CHAPTER 7

Electronic Structure
and Periodicity
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

In the 19th century, scientists attempted to

organize the elements into a more meaningful
way. At the time, it became apparent that some
elements are closely related because they
undergo similar reactions
and form similar compounds.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Law of Triads (1817)

- German chemist Johann
Wolfgang Döbereiner formulated
this law
- it is a group of three
elements whose appearance and
reactions are similar to one
another.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Döbereiner observed
that the atomic mass of
the element at the middle
of the triad was
approximately the mean of
the masses of the other
two elements.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

The law of triads would seem to

indicate that atomic weight is a common
property of all elements and can serve as
a basis for establishing relationships using
their similarities.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

In 1864, the English

scientist John Newlands listed
the elements in terms of
their relative atomic masses.

*Relative atomic mass refers to the ratio

of the mass of an atom to one-twelfth the
mass of a carbon-12 atom.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Newlands started with lithium (Li) and sequenced

other elements in the order of increasing atomic weights.
He concluded that the eighth element manifested
properties similar to the first. He pointed out the
similarity of this relationship to that of an octave in a
musical scale and consequently proposed the law of
octaves. However, when the law was applied to heavier
elements such as iron, the pattern became irregular.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

His table listed iron, which is metal, in the same

group as oxygen and sulfur, which are nonmetals. For
this discrepancy, other scientists became skeptical of the
accuracy of his table.
About 20 years later, the law of
octaves led to the discovery of transition
elements. This discovery won him the
Davy medal, awarded by the
Royal Society of London.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

NEWLANDS’ OCTAVES
H Li Be B C N O

F Na Mg Al Si P S

Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

In 1869, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published the

periodic law, which states that “The properties of elements are
a periodic function of their atomic weight.” He was able to
successfully organize all the known elements
at that time into one table – a periodic table.
He arranged the elements according to their
relative atomic mass. A comparison of the
two versions show that Mendeleev’s table
improved on Newlands’ table.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
Comparison of Newlands’ and Mendeleev’s versions of the Periodic Table
Newlands’ Octaves Mendeleev’s Table
Sequenced elements in terms of their Ordered elements by atomic weight
atomic weights
Limited only to known elements at that time Left gaps for elements he predicted would
be discovered later
No adjustments were made to the order of Made adjustments to the order of some
elements according to their atomic weights elements according to their properties
Every eight element had similar properties Elements in a group had similar properties

Grouped some elements that were very Served as a useful tool in predicting
different to each other. elements that were later discovered
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

In 1870, German chemist Julius Lothar

Meyer validated Mendeleev’s periodic table,
although the two were not aware of each
other’s work until after the publication of
both their works. Meyer’s work is best
known for its recognition of periodic behavior,
or the repeating pattern of a property, the
atomic volume, which he plotted against
atomic weight.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
An English physicist, Henry Moseley
who, in 1913, studied the characteristic
X-ray spectra of the elements known at
the time. His experiments showed that
atomic number, not atomic weight, is
directly related to the square root of the
frequency of the X-rays. This led to the
restatement of the periodic table law –
the modern periodic law.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Modern Periodic law

“The physical and chemical
properties of the elements are periodic
functions of their atomic numbers.”
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

The modern periodic table proposed by

Mendeleev has three distinct advantages over
the earlier forms of the periodic table:
1. It systematized chemical knowledge.
2. It predicted the existence of new elements
and their properties.
3. It validated the atomic weights of elements
and corrected the errors.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Generalizations on the Periodic Table

1. For elements of subgroup A, the group

number is equal to the number of electrons
in the outermost shell. The outermost shell is
the valence shell, and the electrons found in
the outermost shells are called valence
electrons.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

2. For elements of subgroup B, the group

number is equal to the number of electrons
in the outermost shell plus the number of
electrons in the partially-filling subshell.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

3. For all elements, the period number is

equal to the number of shells that the atom
needs to accommodate all its electrons.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

4. Atoms of elements belonging to Groups

IA, IIA, and IIIA tend to attain a stable
configuration by losing 1, 2, or 3 electrons
to become positive ions (cations) with a 1+,
2+, and 3+ charge respectively.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

5. Atoms of elements belonging to Groups

VA, VIA, and VIIA tend to acquire a stable
configuration by gaining 3, 2, and 1 electron
to become negative ions (anions) with a
3-, 2-, and 1- charge respectively.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

6. Atoms of elements belonging to Group

VIA may lose or gain electrons depending on
the circumstances of bond formation.
CHAPTER 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

7. Except for helium, atoms of elements in

Group VIII (called the inert elements) already
possess eight electrons in the outermost shell,
and are therefore chemically inert. Helium has
only one shell, and the maximum number of
electrons in the first shell is two, thus,
helium is still considered an inert element.