Chapter I - INTRODUCTION 2


DESIGN OF STEEL AND TIMBER

STRUCTURES
[CEN3204]
CHAPTER - I: INTRODUCTION
3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

I. Introduction

Content
1.Field of application
2.Types of steel
3.Mechanical Properties of Structural Steel
4.Structural steel sections
5.Design standards or philosophies
6.Advantages and disadvantages of steel structures

1.1. Field of Application

General
▪ Engineering structures are required to support loads and resist forces, and to
transfer these loads and forces to the foundations of the structures.
▪ The loads and forces may arise from the masses of the structure, or from man’s use
of the structures, or from the forces of nature.
▪ The uses of structures include
✓the enclosure of space (buildings),
✓the provision of access (bridges),
✓the storage of materials (tanks and silos),
✓transportation (vehicles), or
✓the processing of materials (machines).
▪ Structures may be made from a number of different materials, including steel,
concrete, wood, aluminum, stone, plastic, etc., or from combinations of these.

Cont…
▪ Structures are usually three-dimensional in their extent, but sometimes they are
essentially two-dimensional (plates and shells), or even one-dimensional (lines and
cables).
▪ Three-dimensional steel structures
are often arranged so that they act
as if composed of a number of
independent two-dimensional
frames or one-dimensional
members


Cont…
▪ Structures are usually three-dimensional in their extent, but sometimes they are
essentially two-dimensional (plates and shells), or even one-dimensional (lines and
cables).
▪ Three-dimensional steel structures
are often arranged so that they act
as if composed of a number of
independent two-dimensional
frames or one-dimensional
members


A. Framework or Skeleton
Systems:
▪ They have as their main element
beams, girders, trusses and columns.
❖ The frameworks of industrial

building and structures with their
internal members such as crane,
girders, platform, etc.


❖Railways, highways
and urban large-span
bridges.
❖Civic multistoried
buildings, pavilions
for exhibition, domes,
etc.

❖ Special purpose
buildings such as
hangars, shipbuilding,
etc.
❖ Special structures like

towers, mast,
hydraulic engineering
structures, cranes,
etc.

B. Shell systems:
❖ Gasholders and tanks for the
storage and distribution of
gases.
❖Tanks and reservoirs for the
storage of liquids.
❖ Tanks and reservoirs for

the storage of Solids.

1.2. Types of steel: Engineering Materials

▪ The materials which

are useful in the field
of engineering are
called Engineering
Materials
Structural Steel

1.2. Types of steel: Engineering Materials cont..

▪ A particular material is selected on the basis of the following considerations
Properties of Material Properties of Material
Cost of material ✓ Mechanical properties - strength, ductility,

toughness, hardness, strength to weight ratio etc.
✓ Physical properties - density, specific heat, thermal
Availability of material (desired shape and size expansion, conductivity , melting point etc.
and quantity) & reliability of supply ✓ Chemical properties - oxidation , corrosion,
flammability, toxicity etc.
Service in the life of material ✓ Manufacturing properties - formed, casting,
machined, welding
Appearance of material

1.3. Mechanical Properties of Structural Steel: Material
Properties Required for Design


1.3. Mechanical Properties of Structural Steel: Behavior of
steel under tension

▪ The standard requires that the manufacturer shall carry out tension tests on
specimens taken from each type of section rolled from cast steel to ensure
that the material has specified properties. A typical test specimen is shown
below. See Fig.

steel under tension

▪ If a specimen of steel is subjected to tension by gradually increasing the load

P, and the resulting elongation ΔL be measured, the results can be used to
plot an experimental tension diagram of elongation Vs load. For
convenience we plot stress Vs unit elongation. See Fig.
Now; stress 𝒇 = 𝑷/𝑨; that is 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅/𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂. Units 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐 .
∆𝑳
Strain 𝜺 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑳
where: f = Normal stress (N/mm2).
A = cross-sectional area of the specimen. (mm2).
ε = strain or unit elongation in percent.
L = gauge length or original length of the specimen.
ΔL = longitudinal elongation of the specimen.

steel under tension

▪ The relation between the stress and strain follows the Hook’s Law; Robert
Hook around 1678 stated his low by the following equation:
𝒇 = 𝑬𝜺
▪ Note that: the highest stress in a material,

after which the relation between stress and
strain no longer remains linear, is called yield
point. After this point appears elongation
without an increase in load, then, appear the
yield area.
steel under tension


1.3. Mechanical Properties of Structural Steel: Steel
Grades – CES 152

▪ Sample Nominal values of yield strength of steel

1.3. Mechanical Properties of Structural Steel: Materials
Coefficients – CES 152

▪ Design values of material coefficients (CES 152: ES-3 of page

no: 30)
1. Modulus of elasticity 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝑮𝑷𝒂

2. Shear Modulus 𝑮 = 𝟖𝟏 𝑮𝑷𝒂
3. Unit mass 𝝆 = 𝟕𝟖𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
4. Poison’s ratio 𝝂 = 𝟎. 𝟑
5. Coefficient of linear expansion 𝜶 = 𝟏𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝑪

1.4. Structural Steel Sections: Steel Manufacturing and
Fabrication

▪ The term steel refers to a family of iron–carbon alloys characterized by well-defined percentage ratios of
main individual components. Specifically, iron–carbon alloys are identified by the carbon (C) content, as
follows: Elements Effect
Sulfur (S) and Decrease the material ductility and its
Phosphorous (P) weldability (their overall content should be
limited to approximately 0.06%)
Nitrogen (N) and Can reduce ductility and also affect the strain-
Oxygen (O) ageing properties of the material
Hydrogen (H) Can reduce ductility
Manganese (Mn) Contribute significantly to the improvement
and Silica (Si) of the weldability at the same time increasing
its strength
Chromium (Cr) Increases the material strength and, if is
present in sufficient quantity, improves the
corrosion resistance (it is used for stainless
steel)
Nickel (Ni) Increases the strength while reduces the
3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department deformability of the material
Fabrication

▪ The mechanical properties of steel are either directly or indirectly the manifestation of the steel
making process of the structural steel as much as its chemical composition
▪ Structural steel section making is the process for
producing steel from iron ore and scrap. It has three
phases
1. Iron-making process
2. Steel-making process
3. Surface treatment and structural steel
fabrication
▪ The critical process involved in steel manufacturing
are:
1. Carbonization of COKE
2. Blast furnace
3. Basic Oxygen Steel making {BOS}, and
4. Electric arc method
▪ The critical process involved in Structural steel
fabrication are:
1. Continuous Casting or primary Hot Rolling &
2. 3/13/2024
Steel Rolling/shaping of section ASTU Civil Engineering Department
Fabrication

Semi-Finished
products
shapes in
relative
proportion

Fabrication

Ingot Blooms
Billets
Slabs
Fabrication

Steel Rolling :
▪ Cast steel is a relatively weak mass of coarse, uneven metal
crystals, or 'grains'. Rolling causes this coarse grain
structure to re-crystallize into a much finer grain
structure, giving greater toughness, shock resistance and
tensile (stress) strength.
▪ Rolling is the main method used to shape steel into different
products after it has been cast.
What Happens?
▪ The rolling process (for both hot and cold) consists of passing
the steel between two rolls revolving at the same speed but
in opposite directions. The gap between the rolls is smaller
than the steel being rolled, so that the steel is reduced in
thickness and at the same time lengthened. e.g. A slab 230mm
thick can end up only 1.5mm thick, but many times longer,
after the hot rolling process.
▪ There are two types of rolling - hot and cold
Fabrication

Hot Steel Rolling : Cold Steel Rolling :
What Happens? What Happens?
▪ Before hot rolling, slabs, blooms and billets are heated in ▪ Certain types of steel are also cold rolled after hot rolling.
a furnace to about 1200°C. This makes it easier to roll the Before cold rolling the steel is cleaned with acid
steel and removes the rough flaky surface or scale (pickled) to remove the scale..
▪ Hot rolling permits large deformations of the metal to be ▪ Cold rolling is carried out at room temperature and is
achieved with a low number of rolling cycles. rolled at very fast speeds using lubricants to reduce
▪ Hot rolling is primarily concerned with manipulating friction. Cold rolling increases strength, makes steel
material shape and geometry rather than mechanical thinner and produces a bright smooth surface.
properties. ▪ Cold rolled steel is much more preferred in the
▪ You’ll find hot rolled products like hot rolled steel bars in machining world where the quality of the steel is an
the welding and construction trades such as making important factor of the quality of the final product, and
railroad tracks, I-beams, and other steel construction the appearance of the steel is also an important factor.
materials that don’t require super precise shapes.

1.4. Structural Steel Sections

A. Hot-Rolled Sections
▪ These sections are designed to achieve economy of material while
maximizing strength, particularly in bending.
▪ Bending strength can be maximized by concentrating the metal at the
extremities of the section, where it can sustain the tensile and compressive
stress associated with bending. The most commonly used sections are
universal beams (Ubs) and universal columns (Ucs). See Fig.


W shapes: Wide flange sections. Are rolled with parallel flanges and are specified by
their serial size and mass in kg per meter, e.g. W 310 x 202. It’s nominal depth is 310
mm and the mass is 202 kg per meter.
✓ May be used principally as columns and also may be used as beams too.
S shapes: Known as universal beams. It has 𝑰𝒚 >> 𝑰𝒛, for this reason is recommended
to be used as beams.
HP shapes: High Powered shape. Available on the USA codes. It has practically same
depth compared with wide to diminish the difference between 𝐼𝑦 and 𝐼𝑧.
✓ It is recommended for columns exclusively.
T shapes: Available on the USA codes, is used as member in trusses and also in built-up
beams with different types of steel.


Standard Channels (C shapes): The difference between I𝑦 and 𝐼𝑧 is very significant.

✓ Are used as purlin in the roof of industrial buildings, as a light beam to resist
bending and in built-up sections connected by batten plates.
Angles: Fabricated as equal legs angles and unequal legs angles.
✓ Are described by their nominal dimensions, first number is the large leg; second
number is small dimension and third number the thickness of the section.
✓ Are used mainly as members of trusses, for ties in steel frames, etc.


W S C L T CHS SHS & RHS

(a) Wide-flange (b) American (c) American (d) Angle (e) Structural (f) Pipe (g) Structural
Shape Standard Standard Tee Section Tubing
Beam Channel
(h) Bars (i) Plates

Figure: Standard Hot Rolled Shapes

B. Cold Formed Sections

▪ are essentially hot rolled steel that has had further processing.
▪ The steel is processed further in cold reduction mills, where the material is
cooled (at room temperature) followed by annealing and/or tempers rolling
(a) Channels (b) Zees (c) I-shaped (d) Angles (e) Hat sections
double channels
Figure: Standard Cold Formed Shapes


C. Built-up Sections
▪ Are sections made from two or more hot-rolled sections
Built-up (W) shapes.
Built-up (C) Channels.
Built-up (L) Angles.


• Tension Members.
(a) Round and rectangular (b) Cables composed (c) Single and double
bars, including eye bars of many small wires. angles.
and upset bars.
Perforated
plates
(d) Rolled W – and S – (e) Structural (f) Build-up box

sections. tee. sections.

• Compression Members.
(a) Rolled W-and S- (b) Double (c) Structural (d) Structural (e) Pipe
sections. angles. tee. tubing section
(f) Built-up section


• Bending Members.
(a) Rolled W-and (b) Build-up (c) open web joist.

other I-shaped Sections.
sections.
(d) Angle (e) Channel (f) Built-up members (g) Composite steel-Concrete


1.5. Design Philosophies :

▪ During the history of the design of structures activities, three design
philosophies have been used, namely:
1. Permissible stress design method.
2. Load factor design method.
3. Limit state design method.


✓In permissible stress design method, the stress in the structure at working
loads are not allowed to exceed a certain portion of the yield stress of the
construction material, therefore, the working stress level is within the elastic
range of the behavior of steel.
✓The working stress is obtained by dividing the characteristic value by a unique
factor of safety.
Allowable stress = (Yield stress) / (Factor of safety)


✓In load factor method all safety is attached to the acting load, then the acting
load is obtained by multiplying the working loads by a load factor greater than
the unity. The material supposes to work at the yield point, that is, at the
characteristic value.
Resistance of material ≥ Effect of applied loads


✓The limit state design method was formulated in the former Soviet Union in
the 1930s and developed in Europe in the 1960s, this approach can perhaps be
seen as a compromise between the permissible and load factor methods. It is
in fact a more comprehensive approach, which take into account both methods
in appropriate ways.
❖ The majorities of modern structural codes of practice are now based on the
limit state design method.


Limit state design method

▪ A structure or part of the structure is considered unfit for use when it exceeds a particular
state, called Limit State beyond which it infringes one of the criteria governing its
performance for use.
▪ The Limit State can be placed in two categories:
1. Ultimate Limit States

✓ are those associated with collapse, or with other forms of structural failure, which may
endanger the safety of the people.
✓ States prior to structural collapse which, for simplicity, are considered in place of the
collapse itself, are treated as ultimate limit states
✓ Normally the ultimate limit state is concerned with the strength of the structure.


2. The Serviceability Limit States

▪ Corresponds to states beyond which specified service requirements are no longer met,
e.g. deformation or deflections which affect the appearance or effective use of the
structure (including the malfunction of machines or services) or cause damage to
finishes of non structural members; vibration which cause discomfort to people.
▪ Plastic Design method: is a special case of limited state design; where in the
limit state for strength is the achievement of plastic moment strength.
✓ Plastic moment strength is the moment strength where all fibers of the
cross sections are at yield point.


Characteristic and design values

▪ Characteristic loads are normally obtained from code practices.
Design loads = characteristic loads x partial safety factor

for the load (𝜸𝒇 ).
Design strength = characteristic strength / partial safety
factor for strength (𝜸𝒎 ).
❖ In general, the ultimate limit state design method is stated as follow:
Design action ≤ Design strength

1.5. Design Standard: CES 152 - Terminologies and Symbols

▪ The terms used in CES have been chosen ▪ The Structural CES use the ISO convention for sub-
carefully, for clarity and to facilitate scripts. Where multiple sub-scripts occur, a comma is
unambiguous translation into other used to separate them. Four main sub-scripts and their
languages. The main terminology used in definition are given below
the CES includes
✓ “Actions” loads, imposed
displacements, thermal strain CES Definition Example
✓ “Effects” internal bending moments, Subscripts
axial forces etc. Ed Design value of an effect 𝑴𝑬𝒅 Design bending
✓ “Resistance” capacity of a structural moment
element to resist bending moment, Rd Design resistance 𝑴𝑹𝒅 Design resistance for
axial force, shear, etc. bending
✓ “Verification” check el Elastic property 𝑾𝐞𝒍 Elastic section modulus
✓ “Execution” construction-fabrication,
pl Plastic property 𝑾𝒑𝒍 Plastic section modulus
erection


▪ The geometrical convention for member axes and symbols for section dimensions used
in the CES 152 are shown below



1.5. Design Standard: CES 152 - Materials

▪ Design values of material coefficients (CES 152: ES-3 of page no: 30)
1. Modulus of elasticity 𝐸 = 210 𝐺𝑃𝑎

2. Shear Modulus 𝐺 = 81 𝐺𝑃𝑎
3. Unit mass 𝜌 = 7850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
4. Poison’s ratio 𝜈 = 0.3
5. Coefficient of linear expansion 𝛼 = 12 𝑥 10−6 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝐾 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇 ≤ 100 𝑜𝐶)

1.5. Design Standard: CES 152 - Materials


1.6. Advantages and drawbacks of steel structures :

Advantages:
1. The ability to resist high loads, due to the high strength of steel. Because of the high
strength of the material steel members are small in size which makes them convenient for
transportation.
2. Gas tightness and water tightness, which is due to the high density of steel.
3. Have a long service life, determined by the high and homogeneous strength and density
properties of steel.
4. The possibility of industrializing construction work, attained by the use of
prefabricated members with mechanized erection thereof at the construction site.
5. The possibility of readily disassembling or replacing steel members, which makes it
easier to reinforce or replace parts of structures.
6. The possibility of sending steel members to any parts of the country no matter the bad
conditions of site.
1.6. Advantages and drawbacks of steel structures :

Drawbacks:
1. The principal drawback of steel members is their susceptibility to corrosion, which
necessitates their painting or the use of other methods for their protection, and less fire
resistance.
2. Skilled labor is required
3. High cost of construction and maintenance

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

DESIGN OF STEEL AND TIMBER

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

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❖ The frameworks of industrial

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❖ Special structures like

❖ Tanks and reservoirs for

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▪ The materials which

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Properties of Material Properties of Material

Cost of material ✓ Mechanical properties - strength, ductility,

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

▪ If a specimen of steel is subjected to tension by gradually increasing the load

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

▪ Note that: the highest stress in a material,

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

▪ Sample Nominal values of yield strength of steel

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

▪ Design values of material coefficients (CES 152: ES-3 of page

1. Modulus of elasticity 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝑮𝑷𝒂

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

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Standard Channels (C shapes): The difference between I𝑦 and 𝐼𝑧 is very significant.

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

W S C L T CHS SHS & RHS

(h) Bars (i) Plates

B. Cold Formed Sections

Figure: Standard Cold Formed Shapes

Built-up (W) shapes.

Built-up (C) Channels.

Built-up (L) Angles.

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

(d) Rolled W – and S – (e) Structural (f) Build-up box

(f) Built-up section

(a) Rolled W-and (b) Build-up (c) open web joist.

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

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Limit state design method

1. Ultimate Limit States

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2. The Serviceability Limit States

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Characteristic and design values

Design loads = characteristic loads x partial safety factor

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1. Modulus of elasticity 𝐸 = 210 𝐺𝑃𝑎

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department

3/13/2024 ASTU Civil Engineering Department