that there is not only overlapping
but identity, that is, comprehension and translation is often the same thing.
Then a good translation is nothing else but the verbalisation of one's
comprehension processes (cf. Kussmaul 1995). This seems to be true at
least for the cases where the world knowledge and the cultural expectations
of source-text readers and target-text readers are fairly similar. When they
differ, translators may have to adapt their comprehension of the source text
to the needs and expectations of the target readers. The text I chose was
"easy" in this respect. It was a text about Germany, and German readers
would not have found it difficult to comprehend the cultural background it
referred to. I chose an "easy" text for my first experiment. Future
experiments will have to show what happens when texts do not deal with
topics that can be comprehended by making use of scenic knowledge stored
in one's memory. Moreover, results may differ when one translates into the
foreign language, because then the verbalisations of the comprehension
process (of a text written in the translator's mother tongue) will most likely
take place in the mother tongue. Identity between comprehension and
translation would then impossible.
244 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Partly successful processes
pieces of cake), and the laughter of the subjects can be taken as a sign that
they evaluated their version positively.
In another protocol a similar observation can be made. In their
discussion of gigantic pastries the subjects are imagining a vivid scene:
A: Oder treffen sich einfach zu Kaffee und Kuchen; ich mein...
B: Das finde ich zu schwach, weil das gigantic pastries... ich denke, das ist
so, daß die dann Kuchen haben, wo dann auch Zuckerguß drauf ist und
vielleicht eine Fettglasur, so Schichtkuchen, so schwarzwälderkirsch-
ähnlich, so so
A: Mhm, genau, ja doch, mhm...
(3 Sekunden Pause)
(...)
B: Schweizer Kaffeehaus zum Kaffeetrinken und Kuchenschlemmen. Die
schlemmen da schon wenn sie so...
After having discussed the translation of creamy coffee the subjects come up
with additional details of the cake-eating scene:
B: ... die Kuchen finde ich schon wichtig, nö...die Torten, riesige Torten...
A: Buttercremetorte, Sahnetorte
In both cases we can observe some features of creative thinking. As I
mentioned earlier, fluent and divergent (or lateral) thinking are probably the
most important features of creativity. Fluency manifests itself here in the
fact that the subjects, especially the pair in the second protocol, produce
quite a number of scenic details in a relatively short space of time, and
divergent thinking can be seen in the fact that the subjects do not try to find
a formal equivalent (i.e. an adjective) for "gigantic" but express the notion
inherent in the word by alternative, sometimes additional, linguistic means
such as verbal phrases (regelrecht dahingehen und sich echt vollfressen,
nicht dezent so ein Keks so verdrücken, riesige Kuchenstücke vertilgen,
Kuchenschlemmen) or nouns and adjectives having to do with the type of
cake (Fettglasur, so Schichtkuchen, so schwarzwälderkirschähnlich, Torten,
riesige Torten, Buttercremetorte, Sahnetorte).
In both cases, however, the subjects finally did not make use of the
ideas that had come to their minds ("Kuchenstücke vertilgen",
"Kuchenschlemmen") when they had imagined the scene. The first pair
eventually opted for: "Um dort Kaffee zu trinken und riesige Kuchenstücke
zu genießen", and the second pair used the rather colourless phrase "treffen
sich zu einem guten Stück Torte in einem Schweizer Café".
What might be the reason for this type of translational behaviour?
Obviously, the comprehension process worked very well, possibly because
246 Translation as Intercultural Communication
it was dominated by the recognition of the macrostructural meaning of the
text (the improving economic situation and greater affluence in the former
GDR). What happened then?
The first pair, when asked why they did not keep vertilgen, said they
thought the word sounded too "crude". Apparently, they did not dare to
make use of what they had verbalised in the comprehension phase. This
seems to be a rather typical kind of behaviour. The subjects seem to lack
self-confidence, one of the basic features of a professional translator, and
maybe they also thought that translating and comprehending were two
separate phases, whereas, as we can see in this instance and as we saw a
little earlier, they are often one and the same phase. The second pair,
although having taken into account the macrostructure of the text in their
comprehension phase, nevertheless, when entering into the translation phase
were occasionally fixed on microstructures. For instance, they extensively
discussed if "creamy coffee" should be translated by Cappuccino or by
Kaffee mit Sahne, but they did not mention the decisive criteria in their
decision making process, namely that the ladies are now able to indulge in
some luxury. And when they translated "coffee shop" they looked up the
word in a dictionary and discussed such irrelevant details as the size of the
house before finally deciding for Schweizer Café, which they could have
done right from the start. This is not an isolated case but seems to be rather
typical. What we can observe here is that microstructures become
predominant and are no longer related to macrostructures. In other words,
the scenic visualisations are blotted out, and features which should have
actually been part of the scene cannot be visualised within the general
scenario. Consequently, the subjects tend to slip back into a rather
unprofessional way of behaviour. They try to understand and look up
isolated words, when they could have easily understood these words by
relying on their own comprehension processes (for similar observations cf.
Hönig 1993:86ff.; 1995:59ff.). This may be interpreted as a sign of lacking
self-confidence, which again prevents the subjects from combining the
comprehension with the translation phase and recognising that very often the
verbalisation of their comprehension is actually the best translation.
My hypothesis that imagining a scene will lead to good translations is
to some extent confirmed by the experiments. In addition, the processes
involved in scenic comprehension and subsequent translation have a great
affinity to creative processes, which means that being creative is not really a
special gift but part of the normal mental make-up of any person. But there
is a snag. People often do not realise that they have just been creative. Our
Paul Kussmaul 247
subjects are a case in point. Sometimes they did not notice that they had
actually found a good translation. There may be several reasons for this. It
may very well be that they do not accept the verbalisations of their
comprehension as proper translations. My teaching experience suggests that
this is indeed so, but some more empirical studies would be needed to
confirm this impression. Moreover, the subjects in their decision-making
sometimes seem to be fixated on microstructures when they should actually
have considered the macrostructure of texts and of corresponding scenes.
For teaching purposes I would suggest that for comprehension of texts
we practise imagining scenes and point out that verbalising comprehension
can be translation. This means that we do not draw a dividing line between
text analysis and translation. Of course, the functions of source and target
text have to be clarified before we begin to translate, but at least as far as
meaning is concerned, text-analytical models that involve "steps" are
dangerous. For translators, text analysis is of pedagogical use only if
analysis and translation are closely correlated. If we fail to do this, we will
impede professional and indeed creative behaviour.
References
Bobrow, Robert J. & Brown, John Seely 1975. "Systematic Understanding: Synthesis,
Analysis, and Contingent Knowledge in Specialized Understanding Systems". In: D.
G. Bobrow/ A. Collins (eds.) Representation and Understanding. Studies in Cognitive
Science. New York: Academic Press, 103-130.
de Bono, Edward. 1970. Lateral Thinking. A Textbook of creativity. London: Ward Lock
Educational.
Fillmore, Charles J. 1976. "Frame Semantics and the Nature of Language". In: J. Harnard
et al. (eds.) Origins and Evolution of Language and Speech. Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences. Vol. 280. New York, 20-32.
Fillmore, Charles J. 1977. "Scenes-and-Frames Semantics". In: A. Zampolli (eds.):
Linguistic Structures Processing. Amsterdam: N. Holland, 55-88.
Guilford, Joy Peter. 1975. "Creativity: A Quarter Century of Progress". In: I.A.
Taylor/J.W. Getzels (eds.) Perspectives in Creativity. Chicago: Aldine, 37-59.
Honig, Hans G. 1993. "Vom Selbst-Bewußtsein des Übersetzers". In: J. Holz-Mänttäri/ C.
Nord (eds.) Traducere Navem. Festschrift für Katharina Reiss zum 70. Geburtstag.
Tampere (studia translatologica ser. A, vol. 3), 77-90.
Honig, Hans G. 1995. Konstruktives Übersetzen. Tübingen: Stauffenburg .
Kußmaul, Paul. 1994. " Semantic Models and Translating". Target 6/1 (1994), 1-13.
Kußmaul, Paul. 1995. Training the Translator. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: Benjamins.
Neubert, Albrecht. 1988. "Top-down-Prozeduren beim translatorischen Informationstrans-
fer". In: G. Jäger/A. Neubert (eds.) Semantik, Kognition und Äquivalenz. Leipzig:
VEB Verlag Enzyclopädie, 18-30.
Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1988. Translation Studies. An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam:
Benjamins.
248 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Vannerem, Mia & Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1986. "Die Szene hinter dem Text: "scenes-and-
frames semantics" in der Übersetzung". In: M. Snell-Hornby (ed.) Übersetzungswis
senschaft. Eine Neuorientierung. Zur Integrierung von Theorie und Praxis. Tübingen:
Francke, 184-205.
Vermeer, Hans J. & Witte, Heidrun. 1990. Mögen Sie Zistrosen? Scenes & frames &
channels im translatorischen Handeln. Heidelberg: Groos.
Übersetzen als transkultureller Verstehens- und
Produktionsprozeß
Sigrid Kupsch-Losereit
1
Der pure Vergleich von eigenem und fremdkulturellen Sprach- und Weltwissen stellt
keine kognitive Operation an sich dar, so noch Müller (1986:34,37). Diese Vergleichs-
handlung geht der Inferenz voraus, ist also nicht das entscheidende Paradigma des Ver-
stehensprozesses, auch wenn Fremdes erst einmal über bereits Bekanntes wahr- und
aufgenommen wird.
Sigrid Kupsch-Losereit 251
Wörtern, Sätzen und Texten verbundene Konzepte und scenes aktiviert, d.h.
das Referenzpotential einer sprachlichen Äußerung, die mit ihr verbundenen
Situationen, Affekte, sozialen und interaktioneilen Muster etc. Die mentale
Leistung des Translators besteht darin, eine aktuell-spontane Beziehung
zwischen Ausgangstext (AT), Handlungszusammenhängen (d.h. der kom-
munikativen und sozialen Funktion dieses AT) sowie seinem kulturellem
Wissen herzustellen. Aus dem Dargestellten ergibt sich, und neuere Forschung
belegt es, daß sein Verstehen und damit seine kognitiven Strategien abhängig
sind von den Erwartungen (wie z.B. Textsorte, Textintention) und den
Absichten und Zielsetzungen, mit denen der AT gelesen wird.2 Der Translator
liest den Text also von vornherein aus der Perspektive seiner Kultur, aus der
Perspektive des fremdsprachigen und fremdkulturellen Lesers, eben sub specie
translationis. Das Verstehen des Translators bezieht die kommunikative
Funktion von Texten, den sozialen Sinnzusammenhang textvermittelten und
textvermittelnden Handelns mit ein.
2
Zwaan (1993:15-18 und 157) belegt die Abhängigkeit kognitiver Strategien und Kontroll-
mechanismen von Texttyp und Texterwartung. Bei Zwaan auch weiterführende Literatur.
252 Translation as Intercultural Communication
so betone ich jetzt im Übersetzungsprozeß die Annahmen bezüglich der
kognitiven Verstehensprozesse beim Leser. Die wichtigsten Annahmen sind
situativer, kommunikativer und interaktionistischer Art.3 Der Translator
formuliert also auf der Grundlage text- wie wissensbezogener Informationen
einen Text, der durch zwei Kraftfelder bestimmt wird. Zum einen durch
translatorische Zielsetzungen, Hypothesen und Relevanzentscheidungen und
zum anderen den durch Normen, Konventionen, Zwänge etc. bestimmten
Diskurs zweier Sprachgemeinschaften.
Das vorgestellte integrativ-konstruktive Modell des Textverstehens und der
Textverständlichkeit erlaubt Aussagen über den Integrationsprozeß: Beim
Übersetzen wird die fremdkulturelle textuelle Information in die eigenen
Wissens- und Handlungsstrukturen sowie die eigene Textwelt integriert auf
Grund des spezifischen historischen Standortes, der Erwartungen, Ein-
stellungen, Intentionen und Interessen des Translators. In einem interaktiven
Prozeß, der ebenfalls auf translatorischen Annahmen und Zielsetzungen (s.o.)
beruht, formuliert der Translator eine Makrostrategie für seine Übersetzung.4
Diese Makrostrategie legt 1. die situativen Handlungsbedingungen (Medium,
Kommunikationspartner, Bezugsrahmen, Vorgaben für Preise etc.) sowie die
Mitteilungs- und Wirkungsabsicht und 2. die Art und Abfolge textsorten-
spezifischer Handlungen (Handlungsstruktur, Organisationsstruktur, sprachkul-
turspezifische Muster etc.) fest. Makrostrategische Überlegungen sind somit
grundlegend für die Übersetzung als zweckgerichteter, situationsbedingter und
auf Verständigung angelegter interlingualer Kommunikation. Alle über-
setzerischen Operationen basieren auf der Einsicht, daß auch Verständlichkeit
das Resultat kognitiver Prozesse ist. Der ZT soll ja eine Integration der vom
AT ermöglichten Handlungszusammenhänge ermöglichen, muß also eventuell
implizit im AT vorhandenes Kulturwissen im ZT explizit machen oder sonstige
Informationen des AT — sei es syntaktisch, semantisch-logisch oder hand-
lungsorientiert — in den ZT inferieren. Die Übersetzung wird nur dann ein
echter transkultureller Kommunikationsvorgang sein, wenn sie in einem neuen
situativ-praktischen Kontext, einem sozial-interaktiven Kontext einer neuen
Diskursgemeinschaft und einem neuen semantisch-kognitiven Kontext der
Erklärung und Interpretation verstanden wird. Eingangs wurde bereits betont,
daß der Verstehens- und Produktionsvorgang nicht getrennt voneinander zu
3
Vgl. dazu ausführlicher Kupsch-Losereit 1996. Allgemein zu Annahmen hinsichtlich
kognitiver Prozesse der Sprachrezeption Rickheit/ Strohner (1993:75f.).
4
Auch Honig (1995:62, 69 und 89) betont und fordert die Steuerung des Übersetzungs-
prozesses durch eine Makrostrategie, ohne jedoch makrostategische Parameter zu
spezifizieren.
Sigrid Kupsch-Losereit 253
betrachten sind, und daß die Verstehenskompetenz ein Teil der übersetzeri-
schen Kompetenz ist. Darüberhinaus wurde festgestellt, daß dem Übersetzungs-
prozeß bestimmte typische Verstehensprozesse vorausgehen, und folglich
Verstehen beim Lesen eines Textes etwas anderes ist als Verstehen um zu
übersetzen (Beispiele dafür in Dancette 1995:207). Während ein Franzose den
Text einwandfrei versteht, wird ein Deutscher den Text nicht verstehen, weil
sprachlich und kognitiv andere Prozesse ablaufen. An Hand des leicht
gekürzten französischen Textes C'est qui le Monsieur sur la croix? (s. Anhang)
sollen einige dieser typischen Verstehensprozesse aufgezeigt werden, die sich
im Unterricht ergaben und dann in eine Produktion des ZT mündeten.
Wir formulierten im Unterricht zunächst die situativen und soziokulturel-
len Handlungsbedingungen (d.s. die Präsuppositionen des ZT-Lesers) sowie die
Mitteilungs- und Wirkungsabsicht. Für welchen Leserkreis, in welcher
Situation, zu welchem Zweck wird dieser Text übersetzt? Für deutsche,
frankreichkundlich interessierte Bildungsbürger von heute, die aus Zeitungs-
berichten bzw. -kommentaren aktuelle Informationen über das Verhältnis von
Schule, Kirche und Staat in Frankreich erfahren wollen.
und Z. 19: Booz endormi bleibt in Klammer hinter der deutschen Version 'Der
schlafende Boas' stehen.5
Adjektiv-Nomen- bzw. Nomen-Adjektiv-Verbindungen:
Diese Verbindungen lösen bei französisch-deutschen Übersetzungen sofort
übersetzerische Verstehensstrategien aus, da die Bedeutung französischer
Adjektive sich aus der jeweiligen syntaktisch-semantischen Stellung/Beziehung
zum Nomen, neuronal gesehen also aus der Vernetzung zu anderen Knoten als
Repräsentation einer Wortbedeutung bzw. eines Konzepts ergibt und diese
interkonzeptuellen Beziehungen in AT und ZT unterschiedlich, weil sprachkul-
turspezifisch (und individuell) sind. Einige Beispiele mögen dies verdeutlichen:
Z. 20/21: institutions confessionnelles wurde mit 'kirchliche bzw. konfessionell
gebundene Institutionen' übersetzt. Eine Reihe von Adjektiv-Nomen-
Verbindungen ist gekoppelt mit der Homophonieproblematik und war im
Unterricht besonders ergiebig. Es handelt sich um das Adjektiv religieux, se.
In den unterschiedlichen Kollokationen muß es jeweils anders verstanden
werden:
Z. 2: histoire religieuse 'biblische Geschichte, die Bibel'
Z. 4, 40: culture religieuse 'religiöse Bildung, religiöse Lebenswei-
se'
Z. 23: enseignement religieux 'Religionsunterricht'
Z. 25/26: phénomène religieux 'Phänomen des Glaubens'
Z. 28: traditions religieuses 'christlich-religiöse Traditionen, Gebräu-
che'
Z. 46/47: cultures et civilisations 'Religionen und Glaubensformen/
religieuses religiöse Lebensformen, -weisen'
Z. 24: Das Adjektiv musulmanes wird durch das ideologieneutrale 'musli-
misch' wiedergegeben.
Unterschiedliche Konzeptualisierung sprachlicher Äußerungen:
Wie bereits beschrieben ist die Repräsentation einer Wortbedeutung das
Ergebnis eines im AT und ZT unterschiedlichen Beziehungsgeflechts. Steht am
Eingang das Wort dinde (Z. 8) bzw. dt. 'Truthahn', so steht am Ausgang für
den Deutschen nicht automatisch die Bedeutung 'Weihnachten'. Etwas
schwieriger wird es in unserem Text mit laïcité (Z. 2), la notion de laïcité (Z.
29) und in einem konkreten Sinn la laïque (Z. 26) als Ellipse für école laïque.
5
Im romantischen Hugo-Gedicht träumt der alte, unverheiratete Boas (Bibel: Rut 2-4; Mt
1,5) das Unmögliche: Rut legt sich zu seinen Füßen, sein Traum erfüllt sich, sie wird
seine Frau.
Sigrid Kupsch-Losereit 255
Mit diesen Termini konnten die Studierenden begrifflich nichts anfangen und
erkannten daher laïcité und la laïque zwar als Kennzeichnung, quasi als
Thema, aber nicht — was hier in diesem Text besonders interessant ist — als
Aufforderung, das entsprechende kulturelle Wissen oder gar Identifikations-
wissen zu aktivieren. Dies gelang erst, nachdem wir — das betrifft das o.a.
Problem der Hyponymie und Antonymie — einen anderen Terminus geklärt
hatten, die école publique (Z. 2). Der école publique steht im Französischen
antonymisch die école privée gegenüber, ja, sie wird quasi implizit mitgedacht.
Der Gegensatz im Französischen ist aber nicht 'öffentlich, staatlich — privat'
wie im Deutschen, sondern 'laizistisch staatlich — konfessionell gebunden!
Um Verstehen zu ermöglichen, lautet die Strategie des Translators daher:
'Staatliche Schule' bzw. 'die von kirchlichen Einflüssen freie staatliche
Schule' für la laïque bzw. école publique vs. 'Konfessionsschule' für le privé
(Z. 27) bzw. école privée. Und laïcité meint den Grundsatz der 'welt-
anschaulichen Neutralität des Staats', 'die strenge Trennung von Staat und
Kirche'. Die Studierenden schlugen daher als Übersetzung für den Untertitel
Laïcité oblige, l'école publique...vor: 'Und so weiß die laizistisch staatliche
Schule — der strengen Trennung von Staat und Kirche verpflichtet —
nicht,...' oder: '...schließlich sind sie [die Lehrer] strikt dem bekenntnis-
neutralen/laizistischen Schu-/Bildungswesen verpflichtet...'. Nachdem die
Radikalität des laizistischen Denkens begrifflich erfaßt war, wurden dann aus
den syndicats d'enseignants (Z. 39) nicht nur 'Lehrergewerkschaften', sondern
'radikal-laizistische Lehrergewerkschaften' und sogar 'antiklerikale/
atheistische Lehrergewerkschaften'. Um also keine Verständnis- und damit
Kommunikationsprobleme entstehen zu lassen — hier durch eigenkulturell
geprägte Wahrnehmungs- und Deutungsmuster in der Übersetzung, z. B.
öffentliche und private Schulen —, und richtige Inferenzen zu ermöglichen,
wurden in der Übersetzung Verstehenshilfen formuliert. Das AT- und ZT-
Leser gemeinsame Vorverständnis bzw. die Herstellung dieses Vorverständnis-
ses war für eine erfolgreiche Referenz unerläßlich.
Sprachspezifische Gebrauchsnorm liegt in folgenden Fällen vor:
Z. 16: 8 Français sur 10 '80% aller Franzosen'
Z. 5/6: avant et après 'Zeiteinteilung vor und nach Christus/
Jésus-Christ Christi Geburt'
Die französischen Deklarativa in Zeitungstexten haben keine semantisch
distinktive Funktion, sie sind als Verba Dicendi rein stilistische Varianten (Zu
fr. Deklarativa und ihrer deutschen Übersetzung vgl. Kupsch-Losereit 1991:93-
96). Die französischen Verben s'étonne, raconte, dit, affirme, ajoute, insiste,
256 Translation as Intercultural Communication
commente, nuance etc. sind folglich der ZT-Norm anzupassen und können fast
ausschließlich mit 'sagen, mitteilen' übersetzt werden, oder auch eventuell
noch mit 'berichten, versichern' oder: 'so...', 'nach den Worten...'.
Die Strategien des semiprofessionellen Translators zielten in den genannten
Fällen darauf ab, den erwähnten Verständnisschwierigkeiten vorzubeugen und
der Textfunktion und -semantik entsprechend zielkulturelle sprachliche Mittel
vorzuschlagen. Meistens jedoch konnten die Studierenden den Text nicht
verstehen, weil kognitiv-kontextuell notwendige Prozesse nicht ablaufen
konnten.
6
Hier liegt eine Anspielung auf den am 6. Januar in Frankreich üblichen Brauch vor, tirer
les Rois, bei dem derjenige, der beim Verzehr des Dreikönigkuchens auf die eingebacke-
ne Bohne oder das eingebackene Figürchen stößt, König wird.
Sigrid Kupsch-Losereit 257
7
Die wahrlich neutral-höfliche, und gerade dadurch provozierende Frage nach einer
männlichen Person in der Titelüberschrift: Cèst qui, le monsieur sur la croix? kommt
in ihrem distanzierten Tenor mit 'Wer ist der Mann oder: der Herr dort am Kreuz?'
nicht so ganz zum Tragen, da 'der Mann' im Tenor nicht ganz stimmt, und 'der Herr'
ja bereits auch 'der Heiland,' fr. le Seigneur, bedeuten kann.
8
Zur Notwendigkeit der scece-Erstellung für das Übersetzen vgl. Kußmaul (1995:67,
94ff.). Eine schwierigere Frage schließt sich an: Selbst wenn im Deutschen dieselbe
scene verbalisiert werden kann, so ist die Bewertung dieser scene häufig eine andere. So
ist z. B. das Ansehen und die Macht der französischen Gewerkschaften für Erziehung und
Wissenschaft wesentlich größer und stärker als etwa die von GEW oder ÖTV in
Deutschland.
258 Translation as Intercultural Communication
das Beispiel mit der galette des Rois, das — wörtlich und unverständlich im
Deutschen — zum 'Blätterteigkuchen der Hl. Dreikönige' wurde bzw. — als
Projektion — zum 'Sternsingen'. Wie wichtig das Erstellen einer scene für das
Übersetzen ist, soll folgendes Beispiel zeigen. Der erste Satz des ersten
Kapitels (Primo giorno. Prima) in Umberto Ecos // nome della rosa lautet: Era
una bella mattina di fine novembre. Nella notte aveva nevicato unpoco, ma il
terreno era coperto di un vélo fresco non più alto di tre dita. Die deutsche
Übersetzung lautet: 'Es war ein klarer spätherbstlicher Morgen gegen Ende
November. In der Nacht hatte es ein wenig geschneit, und so bedeckte ein
frischer weißer Schleier, kaum mehr als zwei Finger hoch, den Boden.' Ich
finde diese Übersetzung genial, gibt es doch bei uns keine schönen November-
morgen und schon gar nicht gegen Ende des Monats. Die scene, die wir haben,
sieht eher nach trüben kalten Regen- und Nebelmorgen aus. Um also den
Eindruck aus der Textvorlage zu übermitteln, übersetzte Kroeber 'klarer
spätherbstlicher Morgen', ergänzt den velo fresco zu 'frischer weißer Schleier'
und aus den non più alto di tre dita, was logisch gesehen weniger als drei
Fingerbreiten sind, wurden in der deutschen scene 'kaum mehr als zwei Finger
hoch'. Wie gelungen diese Übersetzung ist, sieht man besonders auch im
Vergleich zur französischen Fassung: C'était une belle matinée de la fin
novembre. Dans la nuit, il avait neigé un peu, mais le terrain était recouvert
d'un voile frais pas plus haut que trois doigts.
In allen genannten Fällen wird der AT unter translationsspezifischen
Annahmen mit Hilfe sprachlicher und kognitiver Problemlösungsstrategien des
Translators in Verstehenskategorien integriert. Anschließend imaginiert der
Translator einen ZT, der ein Verständnis ermöglicht. Textverständnis bezieht
sich dabei auf die "Textwelten", d.i. das kulturspezifische Handeln und Wissen
über die betreffenden Wirklichkeiten und Welten, die durch die Texte explizit
oder implizit aktualisiert werden. Alle kognitiven und übersetzerischen
Strategien des Translators zielen also darauf ab, ein zielkulturell kohärentes
Textverständnis zu ermöglichen.
Literatur
Anhang
C'est qui, le monsieur sur la croix?
Les enfants connaissent très mal l'histoire religieuse. Laïcité oblige, l'école publique ne sait
pas trop comment la leur enseigner.
Le constat des enseignants est unanime: en matière de culture religieuse, les enfant sont
ignares. «En classe de CE 2, lorsque nous étudions la division du temps entre avant et après
Jésus-Christ, sur 25 gamins, deux ou trois ont entendu parler de Jésus», s'étonne Jacques
Trief, directeur d'une école primaire dans le XIIIe arrondissement de Paris. Noël? Une
réjouissance païenne, avec ses sapins, ses guirlandes, sa dinde et ses cadeaux. Qui sait encore
que la galette des Rois a un 10 rapport avec l'Epiphanie, fête catholique célébrant l'arrivée
des Rois mages à Bethléem ?
Plus tard dans le cursus scolaire, les Lycéens connaissent mieux la mythologie grecque que les
personnages de la Bible ou du christianisme. «Lorsque des élèves ayant choisi l'option arts
plastiques ont dû commenter un tableau représentant saint Sébastien percé de flèches, certains
ont affirmé qu 'il s'agissait d'un Indien victime de la conquête de l'Ouest par les Américains»,
raconte le proviseur d'un grand lycée parisien, à peine remis de sa surprise. Les symboles du
catholicisme - religion dont se réclament encore 8 Français sur 10 - sont, peu à peu, devenus
impénétrables. Les profs de lettres éprouvent de plus en plus de difficultés pour expliquer
«Athalie», de Racine, ou certains poèmes de Victor Hugo pétris de références bibliques, comme
«Booz endormi».
Car - c'est une évidence - la société française se sécularise, tandis que les institutions
confessionnelles perdent de leur influence. Ainsi, parmi ceux qui se disent catholiques, les
pratiquants réguliers sont, désormais, à peine 10 %. Et les enfants sont de moins en moins
nombreux à aller au «caté». Le recul de la pratique et de l'enseignement religieux s'observe
de la même manière au sein des familles juives et musulmanes.
Quant à l'école publique, elle a du mal - laïcité oblige - à aborder sereinement le phénomène
religieux. Pendant des années, en effet, les «instits de la laïque» ontferraillé contre les «curés
du privé», en s'efforçant d'apporter les lumières de la modernité à des enfants qu 'ils jugeaient
trop marqués par leurs traditions religieuses et régionales.
Sur cette guerre des idées franco-française s'est édifiée la notion de laïcité, que l'on ne connaît
ni en Belgique ni en Allemagne, où des enseignements religieux sont dispensés, de manière
facultative, dans les écoles publiques.
APPRENDRE LA TOLÉRANCE
Rien d'étonnant donc à ce que les enseignants français demeurent encore parfois traumatisés
par ce conflit idéologique. Pour certains d'entre eux, laïcité égale silence. [...] Dans un
collège du IXe arrondissement de Paris, Marie-France Galland, enseignante en histoire-géo
graphie, encourage, si la situation se présente, des discussions entre élèves sur leurs croyances
respectives. [...]
Ces dernières années, les esprits ont grandement évolué au sein de l'Education nationale et
même parmi les syndicats d'enseignants. Au diable l'athéisme militant et l'eradication de la
culture religieuse! Le problème de l'enseignement de l'histoire des religions a été posé, pour
la première fois officiellement, lors d'un congrès à Besançon en 1991. Aujourd'hui, la
puissante Ligue française de l'enseignement et de l'éducation permanente - qui regroupe 34
000 associations laïques - est favorable à ce principe. «Pourquoi ne pas porter sur la Bible et
le Coran un regard humaniste?» interroge Anne-Marie Franchi, membre de la Ligue. [...]
En tout cas, sous l'impulsion de François Bayrou et sous la houlette du philosophe Luc Ferry,
président du Conseil national des programmes, l'accent sera mis désormais sur les cultures et
les civilisations religieuses, en particulier en sixième et en seconde. Ainsi, les nouveaux
programmes d'histoire de seconde, qui seront appliqués en 1996, comprennent la naissance
et la diffusion du christianisme, l'Islam et l'orthodoxie, l'humanisme et la Renaissance, la
Révolution francaise. [...]
Marie-Laure de Léotard (L'Express, 22 décembre 1994)
Von Scheuklappen, Mikroskopen und Fernrohren:
Der Umgang mit Wissen in der Entwicklung der
Übersetzungskompetenz
Hanna Risku
Setzungen, sie erkennen nicht die Möglichkeit und die Notwendigkeit, sich mit
anderen Übersetzenden, Fachexperten oder mit dem Auftraggeber in geeigneter
Weise abzusprechen oder scheitern bei Kooperationsprojekten an einer
einheitlichen, für alle Partner einsichtigen und verträglichen Linie, die das
Zusammenprallen der auch ihnen bekannten unterschiedlichen kulturellen
Erwartungen verhindern würde.
Der anvisierte Zielpunkt, die übersetzerische Kompetenz, ist erst dann
erreicht, wenn funktionsadäquate Texte geliefert werden können (wenn also die
Übersetzung in der Zielkommunikationssituation verwendet werden kann),
wenn komplexe Besprechungssituationen und Kooperationsprogramme
beherrscht und initiiert werden und wenn die Handelnden in der Lage sind, zu
erkennen, wann eine Aufgabe besser anderen übermittelt werden sollte.
Denken wir aber zurück: Warum konnten unsere Anfänger dies nicht gleich?
Wenn sie schon vor der Ausbildung die Arbeitskulturen inklusive -sprachen
beherrschten und Fach und Betrieb gut kannten, was kann ihnen dann noch an
Kompetenz gefehlt haben?
Diese Kompetenz nenne ich nach Holz-Mänttäri (1984) die translatorische.
Um eine Begriffsbeschreibung zu versuchen: Zur Übersetzungskompetenz
gehört einerseits die allgemeine translatorische Kompetenz, d.h. die Problemlö-
se- oder auch Handlungskompetenz, die es einem erlaubt, komplexe inter-
kulturelle Kommunikationssituationen auf Bestellung zu meistern. Zusätzlich
verlangt gerade der translatorische Bereich des Übersetzens die Kompetenz,
(für die Übersetzenden) potentiell korrigierbare Texte zu gestalten, wie bereits
Kade (1968:35) Übersetzen vom Dolmetschen unterschieden hat. Bereits durch
diese pragmatische Beschreibung wird klar, daß translatorische Kompetenzen
1. nicht angeboren sein können (auch nicht in einem Chomskyschen,
generativen Sinne),
2. nicht einfach durch das Annehmen von Berufsbezeichnungen und andere
soziale Mechanismen erworben werden und
3. auch nicht mit einfachem "Recht haben" gleichgesetzt werden können (in
einem sehr vereinfachten Sinne "zu wissen"), ist doch die Kooperation und
das Erkennen eigener Grenzen gerade ein integraler Teil dieser Kom-
petenz.
Diese pragmatische Beschreibung erklärt aber erst die Funktion, nicht jedoch
die Struktur dieses Begriffes. Wie hat sich die Kompetenz entwickelt?
Hanna Risku 263
Translatorisches Wissen
Bibliographie
Berry, D. C. & Broadbent, D. E. 1987. "The combination of explicit and implicit learning
processes in task control". Psychological Research 49, 7-15.
Dorffner, Georg. 1991. Konnektionismus; von neuronalen Netzwerken zu einer "natürlichen"
Kl. Stuttgart: Teubner.
Holz-Mänttäri, Justa. 1984. Translatorisches Handeln. Theorie und Methode. Helsinki: Suo-
malainen Tiedeakatemia (Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae B 226).
Hönig, Hans G. 1995. Konstruktives Übersetzen. Tübingen: Stauffenburg (Studien zur
Translation 1).
Hönig, Hans G. 1993. "Vom Selbst-Bewußtsein des Übersetzers". In: J. Holz-Mänttäri/C.
Nord (eds.) Traducere Navem. Festschrift für Katharina Reiß zum 70. Geburtstag.
Tampere: Tampereen yliopisto, 77-90.
Jääskeläinen, Riitta & Tirkkonen-Condit, Sonja. 1991. "Automatised Processes in Professional
vs. Non-Professional Translation: A Think-Aloud Protocol Study". In: S. Tirkkonen-
Condit (ed.) Empirical Research in Translation and Intercultural Studies. Selected Papers
of the TRANSIF Seminar, Savonlinna 1988. Tübingen: Narr, 89-109.
Kade, Otto. 1968. Zufall und Gesetzmässigkeit in der Übersetzung. Leipzig (Beihefte zur
Zeitschrift Fremdsprachen I).
Hanna Risku 269
Krings, Hans P. 1986. Was in den Köpfen von Übersetzern vorgeht. Eine empirische Unter
suchung zur Struktur des Übersetzungsprozesses anfortgeschrittenen Französischlernern.
Tübingen: Narr.
Lörscher, Wolfgang. 1991. Translation Performance, Translation Process, and Translation
Strategies. A Psycholinguistic Investigation. Tübingen: Narr (Language in Performance
4).
McClelland, James L.; Rumelhart, David E. & Hinton, Geoffrey E. 1986. "The Appeal of
Parallel Distributed Processing". In: D. E. Rumelhart & J. L. McClelland (eds.), 3-44.
Molitor-Lübbert, Sylvie. 1989. "Schreiben und Kognition". In: G. Antos & H. P. Krings
(eds.) Textproduktion: ein interdisziplinärer Forschungsüberblick. Tübingen: Niemeyer,
278-296.
Oeser, Erhard & Seitelberger, Franz. 21995. Gehirn, Bewußtsein und Erkenntnis. 2.,
überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft
(Dimensionen der modernen Biologie 2).
Peschl, Markus F. 1994. Repräsentation und Konstruktion: Kognitions- und neuroinformatische
Konzepte als Grundlage einer naturalisierten Epistemologie und Wissenschaftstheorie.
Braunschweig: Vieweg.
Peschl, Markus F. 1990. Cognitive Modelling. Ein Beitrag zur Cognitive Science aus der
Perspektive des Konstruktivismus und des Konnektionismus. Wiesbaden: Deutscher
Universitäts-Verlag.
Risku, Hanna. 1994. "Aktive Expertenroutine oder reaktive Verhaltensautomatik? —
Überlegungen zum Begriff der Übersetzungsfertigkeit bei Wilss". TextConText 3/4, 237-
253.
Risku, Hanna. 1995. Translatorische Kompetenz. Kognitive Grundlegung des Übersetzens als
Expertentätigkeit. Wien: unveröffentl. Diss.
Rumelhart, David E. & McClelland, James L. (eds.) 1986. Parallel Distributed Processing.
Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition. Volume 1: Foundations. Cambridge:
MIT.
Séguinot, Candace. 1991: "A Study of Student Translation Strategies". In: S. Tirkkonen-
Condit (ed.) Empirical Research in Translation and Intercultural Studies. Tübingen: Narr
(Language in Performance 5), 79-88.
Smith, Veronica. 1994. Thinking in a Foreign Language. An Investigation into Essay Writing
and Translation by L2 Learners. Tübingen: Narr.
Tirkkonen-Condit, Sonja. 1992. "The Interaction of World Knowledge and Linguistic
Knowledge in the Processes of Translation. A Think-Aloud Protocol Study". In: B.
Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk & M. Thelen (eds.) Translation and Meaning, Part 2.
Proceedings of the Lodz Session of the 1990 Maastricht-Lodz Duo Kolloquium on
'Translation and Meaning', Held in Lodz, Poland, 20-22 September 1990. Rijks-
hogeschool Maastricht, Faculty of Translation and Interpreting, 433-440.
Ein kohärentes Translat — was ist das?
Die Kulturspezifik der Texterwartungen
Renate Resch
eine entscheidende Rolle zu: Kohärente Texte sind nicht per se kohärent,
sondern erst in Bezug auf ihre Funktion und Verwendungssituation. Die
moderne Textwissenschaft (vgl. Heinemann /Viehweger 1991) wie auch die
Translationswissenschaft (vgl. Snell-Hornby 1986) orientieren sich am Text-in-
Situation und verstehen sich als Interdisziplinen. Zunehmend mißt man den
Rezipierenden die entscheidende Rolle bei der Kohärenzstiftung zu. Kohärenz
wird also nicht mehr als eine Texteigenschaft, sondern als das Ergebnis
kognitiver Prozesse der Textverwenderinnen gesehen. Bezogen auf die
Funktionalität des Textes und seinen Erfolg in der Kommunikationsituation
wird Verständlichkeit und Interpretierbarkeit als ausschlaggebende Kategorie
gesetzt.
Auch schriftliche Kommunikation ist also in großem Maße dialogisch, und
zwar in dem Sinn, als die Kohärenzbildung eigentlich erst im Rezeptionsprozeß
erfolgt: Ein Text kann nur in dem Maß funktionieren, in dem es gelingt, im
Text ein ausgewogenens Verhältnis zwischen den Mitteilungsbedürfnissen der
Textproduzierenden und den Lesebedürfnissen der Textrezipierenden herzustel-
len. Der Text steuert diese Interaktion der Kommunikationsteilnehmerinnen in
Form eines "author-reader-pact", wobei das, was durch Rezeption als
Interaktion entsteht, "something different from the respective contributions of
each" darstellt (Nystrand 1986:40). Das, was die Leserinnen in den Text
einbringen, damit er für sie verständlich werden kann, ist daher der ent-
scheidende Faktor in der Kohärenzbildung; die Strukturen im Text, die die
Leserinnen motivieren, den Autor-Leser-Pakt anzunehmen, sind daher von
entscheidendem Interesse für die Kohärenzforschung.
Im Falle interkultureller Kommunikation wird die Situation noch
komplexer, muß doch die Autor-Leser-Kooperation auch über die Kultur-
grenzen hinweg funktionieren. Für die Translationswissenschaft ist es daher
von besonderem Interesse zu eruieren, wie sich in unterschiedlichen Kulturen
diese Kooperation auf Textebene manifestiert, wie also in unterschiedlichen
Sprachen und Kulturen Textkohärenz zustande kommt. Erkenntnisse dieser Art
können dabei helfen zu definieren, welche Merkmale ein intratextuell
kohärentes Translat auszeichnen, und Grundlagen für das Zustandekommen
intertextueller Kohärenz zwischen den Ausgangs- und Zieltexten legen.
Bezogen auf die konkrete Textform scheinen dabei vorallem drei Textaspekte
eine Rolle zu spielen: der Text als Repräsentant einer bestimmten Textsorte,
die Textdynamik, die die Organisation bekannter und neuer Information im
Text steuert und der interpersonale Faktor, der die Beziehung zwischen
Textproduzierenden und Rezipierenden reguliert.
Renate Resch 273
Textsorte
Textdynamik
Interpersonaler Faktor
Beispieldiskussion1
1
Die Texte wurden mir von Dr. Kaiser-Cooke zur Verfügung gestellt, wofür ich mich
herzlich bedanke.
Renate Resch 277
Schlußfolgerungen
Bibliographie
Benson, J.D./Greaves, W.S. (eds.) 1985. Systemic Perspectives on Discourse. N.J.: Ablex.
Carrell, Patricia. 1987. "Content and Formal Schemata in ESL Reading". TESOL Quarterly
21 (3), 461-481.
280 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Clyne, Michael. 1991. "The Sociocultural Dimension: The Dilemma for the German Scholar".
In: H. Schröder (ed.), 49-68.
Heinemann, Wolfgang/Viehweger, Dieter. 1991. Textlinguistik. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Nystrand, Martin. 1986. The Structure of Written Communication. Orlando: Academic Press.
Reiß, Katharina/Vermeer, Hans J. 1984. Grundlegung einer allgemeinen Translationstheorie.
Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Schröder, Hartmut. 1991. Subject-oriented Texts. Berlin: de Gryter.
Smith, E.L. Jr. 1985. "Functional Types of Scientific Prose". In: J.D. Benson/W.S. Greaves
(eds.), 241-257.
Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1986. Übersetzungswissenschaft — Eine Neuorientierung. Zur
Integrierung von Theorie und Praxis. Tübingen: Francke (UTB 1415).
Anhang
(AT)
WELLNESS GUIDE
Ein Service der Merkur Recreation
Bad Tatzmansdorf.
(Ü 1)
Take a few days off
any time of the year .
Feel free to feel good
Life is hard enough. Stress on the job and a one-sided life style often lead to mental and
emotional imbalance and disturb the harmony between body, mind and soul, destroying our
well being — or "wellness", as we prefer to say.
Holidays should primarily be a source of repose and recreation, or- better still- should relax
those parts of you that have been under undue stress, and revitalise those that have not had
enough to do, strengthening body and soul and restoring the harmony between them. And one
holiday every twelve months just isn't enough.
Renate Resch 281
Merkur Recreation shows you what to do:
it offers a health service that focuses on different aspects of health and harmony throughout
the year. Its philosophy is a holistic approach to the human being and the promotion of his/her
health through a partnership between nature and the art of medicine. The service helps to detect
risk factors before it is too late, and to restore your vitality and performance.
The five-star Hotel Steigenberger at Bad Tatzmannsdorf, and the Merkur Recreation service
it offers, show you how to achieve this new way of being. We offer six good reasons why you
should take a holiday or at least indulge in a few days "in between" — six wellness tips, which
you can find on the subsequent pages. An easy-to-read summary of dates and special offers can
be found on the cover.
(Ü 2)
Take a holiday or a few days off any time you want
Body, mind & soul are never off season.
Everyday life is hard enough. Great stress at work and a one-sided way of living often lead
to internal imbalance affecting the physical, mental and emotional equilibrium. Man's well-
being is impaired by man himself. In short: his wellness is impaired.
Holidays should help you recover and relax- and even better: soothe the overtaxed parts of the
body and revitalise those which have been neglected, in order to harmonize and strengthen
your whole organism. One holiday in twelve months is not enough to reach this goal.
Merkur Recreation shows you the way: a health service accompanying you the whole year
through focusing on different aspects of wellness. The philosophy behind it is a holistic
approach to man and the promotion of health in harmony between nature and medicine. Risk
factors are detected at an early stage and your performance and vitality are thoroughly
restored.
The 5-star Hotel Steigenberger in Bad Tatzmansdorf and Merkur Recreation help you get into
this new feeling for life easily: we give you six good reasons for a holiday or simply a few
days in-between summed up in the Wellness Tips 1-6 on the following pages. Please find all
dates and special offers in a short summary on the cover.
Murder in the laboratory — Termhood and the
culture gap
Michèle Kaiser-Cooke
There has been a lot of talk in the last few years about the role of cultural
knowledge in translating, about translating being a trans-cultural activity and
involving some form of cultural transfer. At the same time, the question has
arisen as to what sort of knowledge translators require in order to translate
efficiently, what their 'knowledge bases' should or do consist of and how
training institutions can help novices to acquire a critical mass of such
knowledge. The tendency has been to divide up this knowledge into categories
such as linguistic, cultural and subject-area knowledge, which is certainly
convenient from the point of view of delimiting a specific area of study, but
unfortunately somewhat clouds the issue of how all these 'different types' of
knowledge, often regarded as a static collection of data, interact to form active
know-how — i.e. specifically translatorial expertise.
I shall try to illustrate, on the basis of one or two examples, not only that,
for the purposes of translating, linguistic, cultural and subject-area knowledge
are one and the same thing, but that this so-called knowledge-base (knowing-
that) is in fact know-how, a process which is activated and adapted for each
new translation task, i.e. text. In other words, translationally relevant
knowledge cannot simply be stored as data or pre-specified rules; knowledge
is always task-specific — in our case, text-specific. It is therefore ad-hoc and
necessarily incomplete. Each new translation requires the application of
different aspects of 'knowledge about the world', so that we can never claim,
or indeed need to have a 'complete' collection of domain-specific knowledge
— whether in our minds or in a computerised database.
284 Translation as Intercultural Communication
LSP and term recognition
extensive with to kill ("deprive of life or vitality, put to death, cause death of",
Concise Oxford Dictionary). However, familiarity with the connotations of
kill, knowing that it does indeed mean more than simply 'cause to die' and
implies wilful malice, will indicate that this is 'not the right answer'. The so-
called "objective" meaning of the word has a cultural overlay which makes it
inappropriate in a clinical emotionally neutral laboratory setting. For this
domain of experience, the properties of the concept behind the English word
to sacrifice are weighted in such a way that the emotional connotations are
suppressed to evoke a more neutral causation of death.
Nominalisation of to sacrifice, on the other hand, as a possible translation
for Tötung, would reactivate the situational associations of slaughter, victims,
giving up a valued or desired thing, and thus call up emotional elements
similar to those of kill. Even in a highly restricted subject field and one and the
same text, a concept's level of abstraction brings factors into play which are
essentially of a cultural nature and blur the line between specialist and
"general" knowledge.
The crux of the problem is in fact the separation of LSP from general language
(see Hoffmann 1987 and 1988; Kalverkämper 1978 and 1987; Jumpelt
1961:130), which becomes acute when considering the notion of LSP
phraseology; can, for example, verbs be terms? Do changes of preposition,
ellipsis, domain-specific collocation create terms? If so, when do they stop
belonging to general language and start acquiring LSP characteristics (see Picht
1988)? Why should any of this matter? The traditional argument is that terms
represent specific concepts in a given subject field, which remain constant
interlingually, even though the term changes. Thus it is important to recognise
a term in order to identify the concept, which has only one equivalent in the
target language. Those elements of language which are not terms (implication
— which do not represent specific concepts) are allegedly less precise, less
domain-specific and therefore do not matter so much — they are simply the
cement which holds the terminology together.
The notion of LSP is based on the assumption of an essential difference
in communication between specialists in certain subject fields and others,
namely, that the terminology (i.e. concepts) used by them are more precise,
stable and, in particular, identifiable. The fixation of conventional terminology
theory on nouns as terms (cf. Wüster 1979; Picht/Draskau 1985) and the
286 Translation as Intercultural Communication
insistence that concepts "belong to concept systems" shows that the main
feature of 'termhood' is in fact its susceptibility to precise description.
Technical terms are so manifestly not the only words or groups of words
representing concepts that it is almost banal to state it. Language in its entirety
functions with concepts — those in 'everyday' language are apparently less
readily defined (cf. Wierzbicka 1985) and less easily 'assigned to a system'.
But the system is obviously there, otherwise language would not work. Terms
are supposed to be more precise than general language words, but, just as in
general language, the concepts represented by these terms are malleable, and
terms can vary in meaning depending on their context, even within one and the
same subject field and the same text (cf. Spitzbardt 1972; Picht 1988:192;
Trillhaase 1972). The difference between LSP texts and general language texts
is that translators usually have at least minimum knowledge of the concepts
underlying the GL texts, and have to acquire this minimum — and sometimes
even more — for more specialised areas of knowledge. The problems are
essentially the same — creating cohesion and coherence by making the
concepts which underly the text mutually accessible in such a way as to fulfill
the expectations of the readers.
The study of LSP phraseology, as well as terminology, has to do with
investigating "the conceptual relations between LSP (language) elements which
combine to produce a valid and linguistically correct statement" (die begriff-
lichen Beziehungen — sowie deren Veränderungen- zwischen fachsprachlichen
Elementen ..., die zu einer fachlich gültigen und sprachlich korrekten Aussage
zusammengefügt werden können) (Picht 1988:193). If the LSP element were
left out of this statement, it would be applicable to all texts. The difference is
one of subject field, target group, function and situation, not of essential
characteristics.
The idea of 'mapping terms' from one text to another (ST to TT), is
based on the assumption of concept invariance in at least those domains of
experience which conventionally fall under the heading of Fachwissen or
subject-specific expertise, which is also the philosophical basis of traditional
terminology theory. This is in turn based on the assumption that so-called
'scientific' knowledge is 'objective' and interculturally invariant (for a
discussion of the culturally determined construction of all aspects of reality,
including scientific knowledge, see especially Costazza 1993 and Wallner 1990
and 1993). In these domains, once the concept has been identified and
delimited, translation is seen as simply a question of label-swapping. It is
interesting to note that, when it comes to LSP texts, translation scholars seem
to have little difficulty in accepting the notion of complete logical equivalence
Michèle Kaiser-Cooke 287
The sort of concepts which are relevant in translating are, to quote the
psychologist Frank Keil (1989:148), 'the subset of concepts which have lexical
labels! Whether we all actually conceptualise in the same way is not as
relevant for our purposes as the question of how we communicate about what
we conceptualise. On the basis of theories put forward by cognitive linguistics
(cf. Lakoff 1982,1986,1987; Langacker 1988; Talmy 1986), in psychology (cf.
Quinn/Holland 1987) and philosophy (Plotkin 1994; Grossmann 1992; Munz
1993), I would like to draw attention to the notion that the labels we attach to
our concepts conventionalise how we generally see things, i.e. that at a given
moment the linguistic label specifies which part of the content of a concept is
to be articulated for the purposes of social communication. Linguistically
articulated concepts (which are the ones that primarily concern us) are
malleable, ideational constructs with fuzzy edges and a variable distribution of
properties or attributes — i.e. they do not simply consist of necessary and
sufficient properties with a stable distribution (cf. Rosch 1973, 1976, 1978;
Rosch/Mervis 1975; Tabakowska 1993; Zelinsky-Wibbelt 1988) For a given
text, the cotext and context will specify which properties — which include both
connotational and denotational elements — are highlighted and which are
suppressed. The textual and contextual indicators for concept specification vary
both from language to language and from text type to text type.
How does all this tie in with culture and translatorial expertise? The labels
affixed to concepts represent those elements of experience of the world which
the speech or cultural community in question regards as worth communicating
about — in other words, they embody culturally relevant knowledge (cf. also
Beaugrande 1994). This knowledge is always domain-specific in that it is
relevant to a specific domain of experience — whether potty-training or brain
288 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Conclusions
References
Picht, Heribert. 1988. "Fachsprachliche Phraseologie". In: R. Arntz (ed.) Textlinguistik und
Fachsprache. Akten des Internationalen übersetzungswissenschaftlichen AILA-Sym-
posiums, Hildesheim, 13.-16. April 1987. Hildesheim, Zürich, New York: Georg Olms,
187-196.
Plotkin, Henry. 1994. The Nature of Knowledge. Concerning Adaptations, Instinct and the
Evolution of Intelligence. London/New York: Allen Lane/Penguin.
Quine, Willard van Orman. 1960. Word and Object. Cambridge MA: The M.I.T. Press.
Quine, Willard van Orman 1969. Ontologicai Relativity and Other Essays. New York,
London: Columbia University Press.
Quinn, Naomi and Holland, Dorothy. 1987. "Culture and Cognition". In: N. Quinn and D.
Holland (eds.). Cultural Models in language and thought. New York and Melbourne:
Cambridge University Press, 3-42.
Reiß, Katharina. 1984. "Methodische Fragen der übersetzungsrelevanten Textanalyse. Die
Reichweite der Lasswell-Former. Lebende Sprachen 1, 7-10.
Rosch, Eleanor. 1978. Cognition and categorization. Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Rosch, Eleanor. 1976. "Basic Objects in Natural Categories". Cognitive Psychology 8, 382-
439.
Rosch, Eleanor. 1973. "Natural Categories". Cognitive Psychology 4, 328-350.
Rosch, Eleanor and Mervis, Carolyn B. 1975. "Family Resemblances: Studies in the Internal
Structure of Categories". Cognitive Psychology 7, 573-605.
Schmitt, Peter. 1986. "Die 'Eindeutigkeit' von Fachtexten: Bemerkungen zu einer Fiktion".
In: M. Snell-Hornby (ed.) Übersetzungswissenschaft: Eine Neuorientierung — Zur
Integrierung von Theorie und Praxis. Tübingen:Franke, 252-282.
Schmitt, Peter. 1990. "Kulturspezifik von Techniktexten: Ein translatorisches und terminologi-
sches Problem". In: H. J. Vermeer (ed.) Kulturspezifik des translatorischen Handelns.
Vorträge anläßlich der GAL-Tagung 1989. Heidelberg: Universität Heidelberg, 49-88.
Spitzbardt, Harry. 1972. "Die Vielschichtigkeit des Problems wissenschaftlicher und
technischer Übersetzung". In: H. Spitzbardt (ed.) Spezialprobleme der wissenschaftlichen
und technischen Übersetzung. Halle (Saale): VEB Max Niemeyer, 13-32.
Tabakowska, Elzbieta 1993. Cognitive Linguistics and Poetics of Translation. Tübingen:
Gunter Narr.
Talmy, Leonard. 1986. The Relation of Grammar to Cognition. Berkeley CA: Cognitive
Science Program, Institute of Cognitive Studies, University of California at Berkeley.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English. 1990. H.W. Fowler/F.G. Fowler (eds.)
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Trillhaase, Günther. 1972. "Polysemie" und "Kontext" in der Translation". In: H. Spitzbardt
(ed.) Spezialprobleme der wissenschaftlichen und technischen Übersetzung. Halle (Saale):
VEB Max Niemeyer, 87-122.
Wallner, Fritz. 1990. Acht Vorlesungen über den Konstruktiven Realismus. Wien: WUV.
Wallner, Fritz. 1993. "Der Konstruktive Realismus. Theorie eines neuen Paradigmas". In: F.
G. Wallner/J. Schimmer and M. Costazza (eds.) Grenzziehungen zum Konstruktiven
Realismus. Wien: WUV, 11-23.
Wierzbicka, Anna. 1985. Lexicography and conceptual analysis. Ann Arbor: Karoma.
Wüster, Eugen. 1979. Einführung in die Allgemeine Terminologielehre und Terminologische
Lexikographie. Schriftenreihe der TU Wien, Bd. 8, Teile 1 u. 2. Wien/New York:
Springer.
Zelinsky-Wibbelt, Cornelia. 1988. "From Cognitive Grammar to the Generation of Semantic
Interpretation in Machine Translation". In: E. Steiner/P. Schmidt and C. Zelinsky-
Wibbelt (eds.) From Syntax to Semantics. Insights from Machine Translation. London:
Pinter, 105-132.
A model for translation of legal texts
Dorte Madsen
the actions are taking place; in other words Rehbein's basis for an analysis of
actions is a model of reality reflecting the structures of a given society. These
structures are, in turn, reflected in the static aspect of the act pattern.
The dynamic aspect of an act pattern, on the other hand, is reflected in the
implementation of the pattern, i.e. when it is actually put to use by specific
agents performing specific actions in specific situations. First I shall deal with
the static aspect, and I shall then consider the act pattern <AGREEMENT>
from a dynamic perspective.
The existence of an act pattern implies that a line of actions has achieved
some degree of stability. According to Rehbein (1977:126) a pattern has an
inherent purpose (Zweck). Consequently, it is the purpose that constitutes the
pattern. The purpose constituting an act pattern must be considered from the
angle of society, i.e., the more static perspective. Rehbein's theory is based
on the assumption that a community is organized in such a way that the
performance of actions has superior social purposes. Consequently, agents in
a given society apply an act pattern when they pursue superior social purposes.
The static aspect of the pattern, i.e., the structures of society existing at
a given moment in a given society are illustrated in my basic model shown as
figure 1 below. The basic 3-level structure (A, B and C) illustrates what
Rehbein calls a Handlungsraum (1977:12ff), the notion of space of action.
To analyse the legal universe I transfer the abstract basic model shown in
figure 1 above to a specific section of society designated the legal universe, cf.
figure 2 below, as it is assumed that the legal universe can be accounted for
as a space of action in Rehbein's sense. The only changes made in figure 2
compared with the basic model of a space of action, are that in the legal
Dorte Madsen 295
universe the only institution of interest at level B is the legal system, and the
agents at level A are not only individuals but also legal persons or entitites.
notion of Gesamthandlung the actions that are described in legal texts can be
analysed in terms of their legal effects determined by valid law.
By way of example, figure 3 below introduces a model of the textual
universe of an 'agreement'. As will appear, the model builds directly upon
figure 2. It is assumed that the parties to the agreement referred to in figure
3 have signed a contract of sale. When two parties sign a contract, they apply
the act pattern <AGREEMENT>. This also means that the act pattern
< AGREEMENT > is fixed in time and space by means of a text, as the text
is the means by which the agreement is concluded.
Translation
The question is now what does this rooting mean to translation? Imagine the
following two apparently similar situations, in which the agreement is
translated from Danish into Spanish. In both situations the 'agreement' is
concluded in Denmark between a Spanish company and a Danish company,
respectively.
In the first situation (1) the conclusion of the agreement, the performance
of the agreement and the legal effects of the agreement, i.e. the whole
Gesamthandlung, is subject to Danish law, and in the second situation (2) the
conclusion, the performance and the legal effects of the agreement is subject
to Spanish Law.
(1) If the contract is subject to Danish Law, the Danish Sale of Goods Act
and Danish Contracts Act will apply to the contractual relationship. (2) If, on
the other hand, the contract is subject to Spanish Law, the Spanish Código
Civil and Código de Comercio will apply to the contractual relationship.
Consequently the rooting of the 'agreement' will depend on the choice of law.
Considered from the point of view of translation theory, in both (1) and
in (2) the source text is Danish and the target text is Spanish. But as a
consequence of the rooting of the target texts in different legal universes, the
Spanish target text will have to be orientated toward the Danish legal universe
in (1), because it is Danish law that determines the conditions for the
Gesamthandlung AGREEMENT, i.e. the conclusion of a valid agreement, the
performance and the non-performance as well as the legal effects of the actions
performed by the parties. And in (2) the Spanish target text will have to be
oriented towards the Spanish legal universe, because in that case it will be
Spanish law that determines the conditions for the Gesamthandlung
AGREEMENT, i.e. the text will be rooted in the Spanish legal system.
So the two situations outlined above are different in that the choice of law
determines the rooting of the Spanish target text and therefore its orientation
Dorte Madsen 299
toward either of the two legal systems involved. The problem is, however, that
in translation theory, situation (1) outlined above would be treated as source
language orientation, and (2) as target language orientation. The point is,
however, that if we take seriously the fact that the extralinguistic reality is
"inseparably bound up with translation" (cf. Snell-Hornby 1988:34), it will not
suffice to account for situation (2) as an instance of target language orientation,
as it is the entire legal universe of the target text that determines its orientation
towards the sources of law applicable. It is therefore suggested that the
traditional dichotomy between source language orientation and target language
orientation does not apply to legal translation.
References
Part I
Schleiermacher felt that the interpretation of a text might not take place on the
basis of an established canon and looked upon understanding as a circular
movement (cf. Schleiermacher in: Schreiter 1988 and in: Frank 1993). The
hermeneutic circle means a repeated return from the whole to the parts and
vice versa, grasping the sense of the parts from the whole, which is subject to
constant development. The ever-increasing spiral opens up and incorporates
ever new sense connexions, encompassing them like a vortex. Schleiermacher
sought to describe understanding as a provisional and unlimited process whose
starting point can only be grasped from the perspective of the individual's life
(cf. Schleiermacher in: Schreiter 1988:277).
According to Schleiermacher there are two forms of interpretation/under-
standing: "divinatory" (die divinatorische Methode) which aims at intuitive
perception of what is individual and "comparative" (die komparative Methode)
which proceeds from the general to the particular by way of comparison.
Neither one can be separated from the other because divination depends on a
supportive comparison for corroboration, and comparison alone does not
302 Translation as Intercultural Communication
guarantee unity. The general and the particular must penetrate each other, and
this invariably takes place through divination. The idea of a work can only be
grasped by taking into account two aspects: the material and the setting. The
material alone does not necessitate a particular form of implementation.
Schleiermacher's hermeneutics has not been sufficiently turned to account
so far in the context of translation science and, in a more narrow sense, for
translation theory and criticism (but cf. first ideas on the subject in Vermeer
1994).
As far as Schleiermacher's lectures on hermeneutics are concerned (cf.
Schleiermacher in: Schreiter 1988), I consider the following main ideas to be
of special relevance for the problem of translating.
A. Any utterance can only be understood from the perspective of the entire
life context to which it belongs, as an aspect of the speaker's life that is
dependent on all other aspects of his life, and the latter can only be
determined by taking into account the sum total of the settings which
determine his development and future existence (Schleiermacher in:
Schreiter 1988:256).
B. Any speaker can only be understood through the prism of his nationality
and the age in which he lives (cf. Schleiermacher in: Schreiter 1988:256).
C. Hermeneutics is art in the sense that the activity is invested with the
character of art because the rules provide no recipe for application and
therefore do not permit any mechanization (Schleiermacher in: Schreiter
1988:257f.).
This means that the translator requires both psychological and linguistic talent.
According to Schleiermacher psychological talent is of two kinds. The
extensive talent can easily recreate or even anticipate other people's manner of
acting. The intensive talent involves an understanding of the (real) significance
of a human being and his peculiarities in relation to the concept of human
being. Both are necessary, but almost never combined in one and the same
person.
Linguistic talent is — according to Schleiermacher — a sense of analogy
and difference. A comparative grasping of languages in terms of their
differences (extensive linguistic talent) is to be distinguished from penetrating
the innermost recesses of language in terms of thinking (intensive linguistic
talent). Both are necessary, but almost never combined in one person
(Schleiermacher in: Schreiter 1988:258).
Irene Rübber dt/Heidemarie Salevsky 303
Schleiermacher felt that criticism should first proceed from the assumption
that the changes are unintentional and only then contemplate the likelihood
of intentional changes (cf. Schleiermacher quoted after Frank 1993:280f.).
(iii) As criticism can only be practised on a one-off basis, all but the most
general rules may be formulated. What matters, invariably, is to what
extent the whole state of affairs can be grasped. However, we need clues
to proceed from, and on the other hand, a point that has emerged from the
connexions with what is to be explained. So the assessment of a
translation is always a concrete affair and must never take place in
isolation from its genesis. In other (modern) words: For a translation to
be properly assessed it is necessary to establish the connexion between the
translation process and its product.
The implication of the subjective in the process of perceiving and anticipating
(i.e. understanding the ST and producing the TT) turns the structural aspects
of translation as an activity — in a manner of speaking — into structural
aspects of the assessment via its reflection in the target text. The assignment
(laying down the function of the TT) and the prevailing circumstances, together
with the human factor (translator), determine the one-off character of every
translation and hence the weighting needs within the predetermined limits of
decision-making.
Now what are these decision and test regions like which have so far been
ignored or insufficiently taken into account in the models of translation or
translating proposed so far?
In his writings, Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher dealt with various
antinomies in the process of understanding, which I believe may be regarded
as crucial for the translator's decisions. They are to be viewed as a network
(that can hardly be represented here). In other words, the translator has to
make decisions not only within the context of one antinomy, but redefines its
quality ever anew by relevance attributions within the fabric of all antinomies.
These antinomies can be seen as decision or problem regions by the
translator and may therefore, differ in number, kind and relevance attribution
with regard to the assignment, the text type, the addressees as representatives
of a cultural, linguistic and communicative community (including certain norms
and conventions) in the source and target text area and other factors affecting
the translation process. They can be part of the planning and of the basis of
assessment.
Irene Rübberdt/Heidemarie Salevsky 305
Part II
1
Not only translations in a narrow sense have been included, but also translated quotations
in scholarly and popularized editions (e.g. Procksch 1924; Lutz/Timm/Hirsch 1970),
renderings for artistic purposes (e.g. Kaegi 1914) and adaptations for children (e.g.
Belloso 1990; Weth 1992).
Irene Rübberdt/Heidemarie Salevsky 307
The story of Hagar is part of the story of Abraham, and even if Abraham
hardly ever speaks himself here, it revolves around a test of faith for the man
who has since been regarded as the very epitome of unshakeable belief (Rom
4, Hebr 11:8-19). In an interpretation focussing on the history of the
patriarchs, the Hagar story provides a "spannendes und verzögerndes Motiv
[...] zwischen Verheißung und Erfüllung" (exciting and delaying motive ...
between promise and fulfilment; Procksch 1924:113). This would help to
explain the line taken in the "significant: insignificant" decision region by
numerous translators and adapters who, through the use of subheadings in the
context of the story of Abraham, relate the women's tale of Sarah and Hagar
so expressly to the men (who are less important in the context of the Hagar
story and hence in a different part:whole relation): "Abraham (!) will Gott
nachhelfen: Hagar und Ismael" (Abraham wants to lend God a hand: Hagar
and Ishmael) in Die Gute Nachricht 1991; "Abrams neues Versagen und Gottes
treues Zurechtbringen" (Abram's renewed failure and God's unfailing
correcting hand) in Bruns (1962)}
When we look at the Hagar story in the context of the Old and New
Testament, it can now be interpreted against the background of the Christian
tradition according to Gal 4:29-30, which leads to the main emphasis being
laid on the figure of Sarah.3 A clear sign of the Sarah bias is the
disambiguation of the Hebrew word zachak in Gen 21:9 as mocking or
scoffing.4 Let us recall the situation: The "wild ass" Ishmael (Gen 16:12), the
very embodiment of the humiliation suffered, remains a thorn in Sarah's side
even after the birth of Isaac. At the feast given on the day Isaac is weaned,
Sarah sees the son of Hagar mocking, which triggers her protective maternal
2
See also Weth (1992) and Kaegi (1914).
3
Cf. for example the subheadings of Gen 16 in Menge (1933); Luther (1928); Károli
[Hung.] (1991).
4
Text versions after Luther I checked, cf. Buber/Rosenzweig (1925/1976); Neue Welt
(1971); Simon (1976); Schlachter (1923); Bruns (1962); Weth (1992); New King James
(1985); Károli [Hung.] (1842); Russian Bible (1904-07); Polish Bible (1980); Czech Bible
(1991).
308 Translation as Intercultural Communication
instincts and/or arouses fears about her prestige and inheritance. However this
may be, Ishmael must be expelled.
The neutral German word lachen (laugh) is ambivalent like the Hebrew
zachak.5 The translator has three options: 1. to choose a technological-rational
approach in the psychological:technological decision region and translate the
ambiguous zachak into the equally ambiguous and neutral lachen, 2. opt for
a psychological-emotional approach and substitute for lachen a semi-
synonymous word such asplay,Jest or romp about, thus interpreting Ishmael's
behaviour as childlike and playful, but harmless, or 3. to disambiguate
Ishmael's laughing unequivally as an act of mocking, scoffing (directed against
Isaac).6 The two latter options show how the whole:part antinomy corresponds
with other decision regions. The disambiguation of zachak, taking into
consideration implicit text information (in the decision region
thinking: presenting) is, on the one hand, attributable to subsequent re-writing
in an overall Biblical context (sanctioning of the Sarah bias in Gal 4:29f.),
implicit information being made explicit by decisions in the
thinking: presentation region. Admittedly, theanalogy:difference antinomy also
plays a part in the decision-making process. It is well known that the Protestant
Gâspâr Kâroli, while working on the Hungarian Bible, was strongly influenced
by Luther and may have taken his cue from him in Gen 21:9.7 (As regards the
decisions in theanalogy:difference region in connection with Gen 16:3, cf.
Kahl/Salevsky 1996: 151-156). But the disambiguation of zachak along the lines
of scoffing is also attributable to a striving for congruency within the text of
Gen 16/21:8-21, which may also be taken as a textual entity. Negative
5
The same Hebrew word can be found elsewhere in the context of our story, namely in
Gen 21:6: Ein Lachen hat mir Gott bereitet (God had made me to laugh) says Sarah on
learning that she is pregnant. Ein jeder, der es hört, wird mir zulachen. (So that all that
hear will laugh with me.) (Arenhoevel/Dreissler/Vögtle 1965). The note in
Arenhoevel/Dreissler/ Vögtle describes the laughing in 21:6 as ein Lachen aus Freude
(laughing for joy). But not all translators have seen it that way. In Luther (1992) we read
instead: Gott hat mir ein Lachen zugerichtet; denn wer es hören wird, der wird über mich
6
lachen. (God has bestowed a laugh on me, for whoever will hear it will laugh at me).
In fact, not all translators relate Ishmael's behaviour explicitly to Isaac. This is clearly
done only in Bruns (1962); the Zurich Bible (1960); Rad (1949); Lutz/Timm/Hirsch
(1970); Arenhoevel/ Dreissler/Vögtle (1965); Procksch (1924) and in the adaptation of
Weth (1992).
7
Und Sara sahe den son Hagar der Egyptischen den sie Abraham geborn hatte das er ein
spötter war. (Luther 1534/1983); Mikor látta vólna pedig Sarah az Àgyptumbéli
Hágárnac fiát [...] hogy czufolnâ (az Ishákot) (Károli 1590/1981).
Irene Rübberdt/Heidemarie Salevsky 309
evidence is provided, inter alia, by the Old Testament as selected and rendered
by Jörg Zink, which does not contain the Hagar story at all.
The relevance of the part: whole antinomy for the story of Hagar as a textual
entity
Within the framework of the Hagar story as a textual entity of its own, Gen
21:9 corresponds with other Biblical passages in close proximity. Thus
Ishmael's character is predicted already in Gen 16:12: "And he will be a wild
ass: his hand will be against every man, and every man's hand against him... "
Gen. 16:12 and Gen 21:9 link up with Gen 25:18 to form a logical chain of
thought: Ishmael, the wild ass, mocks little Isaac, and his rebellious nature
remains typical of his descendants (Gen 25:18)8. Against this background, it
is possible to explain why, for example, the translation of Buber/Rosenzweig
(1925f/1976) disambiguates the Hebrew zachak as spottlachen (mock) contrary
to all expectations. The decision in the purpose:congruity region, which in
literal translations (cf. classification in Kassühlke 1976:168) would suggest
closer adherence to the original because of this function (purpose), is here
outweighed by the decision in the whole:part region taken in the interest of
congruity.
But an interpretation focussing on the figure of Hagar also presupposes
that the story is invested with an added weight of its own and with a
significance going well beyond that of a catalyst within the story of Abraham.
The emphasis laid on Hagar by means of subheadings9 can be evidence of this
(cf. also the reflections on the relationship between the whole:part and the
significant:insignificant antonomy in 3.). However, when zachak in Gen 21:9
is rendered by the neutral word laugh or, even more important, disambiguated
by choosing harmless words such as play or romp about, Sarah's decision is
unmistakably ascribed to the high-handedness of someone in authority. In the
current context of growing anti-foreign sentiment and nationalistic tendencies
in Europe, Hagar thus comes to symbolize all those who are strangers and
deprived of rights. Future translators of the Bible will hardly be able to ignore
8
Since Gen 25:18 is almost identical with the last part of the sentence in Gen 16:12 (And
he shall dwell in the presence of all his brethren), Gen 15:18 can be hardly interpreted
geographically in this context as, e.g., Kautzsch (1894) or Menge (1933) do. The latter,
in a note, at least draws attention to the alternative translation option. Incidentally, neither
Kautzsch nor Menge render zachak as spottlachen (mock), but use the neutral word
lachen (laugh) (Kautzsch) or the more harmless romp about (Menge).
Reuß 1908, Procksch (1924); Lutz/Timm/Hirsch (1970); Slovak Bible (1991).
310 Translation as Intercultural Communication
the topical relevance of the Hagar story when making decisions in the
permanent: mutable region. Kahl (1994:31) has referred to the significance of
the Hagar story (especially Gen 16:11-14) as a "theological provocation".
Similarly, in the interpretation of the Spanish Children's Bible by Belloso,
the Hagar story assumes an importance of its own, which corresponds with the
way it is woven into the interreligious dialogue. Gen 16/21:8-21 is woven here
into an internationalist image of God. This reading places Ishmael, as the
ancestor of the Arabian tribes and of Islam, in the focus of attention and sees
the Hagar story against a Muslim background. The fact that in this context
Hagar's expulsion in Gen 21:10-14 not only marks the cruel end of a dramatic
conflict, but also signals the beginning of a new, promising chapter of history
likewise initiated by a divine promise is also suggested by the French landscape
painter Claude Lorrain's artistic "translation" of Gen 21:8-21 in his painting
The Expulsion of Hagar (1668), which rather than conveying a wild sense of
drama as in Pieter Lastman's painting Hagar's Farewell (1612) tells of faith
in God and the future as expressed in the calm and harmony of the landscape.
Finally, the picture also recalls that in Gen 21 Hagar is not only expelled, but
granted her freedom. The road to freedom, however, always involves a
journey into the unknown.
As we have tried to demonstrate, the ambivalence of the story surrounding
the two women, Hagar and Sarah, not only calls for a sophisticated rational
understanding of the text on the part of the translator, but also — over and
above linguistic ability in the sense of Schleiermacher — for a psychological
ability to project oneself emotionally into all dimensions of the text with due
regard for the different whole:part antinomies and their implications. The tasks
of translation criticism, which need to be redefined, will therefore have to
reflect the body-and-mind issue to a far greater extent.
References
Humboldt, Wilhelm von. 1836-1839/1962. "Über die Kawi-Sprache auf der Insel Java". In:
Werke in 5 Bänden. Bd. 1, Teil 1. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
Kahl, Brigitte. 1994. "Hagar: Gott denken aus der Perspektive der anderen". Ökumenischer
Informationsdienst 4, 30-31.
Kahl, Brigitte/Salevsky, Heidemarie. 1996. "Auf der Suche nach Hagar". In: H. Salevsky
(ed.) Dolmetscher- und Übersetzerausbildung gestern, heute und morgen. Akten des
internationalen wissenschaftlichen Kolloquiums anläßlich des 100jährigen Jubiläums der
Dolmetscher- und Übersetzerausbildung Russisch ander Berliner Universität (1894-1994),
veranstaltet an der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin am 12. und 13. Mai 1995.
Frankfurt/Main: Lang, 141-162.
Irene Rübberdt/Heidemarie Salevsky 311
Kassühlke, Rudolf. 1976. "Deutsche Bibelübersetzungen des 20. Jahrhunderts". In: S. Meurer
(ed.) Der Bestseller ohne Leser. Evangelisches Bibelwerk. Stuttgart: Deutsche
Bibelstiftung, 168-171.
Schleiermacher, Friedrich Daniel Ernst. 1993. Hermeneutik und Kritik. Hrsg. und eingeleitet
von Manfred Frank. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp (Taschenbuch Wissenschaft 211).
Schreiter, Jörg. 1988. Hermeneutik, Wahrheit und Verstehen. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.
Vermeer, Hans J. 1994. "Hermeneutik und Übersetzung(swissenschaft)". In: TEXTconTEXT
9, 3/4, 161-182.
Bibles (quoted)
Czech
Bible svatá aneb všecka svatá Písma Starého i Nového Zákona. Podle posledního vydámí
Kralického z roku 1613. Česká Biblická Společnost, 1991.
English
New King James 1985: The Holy Bible. The New King James Version. Nashville; Camden;
New York: Thomas Nelson Publishers.
German
Arenhoevel/Dreissler/Vögtle 1965: Die Bibel. Die Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Bundes.
(Herder-Bibel). Deutsche Ausgabe mit Erläuterungen der Jerusalemer Bibel. Hrsg.
von Diego Arenhoevel, Alfons Deissler, Anton Vögtle. Freiburg i.B./Basel/Vienna:
Herder.
Belloso 1990: Die neue Patmos Bibel. Erzählt von J. M. Belloso. Mit Bildern von Carme Solé
Vendrell. Deutsch von Hans Hoffmann. Düsseldorf: Patmos.
Bruns 1962: Das Alte Testament. Neu übertragen mit neuen Überschriften und Erklärungen
von Hans Bruns. Giessen/Basel: Brunnen.
Buber/Rosenzweig 1925f./1976: Die fünf Bücher der Weisung. Verdeutscht von Martin Buber
gemeinsam mit Franz Rosenzweig. Gerlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Verlag
Lambert Schneider.
Gute Nachricht 1991: Die Bibel in heutigem Deutsch. Die Gute Nachricht des Alten und Neuen
Testaments ohne die Spätschriften des Alten Testaments (Deuterokanonische
Schriften/Apokryphen). Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.
Hamp/Stenzel/Kürzinger 1992: Die Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments. Nach dem
Grundtext übersetzt und herausgegeben von Prof. Dr. Vinzenz Hamp, Prof. Dr.
Meinrad Stenzel, Prof. Dr. Josef Kürzinger. Augsburg: Pattloch.
Kaegi 1914: Die Bibel. Eine moderne Bearbeitung und Nachdichtung von Paul Kaegi. Der
Bibel erster Band: Israel und Juda. Munich: Delphin.
Kautzsch 1894: Die Heilige Schrift des Alten Testaments. Übersetzt und herausgegeben von E.
Kautzsch. Freiburg i.B./Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsbuchhandlung von J. C. B.
Mohr (Paul Siebeck).
Luther 1534/1983: Biblia/das ist/die gantze Heilige Schrijft Deudsch. Frankfurt am Main:
Röderberg. Faksimile-Ausgabe der ersten vollständigen Lutherbibel von 1534 in zwei
Bänden.
Luther 1912/1982: Die Bibel oder die ganze Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments.
Nach der deutschen Übersetzung Martin Luthers. Textfassung 1912. Stuttgart:
Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.
Luther 1928: Die Bibel oder die ganze Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments nach
der deutschen Übersetzung D. Martin Luthers. Neu durchgesehen nach dem vom
Deutschen Evangelischen Kirchenausschuß genehmigten Text. Mit erklärenden
Anmerkungen. Stuttgart: Privileg. Württembergische Bibelanstalt.
Luther 1989: Die Bibel mit Erklärungen nach der Übersetzung Martin Luthers.
Berlin/Altenburg: Evangelische Haupt-Bibelgesellschaft.
312 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Luther 1992: Stuttgarter Erklärungsbibel Die heilige Schrifl nach der Übersetzung Martin
Luthers. Mit Einführungen und Erklärungen. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft,
1992.
Lutz/Timm/Hirsch 1970; Das Buch der Bücher. Altes Testament: Einführungen, Texte,
Kommentare. Hrsg. von Hanns-Martin Lutz, Hermann Timm, Eike Christian Hirsch.
Munich: Piper.
Menge 1933: Die Heilige Schrifl Alten und Neuen Testaments. Übersetzt von D. Dr. Hermann
Menge. Handbibel. Stuttgart: Privileg. Württembergische Bibelanstalt.
Neue Welt 1971: Neue-Welt-Übersetzung der Heiligen Schrift. Übersetzung nach der
revidierten englischen Wiedergabe von 1970 unter getreuer Berücksichtigung der
hebräischen, aramäischen und griechischen Ursprache. New York: Watchtower Bible
and Tract Society/Vienna: Wachturm Bibel- und Traktat-Gesellschaft.
Procksch 1924: Die Genesis. Übersetzt und erklärt von D. Otto Procksch. (Kommentar zum
Alten Testament I). Leipzig/Erlangen: Deichert.
Rad 1949: Das erste Buch Mose. Übersetzt und erklärt von Gerhard von Rad. Berlin:
Evangelische Verlagsanstalt.
Reuß 1908: Die Bücher der Bibel. Hrsg. von F. Rahlwes. Band 1: Überlieferung und Gesetz.
Das Fünfbuch Mose und das Buch Josua. Nach der Übersetzung von [D. Eduard]
Reuß. Braunschweig: George Westermann.
Schlachter 1923: Die Heilige Schrift: Miniaturbibel. Nach dem Urtext und mit
Berücksichtigung der besten Übersetzungen hrsg. von Franz Eugen Schlachter. 17.
Aufl. bearbeitet von K. Linder und E. Kappeier. Stuttgart: Privileg. Württembergische
Bibelanstalt.
Simon 1976: Die Bibel oder Die Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Bundes. Nach den
Grundtexten übersetzt und mit Überschriften und Erklärungen herausgegeben von
Ernst Simon Missionar i.R. Eigenverlag.
Weth 1992: Irmgard Weth: Neukirchener Kinder-Bibel. Mit Bildern von Kees de Kort.
Anhang: Einführung in die Bibel und ihre Geschichten. Neukirchen-Vluyn:
Kalenderverlag des Erziehungsvereins.
Zink 1966: Das Alte Testament. Ausgewählt, übertragen und in geschichtlicher Folge
angeordnet von Jörg Zink. Stuttgart/Berlin: Kreuz-Verlag.
Zürcher Bibel 1991: Die Heilige Schrift des Alten und des Neuen Testaments. Zurich: Verlag
der Zürcher Bibel.
Hungarian
Kämory 1870: Biblia. O és új testamentum. Az eredetiböl, heber, aram és görögböl forditotta
Kámory Samuel. Pest.
Károli 1590/1981 [Vizsolyi-biblia]: Szent Biblia az az Istennec ó es wy testamentvmanac
prophétác es apostoloc ältal meg iratott szent könyuei. Magyar nyelwre fordíttatott
egészlen és wijonnan, Az Istennec Magyar országban való Anya szent Egyházánac
epülésére. Visol (Vizsoly) [Faximilé 1981].
Kåroli 1842: Szent biblia azaz: Istennek ó és üj testamentomában foglaltatott egész Szent Irás.
Magyar ny el vre fordíttatott Károli Gáspár ál tal. Köszeg.
Károli 1991: Szent Biblia, azaz istennek ó és üj testamentomában foglaltatott egész Szent irás.
Magyar nyelvre forditotta Károli Gáspár. Budapest: Magyar Bibliatanács.
Polish
Pismo śwliete Starego i Nowego Testamentu w przekladzie z jezykow oryginalnych. Redaktor
odpowiedzialny Ks. Kazimierz Dynarski. Poznań-Warszawa: Wydawnictwo
Pallottinum 1980.
Russian
Tolkovaja Biblija Ui Kommentarij na vse Knigi Sv. Pisanija Vetchago i Novago Zaveta. St
Petersburg. Vol. 1: 1904-1907; vol. 2: 1908-1910, 1913; vol. 3: 1911-1913.
Slovak
Biblia. Písmo sväté Starej a Novej Zmluvy. Slovenská Biblická Spoločnost.' UBS 1991.
A matter of life and death: Gender stereotypes in
some modern Dutch Bible translations1
Anneke de Vries
1
I wish to thank Arian Verheij for valuable comments on an earlier draft and for
improving my English.
314 Translation as Intercultural Communication
The story begins with a father's words to his eldest and favourite son. Isaac,
old and blind, tells Esau that he might die at any time. He asks Esau to go
hunting and prepare a meal for him, that he may bless him before his death.
Rebekah, the wife and mother, overhears the father's request and his
promise. But she has received special information from God that her younger
son Jacob, and not Esau, should receive the eldest's rights and blessing, and
prepares to act accordingly. She plans to quickly cook a meal and to make
Jacob pretend he is Esau, so that Isaac will bless him instead of his brother.
Jacob hesitates, not out of ethical compunctions, but for fear that he might be
found out and be cursed rather than blessed. In the end, however, he does as
his mother has told him. The trick works and Jacob receives his father's
blessing.
2
A revised edition of the Willibrord Translation was published late 1995, which was too
late to be taken into account in this paper.
Anneke de Vries 315
When Esau finds out he is furious and plans to kill Jacob after Isaac's
death. Rebekah advises Jacob to flee the country, till Esau's fury is over. In
order to obtain Isaac's permission for him to leave, she tells Isaac that she is
disgusted with the women around them and does not want Jacob to marry any
of them.
Gender-specific elements
Topos
(1) W: "I do not know how long I have to live" (Dutch: "leven")
S: "I will not live long any more" (Dutch: "leven")
B: "Each day can be my last" (Dutch: "laatste dag")
At the end of the story Esau discovers that Jacob has cheated him by 'stealing'
in a way his blessing. He then wants to kill Jacob, after his father's death. He
says to himself (verse 41): yiqrebu yemey 'ebel 'abi — the days of mourning
for my father are near. Here the concept of death is implied in the word
'mourning'. In the Start Bijbel this reference, not the word 'ebel — mourning
is translated. However, a reference to 'life' is added:
(2) S: "My father will not live long any more. When he has died ..."
(Dutch: "leven", "sterven" resp.)
Rebekah learns about Esau's plan, and she warns Jacob (verse 42), saying:
'esaw ... mitnaxem lexa lehorgexa — Esau is consoling himself (with the
thought of) killing you. In Het Boek, the concept of 'death' implied in
lehorgexa — killing you is eliminated and replaced by the explicit mention of
'life':
(3) B: "She told him that Esau was after his life" (Dutch: "leven")
So the association of men with death in the source text is reversed in the
translation into the association with life.
In verse 46 the concept of 'life' is used in relation to the only woman in
the story. Rebekah tells Jacob to flee in order to be safe from Esau's plan to
kill him. However, Isaac seems to be in charge and has to give his permission
for Jacob to leave. Rebekah, instead of telling the truth, pretends she wants
Jacob to go abroad to find himself a wife. In verse 46 she says to Isaac: qatsti
bexayay mipney benot xet — 1 am disgusted with my life because of the
daughters of Chet. Two translations significantly eliminate 'life':
(4) G: "I have an aversion to the daughters of Chet" (Dutch: "afkeer")
B: "I can not stand those girls" (Dutch: "uitstaan")
In the second part of the same verse the pattern becomes even clearer. Here
Rebekah says to Isaac: "if Jacob will marry one of them" lamah li xayim —
what [good] will life do me? Here we do not just find elimination of the
reference to 'life' in our translations, but instead explicit mention is made of
her death:
(5) G: "It will be my death" (Dutch: "dood")
B: "I'd rather die" (Dutch: "sterven")
Related to this gender-specific pattern is the translation of verse 4. Isaac is
Anneke de Vries 317
about to die, and before that he wants to bless his eldest son. He tells him to
catch game and make him the food he loves, ba 'abur tebarekxa naphshi —
that 1 may bless you. Surprisingly, the Willibrord Translation inserts 'strength'
(and does so again in the verses 10, 19, 25 and 31):
(6) W: "through it I will receive the strength to give you my blessing"
(Dutch: "kracht")
So, where the concept of 'death' is used in the source text in relation to men,
we regularly find translations containing references to the concept of 'life'.
Where 'life' is used in relation to the woman, we find translations without
'life' or a replacement by a reference to 'death'. And where a man talks about
his dying wish, the translation talks about 'strength'. The target culture topos
that all these translations may reflect is, in my view: wittingly or unwittingly,
women are associated with weakness and death, and men are associated with
life and strength.
Speech
Argumentational connector
Focalization
the characters as does the narrator/focalizer. In the source text, this is also the
case in verse 46: watomer ribqah el yitsxaq — and Rebekah said to Isaac,
However, in the Willibrord Translation we come across a very specific
addition:
(11) W: "Once, Rebekah said to Isaac" (Dutch: "eens")
Through the addition of 'once', which marks discontinuity and the introduction
of a new episode, the translator/narrator momentarily lends his focalization to
Isaac. Isaac is the only character for whom this 'once' is suitable. He is the
only one who does not know that Esau wants to kill Jacob, so for him there is
no continuity with earlier events. For him, Rebekah's words come out of the
blue and mark a new episode. The translator has not stuck to the focalization
of the narrator here but has clearly identified with Isaac. Identification with the
woman in the story has not been found.
References
Panel Discussions
Translation as intercultural communication —
Contact as conflict
intercultural communication. The translator will have to bridge the gap, small
or large, between two cultures. Culture is to be understood not in the narrower
sense of man's advanced intellectual development as reflected in the arts, but
in the broader anthropological sense of all socially conditioned aspects of
human life.
Culture has thus to do with common factual knowledge, usually including
political institutions, education, history and current affairs. The problem for
the translator is how to comply with cultural norms, i.e. to decide which
norms take priority, whether the cultural norms of the SL community as
reflected in genre conventions, the cultural norms of the TL community, or
perhaps a combination of the two, a compromise between two or more
cultures? The choice of cultural strategy may result in source-culture bound
translation (the translation stays within the SL culture), target-culture bound
translation (the translation stays within the TL culture) or in a hybrid, where
the translation is a product of a compromise between two or more cultures.
International texts are usually the product of the dominant culture. Factors
likely to influence the choice of cultural strategy are:
— the text type: some texts, such as political speeches and legal documents,
will be culture-bound. Some text genres are more likely to develop
international norms than others, e.g technical and scientific texts are
representative of technology in international fields.
— the purpose of translation: texts may be translated for different functions:
perhaps metatextual, with the function of reporting exactly what is
conveyed in a particular text (e.g. political speech); alternatively, the text
may function as a text in its own right, as in the case of advertisements.
— the status of the ST or ST author may require loyalty to the ST: some
texts are representative of a dominant culture to be conveyed in the source
culture or written by a prestigious author whose idiolect has to be retained
in the translation.
— the evolution of existing genres: a genre may change over time, for
example in order to adapt to dominant norms. Scientific research is an
example of a genre which has progressed over time so as to conform to
Western norms and conventions.
— the creation of new genres: the formulation of standardised treaties may
involve the creation of a hybrid text.
Hybrid texts are produced through intercultural negotiation, as well as through
translation. They come into existence as a compromise between various
cultures. Thus they are not hybrids in the sense that they are a mix of various
text types in the rhetorical sense of narration, description, exposition,
330 Translation as Intercultural Communication
argumentation, expressive or directive (appellative) communicative features.
Instead, hybrids are arrived at as an outcome of negotiations between different
languages and cultures and may involve features which are contradictory to TL
and target culture norms.
In contrast to culture-specific political texts, there are other political texts
which are interactively negotiated in a supra-national setting for the purpose
of achieving and reflecting consensus. Such texts involve standardised
formulations of treaties and legal documents (e.g. for Nato and the EU).
Contracts and treaties, as a genre, display special conventions. Thus
translations into different languages represent different versions intended to
fulfil an identical function and to pursue identical political aims in the
respective target cultures with regard to their addressees, who are expected to
possess almost identical background knowledge. For example, EU documents
have developed a specific Eurocrat language for the purpose of Community
negotiations, which may include the creation of new concepts as well as new
terms. The result is a jargon, known to EU staff, translators and interpreters.
In this context the ST could be described as a pseudo-text, which does not in
itself fulfil a communicative function, since there is no single primary
communicative situation but several parallel ones.
A hybrid text is a recognisable response to the exigencies of the situation.
A sociocognitive theory of genre developed by Berkenkotter and Huckin
(1995:4-24) comprises a theoretical framework consisting of five principles,
which are highly relevant to the concept of the hybrid text: dynamism,
situatedness, form and context, duality of structure, community ownership.
Like genres, hybrid texts may change over time in response to the
sociocognitive needs of the users. They are a form of "situated cognition",
deriving from participation in the communicative activities of professional life
in a particular setting. Both form and content are adjusted to what is
appropriate to purpose and context. Through the process of writing and
translation, hybrid texts are both constitutive of social structure and generative
in their professional, institutional and organisational contexts of production.
Such texts are a product of community, representing several languages and
cultures.
Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit discussed the definition of the hybrid and the
process of hybridisation, basing her observations on a Finnish research project.
Intercultural communication gives rise to the development of new text types
and genres and particular stages of this development can be described as
hybridisation. These are the stages at which the new text types and genres have
not yet fully established themselves as forms of communication in a
Christina Schäffher/Beverly Adab 331
sociocultural setting: they manifest linguistic and rhetorical features which are
felt to be foreign. Hybridisation can be seen as a process comparable to
pidginisation: while pidginisation in the course of time may result in the
emergence of new languages, i.e. creoles, hybridisation may result in the
emergence of new domestic text types and genres.
Different rhetorical norms can clash, as can be seen in examples drawn
from EU project proposal texts compiled in English by Finnish applicants.
Project proposals are submitted to the EU Commission by individual applicants
or by international consortia. The Commission appoints a team of evaluators
to select those projects to which the Commission should grant money. Thus a
proposal should be written in a style which convinces the evaluators of the
viability of the project. This is where two different rhetorical norms may clash.
The rhetorical norm governing the proposals written in English is close to the
one prevailing in Anglo-American scientific rhetoric, especially as regards
grant applications. In these, the style is assertive and straight to the point. It
does not hide the merits of the applicants. The text is reader-friendly in that
it uses metatext and other structural signals to guide the reader. The Finnish
rhetorical tradition is different. It is more implicit and impersonal. It starts
from a background and tends to leave it to the reader to infer the aims of the
project as well as the merits of the researchers. Praising oneself is felt to be
impolite, and metatext is frowned upon as a sign of underestimating the
reader's intelligence. The 'point' of the text tends to be left towards the end
of the text. Thus a Finnish applicant or a Finnish translator who is not aware
of the rhetorical difference may end up producing an English text which is
grammatically correct but rhetorically deviant.
The blurring of target cultures is another feature of hybridisation. If the
notion of target culture is defined as the receiving culture in which the new
text types and genres ultimately develop, there are in fact two target cultures
present. Both the Finnish scientific community and the EU scientific
community are in a sense target cultures. One can imagine that Euro-rhetoric
absorbs rhetorical, lexical and even grammatical features from the various
linguistic communities which participate in its functions. Thus the EU can also
be regarded as a target culture. The other target culture is the Finnish
academic community, which must gradually learn to write its scientific prose
according to the Anglo-American rhetorical tradition, or, perhaps, according
to a shared Euro-English rhetorical tradition. This learning may spread to the
Finnish-language academic rhetoric as well. It is also possible that the Finnish
scientific community will continue to maintain a dual rhetorical norm: one for
international communication and another for national communication.
332 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Key points arising from the general discussion concerned more specific
aspects as well as additional features :
1) The concept of the hybrid text is not new. The question is rather what can
be learned from such a concept and how this can contribute to Translation
Studies. Any research into this question should be systematic and clearly
defined. The concept has to be studied in the context of Translation Studies,
in terms of what the concept may contribute to translation theory but also what
it may offer of relevance for the work of the translator, at the analysis stage,
at the processing stage and at the stage of synthesis to recreate effect.
336 Translation as Intercultural Communication
entering the target culture it does not exist except in the mind of the translator.
5) The context of production is also important. A source text may itself be a
hybrid construct resulting from collaboration between members of different
cultures (e.g. EU documents).
In conclusion: it would be valuable to study hybrid texts as defined here,
because such texts are identifiable examples of translation strategies. They
could thus offer a useful perspective from which to study translation strategies
and also reception research. A good starting point might be to evaluate
reactions to hybrid texts and the strategies involved in their production, as
opposed to other ideologies. It is intended to develop the concept of the hybrid
text and the process of hybridisation in a forthcoming publication.
References:
EST was set up to help foster translation research, which means inter alia
helping to increase the volume of translation research (but not necessarily
increasing the volume of publications), and helping to improve research
quality, in particular by increasing the proportion of good research in the total
mass of translation studies.
In most established academic disciplines, research has the following
attributes:
— It is done by "research professionals", i.e. academics and full-time
researchers.
— Research productivity is a function of professional requirements, career
requirements and personal ambition, of the researchers' interest in their
subject and their problem-solving drive, as well as the intellectual pleasure
and social recognition they derive out of research.
— Research quality is a function of training, knowhow, research norms and
quality control. The latter comes from teachers and advisers during
training, and from "clients", supervisors, editorial committees and
selection during the subsequent research career. Quality is also fostered
by competition over positions, over publication space in journals and
elsewhere, and sometimes over money.
In the field of translation studies, there are very few academic translation
departments (although there are many 'vocational' training schools and many
translation courses in foreign language and literature departments). Only a
small proportion of the authors in the literature of Translation Studies are
academics. Most of them are Translation teachers and practitioners. For them,
research is not a professional requirement, nor a career requirement. Neither
are they highly available for such an academic enterprise, as their time is
thinly spread over their professional, training and professional life (see for
instance, as regards interpreting, Cenkova 1995; Gile 1995 and Strolz 1995).
340 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Moreover, the vast majority of such authors have not had the benefit of formal
research training. Neither is there a research tradition per se in Translation
Studies as a whole, though in some of its sectors, including the literary, the
historical and the philosophical areas, previous training in the mother discipline
has carried over to produce some very solid work (as can be seen in particular,
albeit not exclusively, in the work done by Belgian scholars in and around
Leuven). Another point is that there is little quality control in most translation
publications, including journals and conference proceedings, and the
publication market being far from saturated, Translation Studies do not have
the benefit of the healthier side of competition. As a result, on the whole:
— The field has comparatively little knowledge and knowhow.
— Research careers frequently stop after an initial project, often an M.A. or
a PhD, which may be subsequently aired from time to time into a
conference or journal with a fresh layer of make-up.
— Many authors are blissfully ignorant of the rule that researchers should
make a serious effort to review existing studies in and around their topic
before embarking upon their own exploratory endeavours, and thus
experience for themselves the joy of creation while submitting their
readers to endless repetitions.
— A high proportion of studies conducted in the field are methodologically
weak (Toury 1991; Gile 1995).
Possible action on institutional environments could include setting up academic
Translation departments in universities. Another possibility would be to bring
translation and interpretation schools closer to the norms of academia, in
particular by creating academic requirements such as graduation theses in such
schools, which has proved rather efficient in Italy (see Gran & Viezzi 1995)
and in Scandinavian countries, setting academic standards for recruitment of
translation and interpretation trainers, and offering research training to
students. Such actions are by no means easy to implement or necessarily
legitimate, for the matter, if only because of the essentially vocational and
practical orientation of translation and interpretation schools. Another channel
is that of specialized summer programmes or other courses held outside the
institutional framework of individual schools of universities, as explained by
José Lambert below.
Possible action on individuals would seek to strengthen motivation, in
particular by stimulating the curiosity of translation and interpretation students
and practitioners, which requires solid, readable and interesting research. Once
motivation is awakened, an appropriate human environment is required to
maintain it. This is where communication, and in particular international
Daniel Gile/José Lambert/Mary Snell-Hornby 341
contacts, come in. This is also where the role of research supervisors, be they
direct institutional advisors or indirect co-advisors, becomes important.
In this context, EST can serve as a forum for communication, and as a
(provisional, it is hoped) second-best substitute for academic translation and
interpretation departments. Through its meetings, newsletter and membership,
it offers a wide range of resources. By calling on its resource persons, EST
could also help provide guidelines on research training, thesis supervision,
research methodology and research organization. More direct contributions
could include the organization and/or sponsoring of actual research courses and
facilitating meetings between young researchers and more experienced
colleagues who could help them as co-supervisors.
This EST focus was meant to be the first of a series of working sessions
devoted specifically to research methodology, policy and training issues. In this
first meeting, presentations focused on training. A short session with three
speakers can only scratch the surface of the very intricate subject matter.
Rather than providing a full description or analysis of the phenomena under
consideration, the following reports only aim at helping to start a discussion
on the relevant issues. Indeed, the speakers, having kindly restricted the
duration of their presentation to a few minutes, gave the audience ample time
to discuss such issues. The lively discussion which followed the panelists'
presentation will not be summarized here. However, when debates on the
subject become more systematic and focused, they should certainly deserve
significant publication space, possibly even as separate publications.
In the following sections of this report, two leading Translation scholars
discuss their experience and share their knowledge. José Lambert has been the
central personality and driving force behind the CE(T)RA summer training
programme in Leuven, Belgium, and is now pushing forward the idea of
distance training, thus taking full advantage of the most recent communication
technology. His report provides some information on the training programme,
which is organized internationally and inter-institutionally. Mary Snell-Hornby,
EST President and former Head of the translation and interpretation school of
the University of Vienna, explains the institutional structure of the University
system in Austria, emphasizing aspects of supervision at the various levels and
discreetly hinting at some fundamental problems.
342 Translation as Intercultural Communication
The CE(T)RA programme
rooms remain as signs of academic life. The session includes lectures by the
CERA Professor, who is selected every year for one summer session among
leading scholars in the field of Translation Studies, lectures and seminars with
the supervisors and visiting scholars, who also provide personal tuition to
trainees during their stay, and presentation by trainees of their own ongoing
projects. The programme includes lectures and seminars about research
methodology as applied to Translation research and about theoretical and other
issues in the field of Translation Studies. Besides its highly international and
interdisciplinary nature, the programme is unique in its very high ratio of
lecturer/supervisors to trainees, which often approximates one-to-one, giving
trainees the opportunity to consult personally some of the leading scholars in
the field.
The newly founded "research summer school" soon acquired worldwide
reputation, in particular with its impressive list of CERA Professors: Toury in
1989, Vermeer in 1990, Bassnett in 1991, Neubert in 1992, Gile in 1993,
Snell-Hornby in 1994 and Lefevere in 1995, and with its equally impressive
list of participants (more than 150 persons from 5 continents) and visitors,
including alumni of the programme, many of whom like to come back for
more. As a matter of fact, two former trainees of the programme have edited
the special series of CERA Papers (Robyns 1993; Jansen 1996). Some of them
already have a significant scholarly record, and though the CERA papers and
volumes are not widely distributed yet, they are taken seriously by experienced
scholars. Former trainees of the CERA programme are active in international
meetings. For example, they represented about 10 percent of the participants
in the 1992 Vienna conference (Snell-Hornby, Pöchhacker & Kaindl 1994),
and more than 12 percent of the participants in the Prague EST Congress in
1995 (this volume). Undeniably, the Center has been fulfilling an active
international role, as noted in a number of publications (Schjoldager 1995;
Pöchhacker 1995; Hermans 1996; Gile 1996). This is remarkable, as CERA
ia an independent center operating with an international staff, rather than part
of a University or Institute, and has been trying very hard, sometimes to no
avail, sometimes running against opposition from existing institutions, to obtain
institutional support.
The Programme changed its name from CERA to CETRA in the fall of
1995 as the CERA Bank withdrew and the Institut Libre Marie Haps in
Brussels and Dhaxley Translation Inc. jumped in, but this has not had any
impact on the Center's objectives, though CE(T)RA has gradually evolved,
extending its activities and widening its field from the initially dominant
344 Translation as Intercultural Communication
principle after experiencing it. It is now clear that international centers for
research training and research services are the way to the future. Mobility of
people will not stop. The emphasis should now be on the mobility of concepts
and curricula. The question is how to get the most out of this situation and
how to involve EST as a partner and/or initiator of action.
Translation Studies research in Austria must be seen from two differing, even
conflicting points of view. On the one hand, the translation schools still see
themselves essentially as training schools for future practising professionals,1
and they have virtually no research background; on the other hand however,
they are fully-fledged institutes of their university Arts Faculties, which are
products of the specifically Austrian academic system. This too is an
ambivalent construct which must be seen in its own terms and is by no means
identical with the system in Anglo-Saxon countries. On the one hand it is
deeply rooted in the Humboldtian tradition of academic freedom and the
indivisibility of teaching and research; on the other hand however, the
university structure was radically changed by laws passed in the 1970s, putting
much of the power into the hands of committees and functionaries. This means
that while university professors theoretically have the right to teach what they
like, in practice they are bound by the curriculum and by regulations beyond
their control.
The Chair of Translation Studies2 at the University of Vienna was
established in 1989, and it was my declared policy as first Full Professor of
Translation Studies to promote a young generation of translation scholars for
the future development of our discipline. For Translation Studies this seems to
be absolutely essential: as Daniel Gile has already pointed out, there are still
very few academic Translation departments, and most of us are self-taught,
1
This is clear from the name (Institut für Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung) given
to all three schools (in Vienna, Graz and Innsbruck). Attempts to change the name, with
reference to both the lack of transparency for non-German speakers and to the emergence
of Translation Studies as an independent discipline, have so far been unsuccessful. Plans
for a curriculum reform, which have been under way for some years, have resulted in
proposals to change the name of the two degree courses Übersetzerausbildung and
Dolmetscherausbildung to Übersetzungswissenschaft and Dolmetschwissenschaft, but at
the time of writing these have not yet been passed by the government officials
responsible.
2
In the Austrian system, a university chair is an academic post of Full Professor, and not
an administrative one (Head of Department).
346 Translation as Intercultural Communication
coming from other fields. Within the Austrian system there are two ways of
fostering research: by creating academic posts for young researchers (known
as Universitäts-Assistenteri) and by encouraging suitable candidates to take
post-graduate degrees. There are three levels of academic qualification in
Austria: the undergraduate level (resulting in the title of Magister3), the
doctoral level, and the post-doctoral level leading to the Habilitation4.
Since 1972 the diploma thesis (Diplomarbeit) has been a requirement for the
degree of Magister in Austrian translation schools. Before the establishment of
the Chairs5, students had to look for qualified supervisors from other
departments; in Vienna they still can and indeed often do so. Hence in theory
there is a potential for constructive interdisciplinary cooperation. According to
the regulations, the topic of the diploma thesis must fall under one of the
following headings:
— Theoretical problems of translation and interpreting
— Linguistic phenomena of the candidate's B or C language
— Translation critique and comparison
— Terminology and lexicography
— Contrastive cultural studies.
The regulations require only one supervisor (who must have the post-doctoral
Habilitation), but allow for co-supervision. This makes it possible, particularly
in the case of highly specialized terminological studies, for the student to be
supervised both by a translation scholar (or terminologist) and by an expert in
the subject area concerned. Using this opportunity for interdisciplinary
collaboration, I have supervised a number of diploma theses in cooperation
with colleagues from other institutes and faculties, with extremely satisfactory
results (see Snell-Hornby 1991:17 and 1995), and such possibilities should be
explored further.
Undergraduate diploma theses of this kind are sometimes valuable case
studies, unfortunately doomed to collect dust on the shelves of the institute
3
This should not be confused with a post-graduate Master's degree in the Anglo-Saxon
system.
4
This is the basic requirement in German-speaking countries for a professorship, but also
provides the official qualification for supervising undergraduate and doctoral theses.
5
The appointment to the Chair in Graz was made in 1988, in Innsbruck in 1990.
Daniel Gile/José Lambert/Mary Snell-Hornby 347
At doctoral level there are as yet no specific regulations for the translation
schools in Austria, hence there is a good deal of freedom from curricular
constraints, 7 and it is here that we have had the most satisfactory results so
far. On the negative side is once again the lack of training in scholarly work
at undergraduate level, so that candidates embark on their thesis with some
factual knowledge of the area that interests them, but with very little
knowledge of translation theory and the background literature, and hardly any
practice in academic writing or research methodology. So all this usually has
to be learnt from scratch, and the situation will not change basically until the
planned curriculum reform is eventually put into practice. To date 1995 five
doctoral degrees (Dr.phil.) have been completed under my supervision in
Vienna, and it is to the credit of those concerned that they managed to remedy
the above deficits to meet the high standards of quality required of them. 8
In Austria the doctoral candidate needs both a supervisor and a co-
supervisor; in accordance with the principle of academic freedom he/she
approaches the professors of his/her choice and presents a clearly defined
project, which is accepted or rejected according to the policy, research
interests or work load of the professors concerned. The interest in obtaining
a doctor's degree in Translation Studies in Vienna has been overwhelming, and
I must have been approached by well over 50 would-be candidates, many of
whom were however unaware of the demands scholarly research would make
on them, and hence their interest barely survived the first interview. All the
6
This is recognized by the University authorities, who provide scholarships for students
who need to do their research abroad.
7
The degree is awarded on the basis of the general university regulations, which simply
require in all four certificates from seminars recommended by the supervisor and co-
supervisor.
8
Some of these theses have meanwhile been published (e.g. Pöchhacker 1994; Kaindl
1995; Kurth 1995).
348 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Future prospects
Conclusion
As announced in the introduction, this report can only be a trigger for further
reflection on research training issues. However, a number of points were made
salient by the speakers:
— The theme of research training and its institutional and organizational
aspects are very important for the future of the (inter)discipline of
Translation Studies.
— The interdisciplinary nature of Translation Studies seems to call for an
appropriate organizational structure in which co-supervision plays a central
role.
— The development of Translation research has yet to struggle into official
existence, sometimes fighting opposition from vocational translator and
interpreter training institutions besides the opposition from academic in-
stitutions whose territory is threatened by the newcomers.
— The administrative burden on research training has been a significant
handicap in the activities of Translation Studies leaders.
— Imagination and innovation could be particularly useful assets for over-
coming barriers, as the CE(T)RA and TRANSCETRA examples show.
It is hoped that this first EST focus session will pave the way for more
systematic reflection on these issues, in particular through detailed and
systematic reports on the situation in the countries and institutions that EST
Members belong to and on solutions that have been attempted.
References
Cenkova, Ivana. 1995. "La recherphe en interprétation dans les pays d'Europe de l'Est: une
perspective personnelle". Target 7:1, 75-89.
Gile, Daniel. 1995. Regards sur la recherche en interprétation de conference. Lille: Presses
Universitaires de Lille.
Gile, Daniel. 1996. "La formation à la recherche traductologique et le concept CERA Chair".
Meta 41:3, 486-490.
Gran, Laura/Maurizio Viezzi. 1995. "Development of Research Work at SSLM, Trieste".
Target 7:1, 107-118.
350 Translation as Intercultural Communication
Sirkku Aaltonen
University of Vaasa, P.O. Box 297, 65101 Vaasa, Finland
Beverly, Adab
Aston University,Department of Modern Languages, Aston Triangle, B4 7 ET
Birmingham, United Kingdom
Rosemary Arrojo
Universidad Estadual de Campinas S. Paulo, Institute de Estudos da Linguagem,
Rua Marquês de Abrantes 382, 03060 020 Sao Paulo, S.P. Brazil
Leo Tak-hung Chan
Lignan College, Tuen Mun, HongKong
Andrew Chesterman
University of Helsinki, Department of English, P.O. Box 4 (Hallituskatu 11),
00014 Helsinki, Finland
Anneke de Vries
Uiterwaardenstraat 137, 1079 CK Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Cay Dollerup
University of Copenhagen, Center for Translation Studies and Lexicography,
Njalsgade 80, 2300 Copenhagen, Denmark
Daniel Gile
10, rue Pasteur, 92190 Meudon, France
Jean-Marc Gouanvic
Concordia University, Department of French Studies, 7141 Sherbrooke West,
Montreal H4B IR6, Canada
Theo Hermans
University College London, Centre for Low Countries Studies, Gower Street,
London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
Zuzana Jettmarová
Charles University, Institute of Translation Studies, Hybernskà 3, 11000 Praha
1, Czech Republic
352
Udo Jörg
132b Bravington Road, Westkillburn, London W9 3AL, United Kingdom
Mira Kadric
Universität Wien, Institut für Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung, Gymnasi-
umstr. 50, 1190 Wien, Austria
Klaus Kaindl
Universität Wien, Institut für Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung, Gymnasi-
umstr. 50, 1190 Wien, Austria
Michèle Kaiser-Cooke
Universität Wien, Institut für Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung, Gymnasi-
umstr. 50, 1190 Wien, Austria
Christine Klein-Braley
Universität Duisburg, Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik, 47048 Duisburg,
Deutschland
Rainer Kohl may er
Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, FASK-Germersheim, An der Hochschule
2, 76711 Germersheim, Deutschland
Irena Kovacic
Univerza V Ljublijani, Department of English, Askerceva 2, 1000 Ljubljana,
Slovenia
Sigrid Kupsch-Losereit
Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, FASK-Germersheim, An der Hochschule
2, 76711 Germersheim, Deutschland
Ingrid Kurz
Universität Wien, Institut für Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung, Gymnasi-
umstr. 50, 1190 Wien, Austria
Paul Kussmaul
Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, FASK-Germersheim, An der Hochschule
2, 76711 Germersheim, Deutschland
José Lambert
Katholieke Universitet Leuven, Dept. Literatuurwetenschap, Blijde-Inkomstraat
21, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
Dorte Madsen
Copenhagen Business School, Department of Spanish, Dalgas Have 15, 2000
Frederiksberg, Denmark
Marta Mateo
Marqués de Pidal 7-2, 33004 Oviedo, Spain
353
Saliha Paker
Bogazici University Istanbul, Department of Translation and Interpreting,
Yadyok, P.K. 2, 80815 Istanbul, Turkey
Maria Piotrowska
Pedagogical University, NKJÀ, WSP, ul. Podcharazch 2, 30-084 Kraków,
Poland
Franz Pöchhacker
Universität Wien, Institut für Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung, Gymnasi-
umstr. 50, 1190 Wien, Austria
Renate Resch
Universität Wien, Institut für Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung, Gymnasi-
umstr. 50, 1190 Wien, Austria
Hanna Risku
Andersengasse 1/69/12, 1120 Wien, Austria
Irene Rübberdt
Wustrowerstr. 9, 13051 Berlin, Deutschland
Heidemarie Salevsky
Niebergallstr. 3, 12557 Berlin, Deutschland
Christina Schäffner
Aston University, Department of Modern Languages, Aston Triangle, B4 7 ET
Birmingham, United Kingdom
Veronica Smith
Universität Klagenfurt, Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik, Universitätsstr.
65-67, 9020 Klagenfurt, Austria
Mary Snell-Hornby
Universität Wien, Institut für Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung, Gymnasi-
umstr. 50, 1190 Wien, Austria
Ubaldo Stecconi
Department of English, Ateneo de Manila University, The Philippines
Maria Luisa Torres Reyes
Department of English, Ateneo de Manila University, The Philippines
Zehra Toska
Bogazici University Istanbul, Department of Translation and Interpreting,
Yadyok, P.K. 2, 80815 Istanbul, Turkey
Erkka Vuorinen
University of Tampere, Department of Translation Studies, PL 607, 33101
Tampere, Finland
354
Michaela Wolf
Universität Graz, Institut für Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung, Mer-
angasse 70, 8010 Graz, Austria
leva Zauberberga
University of Latvia, Department of Contrastive Linguistics, Visvalza 4A, 1011
Riga, Latvia
Benjamins Translation Library
A complete list of titles in this series can be found on www.benjamins.com
84 Monacelli, Claudia: Self-Preservation in Simultaneous Interpreting. Surviving the role. Expected April
2009
83 Torikai, Kumiko: Voices of the Invisible Presence. Diplomatic interpreters in post-World War II Japan.
2009. x, 197 pp.
82 Beeby, Allison, Patricia Rodríguez Inés and Pilar Sánchez-Gijón (eds.): Corpus Use and
Translating. Corpus use for learning to translate and learning corpus use to translate. x, 151 pp. + index.
Expected February 2009
81 Milton, John and Paul Bandia (eds.): Agents of Translation. 2009. vi, 337 pp.
80 Hansen, Gyde, Andrew Chesterman and Heidrun Gerzymisch-Arbogast (eds.): Efforts and
Models in Interpreting and Translation Research. A tribute to Daniel Gile. 2009. ix, 302 pp.
79 Yuste Rodrigo, Elia (ed.): Topics in Language Resources for Translation and Localisation. 2008.
xii, 220 pp.
78 Chiaro, Delia, Christine Heiss and Chiara Bucaria (eds.): Between Text and Image. Updating
research in screen translation. 2008. x, 292 pp.
77 Díaz Cintas, Jorge (ed.): The Didactics of Audiovisual Translation. 2008. xii, 263 pp. (incl. CD-Rom).
76 Valero-Garcés, Carmen and Anne Martin (eds.): Crossing Borders in Community Interpreting.
Definitions and dilemmas. 2008. xii, 291 pp.
75 Pym, Anthony, Miriam Shlesinger and Daniel Simeoni (eds.): Beyond Descriptive Translation
Studies. Investigations in homage to Gideon Toury. 2008. xii, 417 pp.
74 Wolf, Michaela and Alexandra Fukari (eds.): Constructing a Sociology of Translation. 2007. vi, 226 pp.
73 Gouadec, Daniel: Translation as a Profession. 2007. xvi, 396 pp.
72 Gambier, Yves, Miriam Shlesinger and Radegundis Stolze (eds.): Doubts and Directions in
Translation Studies. Selected contributions from the EST Congress, Lisbon 2004. 2007. xii, 362 pp. [EST
Subseries 4]
71 St-Pierre, Paul and Prafulla C. Kar (eds.): In Translation – Reflections, Refractions, Transformations.
2007. xvi, 313 pp.
70 Wadensjö, Cecilia, Birgitta Englund Dimitrova and Anna-Lena Nilsson (eds.): The Critical
Link 4. Professionalisation of interpreting in the community. Selected papers from the 4th International
Conference on Interpreting in Legal, Health and Social Service Settings, Stockholm, Sweden, 20-23 May
2004. 2007. x, 314 pp.
69 Delabastita, Dirk, Lieven D’hulst and Reine Meylaerts (eds.): Functional Approaches to
Culture and Translation. Selected papers by José Lambert. 2006. xxviii, 226 pp.
68 Duarte, João Ferreira, Alexandra Assis Rosa and Teresa Seruya (eds.): Translation Studies at the
Interface of Disciplines. 2006. vi, 207 pp.
67 Pym, Anthony, Miriam Shlesinger and Zuzana Jettmarová (eds.): Sociocultural Aspects of
Translating and Interpreting. 2006. viii, 255 pp.
66 Snell-Hornby, Mary: The Turns of Translation Studies. New paradigms or shifting viewpoints? 2006.
xi, 205 pp.
65 Doherty, Monika: Structural Propensities. Translating nominal word groups from English into German.
2006. xxii, 196 pp.
64 Englund Dimitrova, Birgitta: Expertise and Explicitation in the Translation Process. 2005.
xx, 295 pp.
63 Janzen, Terry (ed.): Topics in Signed Language Interpreting. Theory and practice. 2005. xii, 362 pp.
62 Pokorn, Nike K.: Challenging the Traditional Axioms. Translation into a non-mother tongue. 2005.
xii, 166 pp. [EST Subseries 3]
61 Hung, Eva (ed.): Translation and Cultural Change. Studies in history, norms and image-projection. 2005.
xvi, 195 pp.
60 Tennent, Martha (ed.): Training for the New Millennium. Pedagogies for translation and interpreting.
2005. xxvi, 276 pp.
59 Malmkjær, Kirsten (ed.): Translation in Undergraduate Degree Programmes. 2004. vi, 202 pp.
58 Branchadell, Albert and Lovell Margaret West (eds.): Less Translated Languages. 2005. viii, 416 pp.
57 Chernov, Ghelly V.: Inference and Anticipation in Simultaneous Interpreting. A probability-prediction
model. Edited with a critical foreword by Robin Setton and Adelina Hild. 2004. xxx, 268 pp. [EST Subseries
2]
56 Orero, Pilar (ed.): Topics in Audiovisual Translation. 2004. xiv, 227 pp.
55 Angelelli, Claudia V.: Revisiting the Interpreter’s Role. A study of conference, court, and medical
interpreters in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. 2004. xvi, 127 pp.
54 González Davies, Maria: Multiple Voices in the Translation Classroom. Activities, tasks and projects.
2004. x, 262 pp.
53 Diriker, Ebru: De-/Re-Contextualizing Conference Interpreting. Interpreters in the Ivory Tower? 2004.
x, 223 pp.
52 Hale, Sandra: The Discourse of Court Interpreting. Discourse practices of the law, the witness and the
interpreter. 2004. xviii, 267 pp.
51 Chan, Leo Tak-hung: Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. Modes, issues and debates. 2004.
xvi, 277 pp.
50 Hansen, Gyde, Kirsten Malmkjær and Daniel Gile (eds.): Claims, Changes and Challenges in
Translation Studies. Selected contributions from the EST Congress, Copenhagen 2001. 2004. xiv, 320 pp.
[EST Subseries 1]
49 Pym, Anthony: The Moving Text. Localization, translation, and distribution. 2004. xviii, 223 pp.
48 Mauranen, Anna and Pekka Kujamäki (eds.): Translation Universals. Do they exist? 2004. vi, 224 pp.
47 Sawyer, David B.: Fundamental Aspects of Interpreter Education. Curriculum and Assessment. 2004.
xviii, 312 pp.
46 Brunette, Louise, Georges Bastin, Isabelle Hemlin and Heather Clarke (eds.): The Critical
Link 3. Interpreters in the Community. Selected papers from the Third International Conference on
Interpreting in Legal, Health and Social Service Settings, Montréal, Quebec, Canada 22–26 May 2001. 2003.
xii, 359 pp.
45 Alves, Fabio (ed.): Triangulating Translation. Perspectives in process oriented research. 2003. x, 165 pp.
44 Singerman, Robert: Jewish Translation History. A bibliography of bibliographies and studies. With an
introductory essay by Gideon Toury. 2002. xxxvi, 420 pp.
43 Garzone, Giuliana and Maurizio Viezzi (eds.): Interpreting in the 21st Century. Challenges and
opportunities. 2002. x, 337 pp.
42 Hung, Eva (ed.): Teaching Translation and Interpreting 4. Building bridges. 2002. xii, 243 pp.
41 Nida, Eugene A.: Contexts in Translating. 2002. x, 127 pp.
40 Englund Dimitrova, Birgitta and Kenneth Hyltenstam (eds.): Language Processing and
Simultaneous Interpreting. Interdisciplinary perspectives. 2000. xvi, 164 pp.
39 Chesterman, Andrew, Natividad Gallardo San Salvador and Yves Gambier (eds.):
Translation in Context. Selected papers from the EST Congress, Granada 1998. 2000. x, 393 pp.
38 Schäffner, Christina and Beverly Adab (eds.): Developing Translation Competence. 2000.
xvi, 244 pp.
37 Tirkkonen-Condit, Sonja and Riitta Jääskeläinen (eds.): Tapping and Mapping the Processes
of Translation and Interpreting. Outlooks on empirical research. 2000. x, 176 pp.
36 Schmid, Monika S.: Translating the Elusive. Marked word order and subjectivity in English-German
translation. 1999. xii, 174 pp.
35 Somers, Harold (ed.): Computers and Translation. A translator's guide. 2003. xvi, 351 pp.
34 Gambier, Yves and Henrik Gottlieb (eds.): (Multi) Media Translation. Concepts, practices, and
research. 2001. xx, 300 pp.
33 Gile, Daniel, Helle V. Dam, Friedel Dubslaff, Bodil Martinsen and Anne Schjoldager
(eds.): Getting Started in Interpreting Research. Methodological reflections, personal accounts and advice
for beginners. 2001. xiv, 255 pp.
32 Beeby, Allison, Doris Ensinger and Marisa Presas (eds.): Investigating Translation. Selected papers
from the 4th International Congress on Translation, Barcelona, 1998. 2000. xiv, 296 pp.
31 Roberts, Roda P., Silvana E. Carr, Diana Abraham and Aideen Dufour (eds.): The Critical
Link 2: Interpreters in the Community. Selected papers from the Second International Conference on
Interpreting in legal, health and social service settings, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 19–23 May 1998. 2000.
vii, 316 pp.
30 Dollerup, Cay: Tales and Translation. The Grimm Tales from Pan-Germanic narratives to shared
international fairytales. 1999. xiv, 384 pp.
29 Wilss, Wolfram: Translation and Interpreting in the 20th Century. Focus on German. 1999. xiii, 256 pp.
28 Setton, Robin: Simultaneous Interpretation. A cognitive-pragmatic analysis. 1999. xvi, 397 pp.
27 Beylard-Ozeroff, Ann, Jana Králová and Barbara Moser-Mercer (eds.): Translators'
Strategies and Creativity. Selected Papers from the 9th International Conference on Translation and
Interpreting, Prague, September 1995. In honor of Jiří Levý and Anton Popovič. 1998. xiv, 230 pp.
26 Trosborg, Anna (ed.): Text Typology and Translation. 1997. xvi, 342 pp.
25 Pollard, David E. (ed.): Translation and Creation. Readings of Western Literature in Early Modern
China, 1840–1918. 1998. vi, 336 pp.
24 Orero, Pilar and Juan C. Sager (eds.): The Translator's Dialogue. Giovanni Pontiero. 1997. xiv, 252 pp.
23 Gambier, Yves, Daniel Gile and Christopher Taylor (eds.): Conference Interpreting: Current Trends
in Research. Proceedings of the International Conference on Interpreting: What do we know and how? 1997.
iv, 246 pp.
22 Chesterman, Andrew: Memes of Translation. The spread of ideas in translation theory. 1997. vii, 219 pp.
21 Bush, Peter and Kirsten Malmkjær (eds.): Rimbaud's Rainbow. Literary translation in higher
education. 1998. x, 200 pp.
20 Snell-Hornby, Mary, Zuzana Jettmarová and Klaus Kaindl (eds.): Translation as Intercultural
Communication. Selected papers from the EST Congress, Prague 1995. 1997. x, 354 pp.
19 Carr, Silvana E., Roda P. Roberts, Aideen Dufour and Dini Steyn (eds.): The Critical Link:
Interpreters in the Community. Papers from the 1st international conference on interpreting in legal, health
and social service settings, Geneva Park, Canada, 1–4 June 1995. 1997. viii, 322 pp.
18 Somers, Harold (ed.): Terminology, LSP and Translation. Studies in language engineering in honour of
Juan C. Sager. 1996. xii, 250 pp.
17 Poyatos, Fernando (ed.): Nonverbal Communication and Translation. New perspectives and challenges
in literature, interpretation and the media. 1997. xii, 361 pp.
16 Dollerup, Cay and Vibeke Appel (eds.): Teaching Translation and Interpreting 3. New Horizons.
Papers from the Third Language International Conference, Elsinore, Denmark, 1995. 1996. viii, 338 pp.
15 Wilss, Wolfram: Knowledge and Skills in Translator Behavior. 1996. xiii, 259 pp.
14 Melby, Alan K. and Terry Warner: The Possibility of Language. A discussion of the nature of language,
with implications for human and machine translation. 1995. xxvi, 276 pp.
13 Delisle, Jean and Judith Woodsworth (eds.): Translators through History. 1995. xvi, 346 pp.
12 Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp (eds.): Manual of Specialised Lexicography. The preparation
of specialised dictionaries. 1995. 256 pp.
11 Vinay, Jean-Paul and Jean Darbelnet: Comparative Stylistics of French and English. A methodology
for translation. Translated and edited by Juan C. Sager and M.-J. Hamel. 1995. xx, 359 pp.
10 Kussmaul, Paul: Training the Translator. 1995. x, 178 pp.
9 Rey, Alain: Essays on Terminology. Translated by Juan C. Sager. With an introduction by Bruno de Bessé.
1995. xiv, 223 pp.
8 Gile, Daniel: Basic Concepts and Models for Interpreter and Translator Training. 1995. xvi, 278 pp.
7 Beaugrande, Robert de, Abdullah Shunnaq and Mohamed Helmy Heliel (eds.): Language,
Discourse and Translation in the West and Middle East. 1994. xii, 256 pp.
6 Edwards, Alicia B.: The Practice of Court Interpreting. 1995. xiii, 192 pp.
5 Dollerup, Cay and Annette Lindegaard (eds.): Teaching Translation and Interpreting 2. Insights,
aims and visions. Papers from the Second Language International Conference Elsinore, 1993. 1994.
viii, 358 pp.
4 Toury, Gideon: Descriptive Translation Studies – and beyond. 1995. viii, 312 pp.
3 Lambert, Sylvie and Barbara Moser-Mercer (eds.): Bridging the Gap. Empirical research in
simultaneous interpretation. 1994. 362 pp.
2 Snell-Hornby, Mary, Franz Pöchhacker and Klaus Kaindl (eds.): Translation Studies: An
Interdiscipline. Selected papers from the Translation Studies Congress, Vienna, 1992. 1994. xii, 438 pp.
1 Sager, Juan C.: Language Engineering and Translation. Consequences of automation. 1994. xx, 345 pp.