Section I: Historical Context and Legal Strategies Leading to Brown

Source 1: Highsmith and Erickson, "Segregation as Splitting, Segregation as Joining:

Schools, Housing, and the Many Modes of Jim Crow" (2015)

Evidence: Highsmith and Erickson argue that segregation in education and housing were
mutually reinforcing, with school officials and real estate interests collaborating to maintain
racial separation. They note that this "segregationist joining" was justified through ideas of
community building and progressive reform.

Analysis and Relevance: This article provides important context for understanding the
entrenched nature of segregation that the NAACP was challenging in the years leading up to
Brown. It highlights how segregation was not just a matter of legal statutes, but was deeply
embedded in social practices and ideologies that linked schooling and housing. The authors'
concept of "segregationist joining" is useful for grasping the complex web of interests and
ideas that the NAACP's legal strategy had to confront and dismantle. Their analysis
underscores the significance of the NAACP's decision to directly challenge segregation
itself, rather than just its unequal effects.

Source 2: Franklin, "Introduction: Brown v. Board of Education: Fifty Years of Educational

Change in the United States" (2005)

Evidence: Franklin notes that in the 25th, 30th, and 40th anniversary commemorations of
Brown, there was more emphasis on celebrating the decision's impact, while by the 50th
anniversary in 2004, many commentators focused on the "unfulfilled promises" of Brown
and the persistence of de facto segregation and racial inequalities in education.

Analysis and Relevance: Franklin's overview of how Brown's legacy has been perceived and
debated over time provides valuable context for situating the decision within the longer
trajectory of struggles for educational equity. His observation about the shift towards a more
critical appraisal of Brown's impact by the 50th anniversary is important for understanding
the evolving discourse around the case. Franklin's analysis invites us to consider Brown not
just as a singular legal victory, but as part of an ongoing, unfinished project of realizing equal
educational opportunities for all children. His piece underscores the need to examine the
historical context and strategies that led to Brown, while also grappling with its complex
aftermath and contemporary relevance.

Section II: Initial Southern Resistance and Limited Desegregation Post-Brown

Source 1: John Hope Franklin, "To and from Brown v. Board of Education" (2004)

Evidence: Franklin, who assisted the NAACP lawyers in preparing their arguments in
Brown, recounts the intense opposition the decision faced in the South, including the
"Southern Manifesto" signed by nearly all southern members of Congress pledging to resist
desegregation through all "lawful means."

Analysis and Relevance: Franklin's firsthand account powerfully conveys the depth and
intensity of southern resistance to Brown in the immediate aftermath of the decision. His
mention of the "Southern Manifesto" is important for understanding how opposition to
desegregation was not just a matter of individual attitudes, but was actively encouraged and
coordinated by political leaders at the highest levels. Franklin's piece highlights the
formidable obstacles that the NAACP and other civil rights advocates faced in trying to
translate the Brown decision into actual social change on the ground. It underscores the
limits of legal victories alone, in the absence of broader political and social movements to
support their implementation.

Source 2: Carson, "The Fateful Turn toward Brown v. Board of Education" (2004)

Evidence: Carson notes that even after the Brown decision, Thurgood Marshall and other
NAACP leaders were initially cautious about pushing for immediate, widespread
desegregation, fearing a backlash that could undermine the Court's authority and the
NAACP's own legitimacy.

Analysis and Relevance: Carson's analysis provides important insight into the strategic
calculations and constraints that shaped the NAACP's approach in the early years after
Brown. His account of Marshall's caution underscores the challenging political and legal
landscape that civil rights advocates had to navigate, even with the weight of a Supreme
Court decision behind them. Carson's piece is useful for understanding why the pace of
desegregation was so slow in the first decade after Brown, and why the NAACP initially
pursued a gradualist approach rather than more aggressive enforcement. It also highlights the
ongoing role of grassroots activism in pushing the desegregation agenda forward, even as the
NAACP worked through the courts.

Section III: Federal Action, Civil Rights Activism, and Increased Desegregation in 1960s

Source 1: Carson, "Two Cheers for Brown v. Board of Education" (2004)

Evidence: Carson argues that while Brown was a pivotal turning point in the struggle for
racial equality, its impact was limited by the lack of vigorous federal enforcement and by
white resistance in both the North and South. He notes that significant desegregation only
occurred after the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act of 1965.

Analysis and Relevance: Carson's analysis provides a balanced assessment of Brown's

achievements and limitations, situating the decision within the broader context of the civil
rights movement and federal policy developments in the 1960s. His emphasis on the
importance of legislative action and executive enforcement in driving meaningful
desegregation is crucial for understanding the complex interplay of legal, political, and social
forces involved. Carson's piece underscores that Brown alone was not sufficient to dismantle
segregation, but rather was one critical piece of a larger struggle that required sustained
activism and political mobilization. His analysis also highlights the ongoing challenges of
translating legal principles into substantive change in the face of entrenched resistance and
structural inequalities.

Source 2: Franklin, "To and from Brown v. Board of Education" (2004)

Evidence: Franklin notes that the civil rights activism of the 1960s, including the
Montgomery Bus Boycott, the Freedom Rides, and the marches on Washington and Selma,
was directly inspired by the Brown decision and the imperative to challenge segregation in
all aspects of American life.

Analysis and Relevance: Franklin's piece is important for understanding how Brown
galvanized a new generation of civil rights activists and fueled a broader movement for racial
justice beyond the realm of education. His examples of key campaigns and protests in the
1960s underscore the vital role of grassroots mobilization in translating the promise of
Brown into concrete social and political change. Franklin's analysis suggests that Brown's
significance lies not only in its legal holding, but in the way it catalyzed a wider struggle and
empowered African Americans to challenge segregation and discrimination through direct
action. His account highlights the dynamic interplay between legal strategies, political
developments, and social movements in driving the desegregation agenda forward.

Section IV: Patterns of Desegregation, Integration, and Resegregation

Source 1: Reardon, "School Segregation and Racial Academic Achievement Gaps" (2016)

Evidence: Using data from over 200 metropolitan areas, Reardon finds that racial
segregation in schools is strongly associated with racial achievement gaps, and that the
disparity in average school poverty rates between white and black students' schools is the
strongest correlate of achievement gaps. He argues that this pattern suggests that high-
poverty schools are less effective than low-poverty schools and that reducing the differential
exposure of black, Hispanic, and white students to poor schoolmates may help reduce
achievement gaps.

Analysis and Relevance: Reardon's article provides important context for understanding the
long-term consequences of school segregation and the challenges of achieving meaningful
integration. By highlighting the link between racial segregation, concentrated poverty, and
academic achievement gaps, Reardon underscores the ways in which the resegregation of
schools in the decades after Brown has contributed to the persistence of educational
inequality. His findings suggest that efforts to promote integration must address not only
the racial composition of schools but also the concentration of poverty and related resource
disparities. Reardon's analysis thus points to the need for a more comprehensive approach
to desegregation that goes beyond simply moving bodies to equalize opportunities and
outcomes.

Source 2: Erickson, "The University's Involvement in the Community Schools: Race and
Renewal in Postwar Boston, 1960-1980" (2005)

Evidence: Erickson examines the role of Tufts University in supporting desegregation efforts
in Boston public schools during the 1960s and 1970s, through partnerships, teacher training
programs, and other initiatives aimed at promoting racial integration and educational equity.

Analysis and Relevance: Erickson's piece offers a compelling example of how universities
and other anchor institutions can play a constructive role in advancing school integration and
community development. Her analysis highlights the importance of building broad-based
coalitions and mobilizing diverse resources in support of desegregation efforts. Erickson's
account is also valuable for understanding the specific challenges and opportunities of
pursuing integration in a northern urban context like Boston, where patterns of segregation
were shaped more by de facto practices than by de jure policies. Her piece suggests that
meaningful progress requires not only legal and political action, but also sustained
investment in the social, economic, and educational infrastructure of communities.

Section V: The Continuing Significance and Debate over Brown's Legacy

Source 1: Carson, "Two Cheers for Brown v. Board of Education" (2004)

Evidence: Writing on the 50th anniversary of Brown, Carson offers a nuanced assessment of
the decision's legacy, arguing that while it was a historic victory for civil rights, its promise
remains unfulfilled due to the persistence of de facto segregation and educational inequities.
He notes that in 2004, over 70% of black and Latino students attended predominantly
minority schools.

Analysis and Relevance: Carson's piece is important for understanding the ongoing debates
and challenges surrounding Brown's legacy and the state of school integration in the early
21st century. His "two cheers" formulation captures the tensions between celebrating
Brown's symbolic and legal importance, while also reckoning with its limitations in
transforming the realities of American education. Carson's analysis highlights the need for a
multifaceted approach to advancing educational equity that goes beyond desegregation alone
to address issues of school funding, teacher quality, curriculum, and community support. His
piece also underscores the importance of linking struggles for educational justice to broader
campaigns for racial and economic equality in American society.

Source 2: Franklin, "Introduction: Brown v. Board of Education: Fifty Years of Educational

Change in the United States" (2005)

Evidence: Franklin argues that the unfulfilled promises of Brown have less to do with the
specifics of the decision itself, than with the lack of political will and social commitment to
fully implement its vision of educational equity. He notes that it will take renewed "agency
and activism" among African Americans and their allies to bring the goals of Brown to
fruition.

Analysis and Relevance: Franklin's analysis offers an important counterpoint to critiques of

Brown that focus narrowly on its legal or strategic limitations. His emphasis on the role of
grassroots activism and political mobilization in driving educational change is crucial for
understanding the ongoing significance of the decision. Franklin's call for renewed "agency
and activism" is a powerful reminder that the legacy of Brown is not a closed chapter, but an
unfinished project that requires the sustained engagement of educators, policymakers, and
communities. His piece suggests that the ultimate measure of Brown's success lies not in its
past achievements, but in the ongoing struggle to make its promise a reality for all children.

Section VI: Summarizing Brown's Impact and Legacy

Source 1: Carson, "The Fateful Turn toward Brown v. Board of Education" (2004)

Evidence: Carson argues that despite its limitations and the uneven pace of change, Brown
was a decisive turning point in the struggle for racial equality, one that galvanized the civil
rights movement, inspired a new generation of activists, and legitimized the goals of
desegregation and equal citizenship.

Analysis and Relevance: Carson's analysis offers a helpful framework for summarizing
Brown's complex legacy and enduring significance. His emphasis on Brown as a "turning
point" captures the way the decision fundamentally shifted the legal and moral landscape of
race relations in America, even if its implementation was halting and incomplete. Carson's
piece highlights the importance of Brown in empowering African Americans to challenge
segregation in all areas of life, and in spurring a broader movement for social and political
change. At the same time, his account also acknowledges the ongoing challenges and
unfulfilled promises of the decision, and the need for continued advocacy and activism to
realize its vision.

Source 2: Franklin, "To and from Brown v. Board of Education" (2004)

Evidence: Drawing on his own experiences as a historian and civil rights activist, Franklin
reflects on Brown's legacy as both a product of and a catalyst for African American struggles
for equality and justice. He notes how the decision inspired him and others to dedicate their
lives to the cause of racial progress.

Analysis and Relevance: Franklin's personal reflections offer a poignant testament to the
profound impact that Brown had on individual lives and aspirations, as well as on the larger
course of American history. His account underscores the deep connections between
scholarship, legal advocacy, and political activism in the struggle for civil rights. Franklin's
piece is a reminder that Brown was not just an abstract legal principle, but a lived reality that
shaped the identities, experiences, and commitments of countless Americans. His analysis
suggests that the ultimate significance of Brown lies in the way it continues to inspire and
empower people to work for a more just and equitable society, even in the face of setbacks
and challenges.
Section VII: Conclusion and Implications for Future Research and Policy

Source 1: Amsterdam, "Toward the Resegregation of Southern Schools" (2017)

Evidence: Amsterdam's case study of resegregation in DeKalb County, Georgia, highlights

the enduring challenge of maintaining integrated schools in the face of demographic
change, white flight, and the lifting of court-ordered desegregation plans. His analysis
suggests that without sustained political will and broader efforts to address issues of
housing and economic inequality, the gains of school integration are likely to be eroded over
time. Amsterdam argues that policymakers and educators need to develop new strategies
for promoting diversity and equity in schools, beyond the traditional model of court-ordered
desegregation.

Analysis and Relevance: Amsterdam's article offers a sobering assessment of the long-term
prospects for school integration, based on the experience of one Southern community. His
findings underscore the need for ongoing research and policy innovation to address the
persistent challenge of racial segregation in education. Amsterdam's call for a more
comprehensive approach to integration, one that addresses the broader social and
economic forces that shape educational opportunity, resonates with contemporary debates
over school choice, housing policy, and the role of the courts in promoting racial justice. His
analysis suggests that fulfilling the promise of Brown will require a sustained, multifaceted
effort that goes beyond the desegregation strategies of the past.

Source 2: Scott, "Postwar Pluralism, Brown v. Board of Education, and the Origins of
Multicultural Education" (2004)

Evidence: Scott argues that the pluralist vision that informed Brown and the early
multicultural education movement of the 1960s and 1970s remains relevant to
contemporary debates over diversity and inclusion in schools. He suggests that a pluralist
approach to education, one that affirms the value of diverse cultures and experiences while
also promoting a shared sense of community and purpose, offers a promising model for
navigating the challenges of integration in a changing society. At the same time, Scott
acknowledges the ongoing political and pedagogical obstacles to realizing this vision in
practice.

Analysis and Relevance: Scott's article offers a valuable historical perspective on the ongoing
struggle for racial justice and cultural inclusion in American education. By tracing the
pluralist legacy of Brown and the early multicultural education movement, Scott highlights
the enduring importance of affirming diversity as a core educational value. At the same
time, his analysis points to the need for further research and experimentation to develop
effective strategies for promoting pluralism in schools, in the face of changing
demographics, political polarization, and resource constraints. Scott's emphasis on the
transformative potential of education as a site for cultural change and social justice offers a
hopeful note for the future, even as he acknowledges the scale of the challenges that
remain.