Human Anatomy and Physiology ▪ Results from the

Cardiovascular System depolarization of atrial

*Additional notes only*
myocardium
▪ Precedes the onset of atrial
Conduction System contraction
● Skeletal muscles need motor neurons for o QRS Complex
stimulations ▪ consist of three individual
● Cardiac muscles can contract without neural waves, Q, R, S waves
stimulations because they have conduction ▪ Results from the
system depolarization of the
● This is the generator, kumbaga, ng action ventricles
potentials ▪ Precedes ventricular
● Even if brain dead, heart is pumping contraction
● Most important conduction system: o T wave
sinoatrial (SA) node ▪ Represents the repolarization
*Remember the order of the conduction system* of the ventricles
● Artificial pacemaker, when there is a ▪ It precedes the ventricular
problem in the conduction system of the relaxation
heart ● PR interval, QT interval = time intervals
● Analysis of ECG is important because it can
reveal any abnormal heart rates or rhythms
that is happening to the heart, problems
within the conduction systems/pathways
such as blockage, hypertrophied/atrophied
muscles of the heart, approximate the
location of the damaged cardiac muscle

Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
● Action potentials are conducted through
the heart during the cardiac cycles, produce
electrical currents that can be measured at
the surface of the body
● During ECG, electrodes are placed on the
body surface (usually on thoracic area), and
are attached to a recording device
o They can detect small electrical
changes resulting from the AP in all
the cardiac muscle cells
o The record of electrical events is
called electrocardiogram
● Normal ECG consists of P wave, QRS
complex, and T wave
o P wave
Cardiac Cycle
● It generally refers to the ventricular systole
and diastole
o Systole: contraction phase
o Diastole: relaxation phase
● Normal cardiac cycle is 0.7-0.8 second
● Atrial systole: contraction of two atria
● Atrial diastole: relaxation of two atria
*Systole and diastole only, it only refers to the
ventricular because the ventricles contain more
cardiac muscles than that of the atria, and it
produces more greater pressure*
Heart Sounds
● Sounds produced is produced by the closure
of the valves, AV and SL valves
● It is best heard when you apply stethoscope
at a particular site in relation to the heart
valves
● Normally, we have primary heart sounds =
S1 and S2
 ● S1: closure of AV valves
● S2: closure of SL valves
● There are also other heart sounds, but
usually those are already abnormal heart
sounds
o Murmurs (swishing, muffled sounds)
o Usually caused by valvular
insufficiency, incompetent valves
● Best heard: S1 and S2
o S1
▪ Low pitch
▪ Duration is 0.14 sec
o S2
▪ High pitch, because of rapid
snaps
▪ Duration is 0.11 sec
Blood Pressure and Hemodynamics
● Health professionals often use
sphygmomanometer to determine the
blood pressure
● Usually nowadays, there are digital tools
● SYSTOLE: first distinct sound
● DIASTOLE: sound disappears
● Korotkoff sounds = sounds that you will
hear through the stethoscope
● BPs are case-to-case basis, but normal is
<120/80 mmHg
*Table*
o Pulse pressure, difference between
systolic and diastolic blood pressure
o Normal pulse pressure is 40
● Heart rate, usually measured also as pulse
rate, pulse rate unit is also beats per minute
o You can measure that when you
palpate the radial artery, or carotid
artery for one minute then count
beats
o Normal is 60-100 beats per minute
o Normally pulse and heart rates
increases when we do activity
Anatomy of Blood Vessels
● Arteries and veins have three layers
o Tunica intima: innermost layers
o Tunica media: middle layer
o Tunica externa/adventitia: outer
layer
● Lumen: blood vessel cavity
● Anastomosis: junction of blood vessels
Functions of the Blood
1. Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products
2. Transport of processed molecules
● For example, the precursor of vitamin D, it is
transported by the blood to the liver and
the kidney
3. Transport of regulatory molecules
● Hormones and enzymes that regulate body
processes, carried by the blood
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis
● It has buffers, buffer in the blood help
maintain pH in the normal limit, usually the
normal limit is 7.35-7.45
● Osmotic composition is important to
maintain the normal fluid and ion balance in
the blood
5. Maintenance of body temperature
● Warm blood is transported from the interior
of the body to the exterior of the body, the
heat is released from the blood
● One of the mechanisms that helps the body
regulate temperature inside
6. Protection against foreign substances
● Blood contain WBC, it has certain cells that
is important part of the immune system,
and protects us from foreign substances,
microorganisms, and toxin
7. Clot formation
● When blood vessels are damaged, we have
clotting factors that protects us against
excessive blood flows. Blood clot will form
to stop bleeding.
Blood
● Type of connective tissue that is unique
because it has a liquid matrix containing
cells and cell fragments
● PLASMA (55%): liquid matrix
● FORMED ELEMENTS (45%): cell fragments
● Total blood volume in the average adults:
4-5 L in females, and 5-6 L in males
● Makes up 8% of the total weight of the
body
Composition of the Plasma
*See PowerPoint*
● Plasma proteins: 7%
o Albumin
▪ Partly responsible for the
viscosity of the blood and the
osmotic pressures of the
blood
▪ Water balance between the
blood and the tissues, it is
determined by the
movement of the water into
and out of the blood through
osmosis
o Globulin
▪ Part of the immunity
▪ Provide us protection against
microorganisms
▪ Antibodies
o Fibrinogen
▪ Formation of blood clots
▪ It has clotting factors
▪ It has fibrin, thread-like
proteins that form the blood
clot
● Plasma solutes: 2%
● BLOOD PLASMA WITHOUT PLOTTING
FACTORS: BLOOD SERUM
The Formed Elements
● Erythrocytes (RBCs)
o 95% of the volume of blood cells
● Leukocytes (WBCs)
o Subdivided into two: granular and
agranular
o ONLY FORMED ELEMENTS WITH THE
NUCLEI
● Thrombocytes: platelets
Production of Formed Elements
● Hematopoiesis, or hemopoiesis
o During fetal development,
hematopoiesis occurs in several
parts of the tissues or organs
including liver, thymus, spleen, and
lymph nodes aside from red marrow
o After birth, hematopoiesis is
confined primarily in the red bone
marrow
o Some white blood cells are
produced by lymphatic tissues
● All formed elements of the blood are
derived from a single population of stem
cells called hemocytoblasts
o Pinakaninuno
Red Blood Cells
● Normally, the shape is biconcave discs,
which increases the cell surface area
compared to a flat disc with the same size
o Greater surface area makes it easier
for the gas to move into and out of
the red blood cells
● RBC can bend or fold around its thin center
● During development, RBCs lose their nuclei
and most of their organelles
● Reticulocyte: immature red blood cells
● Primary functions of red blood cells:
o Transport oxygen from the lungs to
the various body tissues
o Transport carbon dioxide form the
tissues to the lungs
● Hemoglobin: responsible for the red color
of the RBC, it is the main component of the
RBC
o Has two components
▪ Heme: binds O2
▪ Globin: binds CO2
● Life span of RBC: normally is 120 days: men
120 days, women 110 days
● Bilirubin: yellowish color, byproduct of the
breakdown of heme
o Usually when this is high,
detrimental, especially to babies =
jaundice
▪ Yellowish color of the eyes
and ears
● Iron, necessary for oxygen transport
o 2/3 of body iron is found in the
hemoglobin
● Erythropoietin: stimulates red bone marrow
to produce more RBCs
o Primary produced by the kidneys
White Blood Cells
● They lack hemoglobin, but they have a
nucleus
 ● Main function: protect the body against o Regulates the immune system and
invading microorganisms and remove dead contributes to allergic reactions
cells and debris from the body o B lymphocytes: produces antibodies,
● Important in fighting infections and responsible for destroying
● In blood test, when WBCs are high, then the microorganisms
body is fighting an infection o T lymphocytes: graft rejection,
*When WBCs are greater than RBCs, underlying tumor control
pathologies such as leukemia* o Smallest WBC
● Ameboid movement: ability of the WBCs to ● Monocyte
move o 3-8% of WBC
● Diapedesis: process wherein the WBCs o Phagocytic cell in the blood: leaves
leave the circulation the blood and becomes a
● Pus: accumulation of the dead WBCs and macrophage
bacteria along with the cell debris and fluids o Largest WBC
(yellowish in color because of bacteria)
Platelets
Types of WBCs ● __ fragments of the cells that consist small
(1) Granular Leukocytes amounts of cytoplasm around the cell
● They have large cytoplasmic granules that is membrane
present o Disk-shape cellular fragments with a
o Pultik-pultik, bilog-bilog nucleus
● Neutrophils o Prevent fluid loss when blood vessels
o Composed of 60-70% of WBC are damaged
o First line of defense of the body o Produced from large megakaryocytes
o Phagocytize bacteria, and other ● Forms platelet plugs and releases chemicals
foreign matter necessary for blood clotting
● Eosinophils ● Performs a major role in hemostasis
o 2-4% of WBC
o Important in the defense against The Clotting Mechanism: Hemostasis
worm parasites ● Fibrinolysis: dissolution of the blood clot
● Basophils ● Thrombosis: unwanted clotting, usually
o 0.5-1% become embolus when blood clot circulates
o Releases histamine for allergic o When trapped in brain or heart, it
reactions can cause stroke or heart attack
▪ Promotes inflammation o Lungs: pulmonary embolism
▪ Inflammation is important to
know if there is a problem in Blood Grouping
the body ● Universal donor: Type O
▪ Prolonged inflammation, ● Universal receiver: Type AB
there are already
consequences *Example: Anti-b antibody, it would attack blood
o Heparin, which prevents clot cells that contain b antigens*
formation
● ABO incompatibility issues, results when the
(2) Agranular Leukocytes fetal blood type is different from the
● Very small granules, which cannot be easily mother’s blood type
seen in the microscope o The mother creates antibodies
● Lymphocyte against the fetus, and these
o 20-25% of WBC antibodies enter the placenta and
 begins to destroy the fetus’ blood
cells
o ABO incompatibility is one of the
diseases that can cause jaundice

Rh Blood Groups
● Rh blood group or rhesus factor
o Inherited protein found on the
surface of the RBC
o If blood has protein, Rh positive
▪ Most common
o If blood lacks protein, Rh negative

Erythroblastosis fetalis
*Rh antibodies can cross the placenta and damage
the baby’s red blood cells: life-threatening anemia,
condition in which RBCs are destroyed faster than
the baby’s body can replace them*
● Can be prevented by RhoGAM
o Immunoglobulin, injectable drug
that is used to protect the Rh
positive fetus from the bodies of the
Rh negative mother blood
o Immunity support injection that is
administered during pregnancy for
people with negative blood type
o Purpose of this is to prevent
problems due to baby’s blood type,
helps prevent the body from
developing rh antibodies