8 FB 7

materials
Article
Effects of Nozzle Details on Print Quality and Hardened
Properties of Underwater 3D Printed Concrete
Jun-Mo Yang 1 , In-Beom Park 1 , Hojae Lee 2 and Hong-Kyu Kwon 3, *
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Keimyung University, 1095 Dalgubeol-daero, Dalseo-gu,

Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea
2 Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology, Daehwa-dong,
Goyang-si 10223, Gyeonggi, Republic of Korea
3 Department of Industrial and Management Engineering, Namseoul University, 91 DaeHakro,
Seonghwan-eup, Cheonan-si 31020, Chungnam, Republic of Korea
* Correspondence: hongkyuk@nsu.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-41-580-2206
Abstract: This study developed a 3D concrete printing (3DCP) system that can print not only in air
but also underwater. This underwater 3DCP system is equipped with many distinct technologies,
such as a technology to supply the printing material to the nozzle tip at a constant rate by detecting
its amount in the printer hopper. Using the developed 3DCP system, the effect of nozzle details
on underwater print quality and hardened properties was investigated. The straight-line printing
performance underwater was evaluated using five nozzles: a nozzle without a trowel (Nozzel#1), a
nozzle with fixed trowels attached to both sides (Nozzle#2), a nozzle with trowels attached to the
back and both sides to constrain five sides (Nozzle#3), a nozzle with a three-sided trowel inclined by
30◦ (Nozzle#4), and a nozzle with a roof added to Nozzle#4 opening (Nozzle#5). Nozzle#4 yielded
the best print quality and hardened properties. In addition, an underwater curved shape printing test
was performed using Nozzle#4, the problems that occurred in this test were analyzed and solutions
were suggested.
Keywords: 3D concrete printing; underwater 3D concrete printing; print quality; density; compressive
Citation: Yang, J.-M.; Park, I.-B.; Lee,
strength
H.; Kwon, H.-K. Effects of Nozzle
Details on Print Quality and
Hardened Properties of Underwater
3D Printed Concrete. Materials 2023,
16, 34. https://doi.org/10.3390/
1. Introduction
ma16010034 Currently, with the digitization of the global industry, additive manufacturing (AM)
is being adopted by many industries such as the medical, aerospace, and automobile
Academic Editors: Junbo Sun,
industries. Its use is also spreading to the construction industry, where the adoption of
Junfei Zhang, Genbao Zhang,
Shukui Liu and Yuantian Sun
digital technology is very slow. Three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) is one of the
fastest emerging technologies in construction AM [1,2].
Received: 25 November 2022 The extrusion method is the most studied and applied method among 3DCP technolo-
Revised: 13 December 2022 gies [3,4]. In this method, a rigid and viscous cement-based material is extruded through a
Accepted: 19 December 2022 nozzle by applying pressure. The nozzle is digitally and automatically controlled to move it
Published: 21 December 2022 continuously, and the material is printed out along the nozzle and deposited layer-by-layer.
The main advantage of an extrusion-based 3DCP technology is that it can cast concrete
and construct structures without a formwork. This increases the number of degrees of
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
freedom in design and enables complex shapes to be produced within a short construction
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. period while minimizing labor and construction costs. In addition, it can potentially
This article is an open access article minimize the waste of construction materials and replace many dangerous physical works
distributed under the terms and in the field, such as tasks at a height, with 3DCP equipment. The latter has the advantage
conditions of the Creative Commons of realizing a safe construction site [5].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Despite the many advantages of an extrusion-based 3DCP technology, contradictory
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ limitations and obstacles have not yet been completely resolved [6]: (1) controlling the
4.0/). rheological properties of fresh-state concrete and ensuring the deposition stability of the
Materials 2023, 16, 34. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010034 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2023, 16, 34 2 of 22
Materials 2023, 16, 34 Despite the many advantages of an extrusion-based 3DCP technology, contradictory 2 of 21
limitations and obstacles have not yet been completely resolved [6]: (1) controlling the
rheological properties of fresh-state concrete and ensuring the deposition stability of the
printedproduct
printed product[7–9];
[7–9];(2)(2)the
thestandardization
standardizationofofthe themechanical
mechanicalproperty
propertyevaluation
evaluationand and
modeling methods for additive parts in the hardened state [10,11];
modeling methods for additive parts in the hardened state [10,11]; (3) ensuring a durability (3) ensuring a durabil-
ity that
that meetsmeets
the the specifications
specifications [11];
[11]; and and(4)(4) effectiveintegration
effective integrationofofreinforcement
reinforcement[12,13].
[12,13].
However, because many studies are being conducted to solve
However, because many studies are being conducted to solve these difficulties worldwide, these difficulties world-
wide, an automated construction technology that fully utilizes
an automated construction technology that fully utilizes the advantages of 3DCP will the advantages of 3DCPbe
will be practically
practically applied soon.
applied soon.
Anotherchallenge
Another challengeininan anextrusion-based
extrusion-based3DCP 3DCPtechnology
technologyisistotoextend
extenditsitsapplication
application
to oceans. Automated construction technologies, such as 3DCP,
to oceans. Automated construction technologies, such as 3DCP, will play a very important will play a very important
role in the development of marine resources and the construction of a marinecity
role in the development of marine resources and the construction of a marine cityto to
be
developed in the not-too-distant future. AM underwater is
be developed in the not-too-distant future. AM underwater is considered to have more considered to have more free-
dom of shape
freedom of shape thanthanin air
in because
air becausethe effect of gravity
the effect is reduced
of gravity usingusing
is reduced extrusion 3DCP
extrusion
[14]. Underwater
3DCP [14]. Underwater 3DCP3DCP can becanusedbe inusedtheinmaintenance
the maintenance of damaged
of damagedunderwater
underwaterstruc-
tures. In addition,
structures. In addition,although the production
although the production of formworks
of formworks for underwater
for underwater structures with
structures
complex shapes is limited depending on their use, such
with complex shapes is limited depending on their use, such as breakwater and reef as breakwater and reef blocks,
manufacturing
blocks, optimal
manufacturing underwater
optimal structures
underwater using underwater
structures using underwater 3DCP 3DCP
technology is pos-
technology
issible [15]. [15].
possible
Thispaper
This paperpresents
presentsone onestep
stepininthe
thetechnology
technologydevelopment
developmentprocess processthatthatcan
canuseusean an
extrusion-based3DCP
extrusion-based 3DCP technology
technology underwater.
underwater. A 3DCP
A 3DCP system
system that that
can becan be underwater
used used under-
as wellas
water aswell
in air was
as in airdeveloped,
was developed, and andits details are are
its details explained
explained herein.
herein. Using
Usingthe the3DCP
3DCP
system,
system,straight-line
straight-lineprinting
printingteststestswere
wereperformed
performedin inair
airand
andunderwater,
underwater,the thedetails
detailsofof
the
thenozzle
nozzlewerewerechanged
changedtotoimprove
improvethe theunderwater
underwaterprinting
printing(WP) (WP)quality
qualityandandhardened
hardened
properties,
properties,and andthe optimal
the optimal printing
printing conditions
conditions were derived.
were In addition,
derived. usingusing
In addition, the derived
the de-
optimal printingprinting
rived optimal conditions, a curve-shaped
conditions, printingprinting
a curve-shaped test wastest performed, and the quality
was performed, and the
was evaluated.
quality was evaluated.
2.2.Development
DevelopmentMethodology
Methodologyof of3DCP
3DCPSystem
System
AA3DCP
3DCP equipment should be designedtotomeet
equipment should be designed meetthe
theessential
essentialcriteria
criteriadirectly
directlyrelated
related
totothe final objective of printing concrete structures using a concrete mixture. Therefore,
the final objective of printing concrete structures using a concrete mixture. Therefore,
determining
determiningthethecomplementary
complementaryrelationship
relationshipbetween
betweenthe
themix
mixdesign
designofofthe
thematerials
materialsand
and
the printing equipment is necessary. As depicted in Figure 1, the basic approach to 3DCP
the printing equipment is necessary. As depicted in Figure 1, the basic approach to 3DCP
technology development is to design/manufacture printing equipment and design 3DCP
technology development is to design/manufacture printing equipment and design 3DCP
mixtures that satisfy the main factors of pumping, printing, and building performance
mixtures that satisfy the main factors of pumping, printing, and building performance
required for printing structures.
required for printing structures.
Figure 1. The performance of 3DCP during the printing process.

Figure 1. The performance of 3DCP during the printing process.
2.1. Pumpability
Pumpability is defined as the property of conveying mix materials using a pumping
device during the entire process while maintaining their fresh properties, allowing the
Materials 2023, 16, 34 3 of 21
printing device to appropriately operate. However, the requirements for pumpability are
contradictory. Generally, a 3DCP mixture should be flowable to ensure easy transport to
the printer extrusion device. However, the printed material must be relatively nonfluid to
ensure that the deposited material retains its shape [16]. Therefore, pumpability depends
on several pump parameters such as the pumping distance, pumping device performance,
and type and diameter of the conveying pipe. Pumpable mixtures should have low plastic
viscosities and moderate yield stresses.
As concrete flows in the conveying pipe, a lubrication layer forms on the pipe wall,
and coarse aggregates move to the center of the pipe. In general, higher pumping pressures
result in better pumpability; however, material segregation of the mix materials becomes
probable. Material separation, in turn, can lead to material clogging inside the pipe owing
to the loss of the flow layer [17]. In this study, pumpability was considered as the ability to
continuously transport a 3DCP mixture to the printer extrusion device while maintaining its
fresh-state properties without causing material segregation under high-pressure pumping.
2.2. Printability
Printability is related to the behavior of a mixture transported from the pumping
device and the ability to combine by interacting with the printer unit nozzle [3]. Printability
can be divided into the extrusion and deposition abilities of a 3DCP equipment, and it is
also an essential index to evaluate the initial behavior of a 3DCP mixture. The ability to
combine is based on the interaction between the behavior of the 3DCP mixture transported
from the pumping device and the nozzle of the printer device [18].
A study on another property called buildability showed that it can be evaluated by
the degree of deformation in the underlying layer caused by a newly printed layer on a
particular layer [19]. In this study, printability was defined as the ability of a fresh mixture
to be continuously extruded from the printer nozzle while printing a subsequent layer
immediately on the lower layer with an acceptable deformation range.
2.3. Buildability
Buildability is used to evaluate the ability of a 3DCP mixture to withstand the load
of its upper layer without collapsing as well as bearing the pressure generated during
the printing process. A 3DCP mixture should maintain the shape deformation within
an acceptable range after printing. The acceptable range is known to have a significant
relationship with the specific performance (nozzle shape) of the 3DCP equipment [20].
Generally, in architectural 3DCP, the applied layer thickness should be set as small
(<10 cm) to control the shape deformation and limit the initial gravitational stress. Thus,
the limit of the layer thickness has a significant relationship with the nozzle size and shape
of the 3DCP equipment [21]. The shear stress owing to gravity must be lower than the yield
stress of the cementitious material to maintain its shape [22]. In this study, buildability was
considered as the ability to continuously print five or more layers, measure the height of
each layer, and print layers within an acceptable range of layer sagging.
3. Underwater 3DCP System

3.1. 3DCP System
A 3DCP mixture used for WP is significantly different from typical concrete materials.
Research on WP is scarce owing to the printer equipment and mix material characteristics.
Based on the investigations conducted thus far, Mazhoud et al. [14] produced WP specimens
(with layer width < 40 mm and printed height < 76 mm). They used a six-axis robot-type
printer equipment to examine the possibility of underwater output and the characteristics
of the WP mixture.
This study conducted experiments on the characteristics of the developed underwater
printer equipment capable of printing underwater structures (within 300 mm) using a
four-axis gantry-type printer equipment. These structures have a layer width of 60 mm
or more and a layer height of 30 mm or more. Experiments were also conducted on the
robot-type printer equipment to examine the possibility of underwater output and the
characteristics of the WP mixture.
This study conducted experiments on the characteristics of the developed underwa-
Materials 2023, 16, 34 4 of 21
ter printer equipment capable of printing underwater structures (within 300 mm) using a
four-axis gantry-type printer equipment. These structures have a layer width of 60 mm or
more and a layer height of 30 mm or more. Experiments were also conducted on the per-
performance of 3DCP
formance of 3DCP mixtures
mixtures for for
WP.WP. Figure
Figure 2 shows
2 shows thethe conceptual
conceptual model
model of the
of the WPWP sys-
system developed in this study. It consists of two primary devices.
tem developed in this study. It consists of two primary devices.
Figure2.2.The
Figure Theconcept
conceptmodel
modelof
of3DCP
3DCPsystem
systemfor
forthe
theunderwater
underwaterprinting.
printing.
(1)
(1)Pumping
Pumpingdevice
deviceand andmixture
mixturetransfer
transfertube:
tube:the
thepumping
pumpingdevice devicedepends
dependson onthethe
characteristics
characteristics of ofthe
themixtures
mixtures(slump:(slump: 4–84–8mm mmand andslump
slumpflow:
flow:150–190
150–190 mm)mm)used
usedin inaa
typical
typicalmortar-based
mortar-basedconstruction
construction 3DCP
3DCP andandprints a building
prints structure
a building with awith
structure certain layer
a certain
width
layer (<30
widthmm) (<30and
mm) height
and (<15height mm)(<15[23].
mm) In this
[23].study,
In thisthe mixture
study, the chosen
mixtureforchosen
printingfor
concrete
printingstructures in water using
concrete structures the using
in water 3DCPthe equipment presentedpresented
3DCP equipment high viscosity
high and low
viscosity
fluidity.
and low For WP, aFor
fluidity. high-power
WP, a high-power motor and motora high-performance
and a high-performance progressive pump pump
progressive were
needed to transfer
were needed the high-viscosity
to transfer and low-fluidity
the high-viscosity mixturemixture
and low-fluidity to the 3DCP
to theequipment.
3DCP equip-
ment. In a general mortar-based 3DCP for construction, a high-pressure rubber hose (di-
ameter: In a<25 mm)mortar-based
general is used as the3DCP material transfer pipe.
for construction, In this study,rubber
a high-pressure the mixture used
hose (diam-
for WP exhibited high viscosity and low fluidity. Moreover, material
eter: <25 mm) is used as the material transfer pipe. In this study, the mixture used for WP separation should
be avoided high
exhibited whenviscosity
transferring andthe lowmixture at aMoreover,
fluidity. high pressure. Therefore,
material a high-pressure
separation should be
rubber
avoided hose
when(diameter: 50–60the
transferring mm) was also
mixture at a used as the material
high pressure. transport
Therefore, pipe connected
a high-pressure rub-
to the printing device, and it was flexible.
ber hose (diameter: 50–60 mm) was also used as the material transport pipe connected to
(2) 3DCPdevice,
the printing equipment:
and ititwas is aflexible.
four-axis gantry robot that uses the Cartesian coordinate
system to control the printing equipment
(2) 3DCP equipment: it is a four-axis gantry and print a structure.
robot that uses theTheCartesian
core technology
coordinateof
the printer equipment is printing a structure while extruding the
system to control the printing equipment and print a structure. The core technology of the transferred mixture
at quantitative
printer andisconstant
equipment printingspeeds. In addition,
a structure the amount
while extruding of mixture
the transferred transferred
mixture at quan-to
the printer
titative andhopper
constant is speeds.
automatically determined
In addition, the amountto control the progressive
of mixture transferred operation of
to the printer
the pumps. Considering the characteristics of the mixture and
hopper is automatically determined to control the progressive operation of the pumps. the pumping device, a
hopper that could hold the transferred mixture was installed in the printer equipment.
Considering the characteristics of the mixture and the pumping device, a hopper that
For WP, a waterproof rotation servomotor was installed on top of the nozzle. Moreover, a
could hold the transferred mixture was installed in the printer equipment. For WP, a wa-
square nozzle and trowels were installed at the tip of the nozzle to minimize the external
terproof rotation servomotor was installed on top of the nozzle. Moreover, a square nozzle
force acting in the water during printing and to ensure the dimensional accuracy of the
and trowels were installed at the tip of the nozzle to minimize the external force acting in
printed product.
the water during printing and to ensure the dimensional accuracy of the printed product.
3.1.1. Pumping Equipment of 3DCP System
As discussed in the Development Methodology section, pumpability refers to using
a pumping device to transport a 3DCP mixture that meets the performance of the final
objective and is printable to the printer hopper via the transfer pipe [24]. In addition, a
prerequisite is that material separation should not occur during the material transfer process.
High-viscosity, low-fluidity WP mixtures capable of printing underwater structures (with
layer widths of over 60 mm and layer thicknesses of over 30 mm) require a slump flow
(110–125 mm).
3.1.1. Pumping Equipment of 3DCP System
As discussed in the Development Methodology section, pumpability refers to using
As discussed
a pumping deviceintothe Development
transport a 3DCP Methodology
mixture that section,
meetspumpability refers of
the performance to the
usingfinal
aobjective
pumpingand device to transport a 3DCP mixture that meets the performance
is printable to the printer hopper via the transfer pipe [24]. In addition,of the final a
objective and is printable to the printer hopper via the transfer pipe [24]. In addition, a
prerequisite is that material separation should not occur during the material transfer pro-
Materials 2023, 16, 34 prerequisite is that material separation should not occur during the material transfer pro- 5 of 21
cess. High-viscosity, low-fluidity WP mixtures capable of printing underwater structures
cess. High-viscosity, low-fluidity WP mixtures capable of printing underwater structures
(with layer widths of over 60 mm and layer thicknesses of over 30 mm) require a slump
(with layer widths of over 60 mm and layer thicknesses of over 30 mm) require a slump
flow (110–125 mm).
flow (110–125 mm).
Progressivepump
Progressive pumpand andlow-power
low-powermotors motorsusedusediningeneral
generalindustrial
industrialsites
sitescannot
cannot
Progressive pump and low-power motors used in general industrial sites cannot
transferhigh-viscosity,
transfer high-viscosity,low-fluidity
low-fluidityWP WPmixtures
mixturestotothetheprinter
printerhopper.
hopper.AAhigh-power
high-power
transfer high-viscosity, low-fluidity WP mixtures to the printer hopper. A high-power
pumpand
pump anddriving
drivingdevice
devicearearerequired
requiredtototransfer
transferWP
WPmixtures
mixturesrequired
requiredforforunderwater
underwater
pump and driving device are required to transfer WP mixtures required for underwater
printing. As
printing.
printing. As shown
As shownin
shown inFigure
in Figure3,
Figure 3,3,aaahigh-power
high-powerprogressive
high-power progressive
progressive pump
pump
pump (2L6
(2L6
(2L6 rotor-and-stator
rotor-and-stator
rotor-and-stator
screw pump) manufactured by the P company is used to transfer a mixture tototo
screw
screw pump)
pump) manufactured
manufactured by
by the
the PP company
company is
is used
used to
to transfer
transfer aa mixture
mixture the the
the printer
printer
printer
hopper.
hopper. The
Thetransfer
transferpressure
pressureof the
of theprogressive pump
progressive pumpwas 25–30
was bar,
25–30 which
bar,
hopper. The transfer pressure of the progressive pump was 25–30 bar, which was driven whichwas driven
was by
driven
abyhigh-performance
by aa high-performance
high-performance ACAC motor
ACmotor(15(15
motor kW)
(15kW)and
kW) reducer
and
and (20:1).
reducer
reducer (20:1).
(20:1).
Figure
Figure3.3.
Figure The
3.The pumping
Thepumping equipment
equipmentof
pumpingequipment ofof3DCP
3DCPsystem:
3DCP (A)
system:
system: concept
(A)
(A) model;
concept
concept (B)
model;
model; developed
(B)
(B) machine.
developed
developed machine.
machine.
3.1.2.
3.1.2.Printing
3.1.2. PrintingEquipment
Printing Equipmentofof3DCP3DCP System
3DCPSystem
System
The
The 3DCP equipment developed
The 3DCP equipment developedfor
3DCP equipment developed for this
forthis study
thisstudy was
studywaswasaafour-axis
afour-axis
four-axis gantry
gantry robot-type
robot-type
gantry robot-type
printer,
printer, which
which is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 4. For
4. operation
For operationcontrol
controlof the
of 3DCP
the
printer, which is shown in Figure 4. For operation control of the 3DCP equipment, 3DCPequipment, the Xmo-
equipment, thethe
tion series
Xmotion of LS
series Mecapion,
of LS Mecapion,Daegu, Republic
Daegu, of
Republic Korea,
of was
Korea, used.
was Each
used.
Xmotion series of LS Mecapion, Daegu, Republic of Korea, was used. Each axis was oper- axis
Each was
axis wasoperated
oper-
by a servomotor
ated
ated by
byaaservomotorand its
servomotor and speed
and its reducer,
itsspeed
speed which
reducer,
reducer, controlled
which
which the the
controlled
controlled movement
movement
the speed,
movement movement
speed, move-
speed, move-
distance,
ment distance, and rotation angle of the axis. The operation of the servo motor of eachwas
ment and
distance,rotation
and angle
rotation of the
angle ofaxis.
the The
axis. operation
The of
operation the
of servo
the motor
servo of
motor each
of axis
each axis
axis
controlled
was automatically
was controlled
controlled by interworking
automatically
automatically by
byinterworking
interworkingwithwith
awith
motor drive
a motor
a motor using
drive ausing
using
drive programmable
a programmable logic
a programmable
logic
logic controller
controller (PLC)(PLC)
controller program,
program,
(PLC) whichwhich
program, isiscommonly
is commonly
which usedused
commonly inusedinin
automation
automation processes.
processes.
automation processes.
Figure 4. The printing equipment of 3DCP system: (A) concept model; (B) developed machine.
Linear guide rails were used for the X- and Y-axes, and ball screws were used for
the Z-axis. The nozzle rotation axis (axis A) was used to rotate a square nozzle using a
spur gear. In addition, for WP, the rotating servomotor was equipped with particularly
manufactured waterproof housing.
The mixture for WP had the characteristic that it did not flow under its own weight
owing to its high viscosity and low fluidity. By installing a pressure plate inside the hopper,
an appropriate pressure was transmitted to the mixture, which was subsequently extruded
to the nozzle tip. An extrusion motor was mounted on the same concept as the spindle
Materials 2023, 16, 34 6 of 21
shaft used in machine centers for cutting [20]. Tables 1 and 2 list the specifications of the
linear/rotary guide and servomotor used for each axis.
Table 1. Specification of linear and rotation guide.
Moving Distance Drive Guide Type Repetition Accuracy

X1-axis 2500 mm Guide rail & Rack gears +0.05 mm
X2-axis 2500 mm Guide rail & Rack gears +0.05 mm
Y1-axis 1200 mm Guide rail & Rack gears +0.05 mm
Z1-axis 1500 mm Ball screw +0.02 mm
Z2-axis 1500 mm Ball screw +0.02 mm
A-axis - Spur gear +0.02◦
Spindle axis - Screw auger +0.01◦
Table 2. Specification of servo motor.
Rated Power Rated Revolution Rated Torque

Brake Encoder Motor Reducer
(W) per Min (rpm) (N.m)
X1-axis 1.5 K 3000 4.77 o Serial 19 bit 10:1
X2-axis 1.5 K 3000 4.77 o Serial 19 bit 10:1
Y1-axis 1.5 K 3000 4.77 o Serial 19 bit 10:1
Z1-axis 1.5 K 3000 4.77 o Serial 19 bit 10:1
Z2-axis 1.5 K 3000 4.77 o Serial 19 bit 10:1
A-axis 0.75 K 3000 2.39 o Serial 19 bit 10:1
Spindle axis 5.5 K 2000 26.35 o Serial 19 bit 20:1
When the printer equipment operated, the Z-axis received a large load, and two
servo motors were arranged on it to minimize the vibrations occurring during accelera-
tion/deceleration. These servomotors were controlled by synchronization. Their positions
were controlled similar to that of a single servomotor.
A 3D printer for construction generally uses a circular nozzle to print a 3D shape;
therefore, a rotation axis is not required. The developed 3DCP equipment uses a square
nozzle and fixed side trowels; therefore, a rotating shaft was essential for printing 3D shapes.
The use of square nozzles and side-trowels has various advantages over that of round
nozzles, which have been introduced in academia and are widely applied in commercial
printing equipment overseas [20,23–27]. As mentioned previously, the nozzle rotation shaft
was driven by a spur gear. The rectangular nozzle installed on the rotating shaft printed a
3D shape in conjunction with the X and Y axes along the edge of the 3D shape. Figure 5
shows the extrusion device, which is the core module of the 3DCP equipment. It has many
advantages in solving various problems that occur during printing of a structure:
(1) The transferred mixture has the characteristic that it does not flow well under its own
weight. Actuation of the pressure plate by a spring transmits an appropriate pressure
to the mixture. Thus, when the extrusion motor is operated, the printing material is
extruded to the nozzle tip at a constant speed using a screw auger.
(2) The sensors (photo sensors) connected to the pressure plate detect the amount of
mixture transferred to the enclosed space of the printer hopper. The sensors consist of
an upper limiter and a lower limiter. If the amount of mixture supplied is large, the
pressure plate rises and touches the upper limiter, sending a stop signal to the pump.
If no mixture is supplied, the plate moves down, touches the lower limiter, and sends
an activation signal to the pump. Sending a signal in this way controls the operation
of the progressive pump automatically.
(3) It buffers the pulsation problem of the pumping device and the explosion problem of
compressed air bubbles, which intermittently occur when transferring the mixture to
the print hopper.
the pressure plate rises and touches the upper limiter, sending a stop signal to the
pump. If no mixture is supplied, the plate moves down, touches the lower limiter,
and sends an activation signal to the pump. Sending a signal in this way controls the
operation of the progressive pump automatically.
(3) It buffers the pulsation problem of the pumping device and the explosion problem
Materials 2023, 16, 34 7 of 21
of compressed air bubbles, which intermittently occur when transferring the mixture
to the print hopper.
Figure5.5.The
Figure Theextrusion
extrusionmodule
moduleof
of3DCP
3DCPequipment:
equipment:(A)
(A)concept
conceptmodel;
model;(B)
(B)developed
developeddevice.
device.
3.2.
3.2. 3DCP
3DCP Operation
OperationSystem
System
3.2.1.
3.2.1. Control Moduleof
Control Module of3DCP
3DCPEquipment
Equipment
The
Thedeveloped
developedcontrol
controlsystem
systemused
usedananMXP2.0
MXP2.0(CNC)
(CNC)motion
motioncontroller
controllersupplied
suppliedbyby
Company
Company LS. This module supports the EtherCAT communication and various topolo-
LS. This module supports the EtherCAT communication and various topolo-
gies.
gies. In
In addition,
addition, itit controls
controls servo
servo motors
motors for
forup
upto
to32
32axes
axesand
and99axes
axeswith
withsimultaneous
simultaneous
commands.
commands. ItIt supports
supports PLCPLC and
and G-code
G-code programs
programs and
and computer
computer numerical
numerical control
control func-
func-
tions [28]. Therefore, a structure can be directly printed using a simple program modifi-
tions [28]. Therefore, a structure can be directly printed using a simple program modifi-
cation process by uploading the G-code program generated from a typical printer slicing
Materials 2023, 16, 34 cation process by uploading the G-code program generated from a typical printer slicing 8 of 22
package to the control system. Figure 6 shows the system configuration and architecture of
package to the control system. Figure 6 shows the system configuration and architecture
the motion controller.
of the motion controller.
Figure6.6.Configuration
Figure Configurationand
andstructure
structureofof3DCP
3DCPcontrol
controlsystem
system[28].
[28].
InInthe
thestructure
structureofofthe
thecontrol
controlsystem,
system,RMC
RMCAdvanced
AdvancedVisualizer
Visualizer(RAV)
(RAV)isisa afunction
function
thatinterworks
that interworks with
with thethe PC while
PC while editing
editing and managing
and managing a human–machine
a human–machine interfaceinterface
(HMI).
(HMI).
RMC RMC Automation
Automation Studioedits
Studio (RAS) (RAS)andedits and manages
manages PLC programs
PLC programs to control
to control the servothe
servo motors
motors and sensors
and sensors of each
of each axis. axis.
It also It also modifies
modifies and manages
and manages the parameters
the parameters responsible re-
sponsible
for for the
the position position
control control
of each axis.of each axis.
The printer system control module shown in Figure 7 is divided into equipment op-
eration and control units. The equipment operation part automatically controls the printer
equipment by the HMI of the PC and manually controls the pumping equipment. The
equipment control unit comprises a CPU and PLC module, motor drive, communication
module, power module, and circuit breaker for controlling the printer and pumping
Figure 6. Configuration and structure of 3DCP control system [28].
In the structure of the control system, RMC Advanced Visualizer (RAV) is a function
that interworks with the PC while editing and managing a human–machine interface
(HMI). RMC Automation Studio (RAS) edits and manages PLC programs to control the
Materials 2023, 16, 34 8 of 21
servo motors and sensors of each axis. It also modifies and manages the parameters re-
sponsible for the position control of each axis.
The printer system control module shown in Figure 7 is divided into equipment op-
Theand
eration printer system
control control
units. The module shown
equipment in Figure
operation 7 isautomatically
part divided into equipment operation
controls the printer
and control units.
equipment by theThe equipment
HMI operation
of the PC part automatically
and manually controls
controls the the printer
pumping equipment
equipment. The
by the HMI of the PC and manually controls the pumping equipment. The
equipment control unit comprises a CPU and PLC module, motor drive, communication equipment control
unit comprises
module, power a CPU and PLC
module, andmodule,
circuit motor
breakerdrive,
for communication
controlling themodule,
printer power module,
and pumping
and circuit
equipment. breaker for controlling the printer and pumping equipment.
Materials 2023, 16, 34 9 of 22
(1) AUTO window: this interface prints structures using a 3D slicing G-code. A cam-
Figure
era 7.7. Control
function
Figure Control module
displays of3DCP
the
module of 3DCPsystem.
system.
movement status of the nozzle and the progress of the G-code
when printing a structure and checks the input status of the transferred mixture in the
3.2.2.
3.2.2. HMI
printer HMI (Human
(Human
hopper. Machine
Machine
It manages Interface)
theInterface) of
of3DCP
3DCPOperation
basic information Operation
of the parameters (e.g., moving speed,
The
TheHMI
extrusion HMI for
speed, forthe
theequipment
layer thickness,
equipment operation
number ofin
operation the
layers,control
and
in the system
material
control was was
developed
slump)
system required using RAS
for print-
developed using
and
ing RAV
a programs
structure and and consists
displays the of various
machine windows.
and work Figure 8
coordinatesshows
of thea
RAS and RAV programs and consists of various windows. Figure 8 shows a virtual inter-virtual
printer interface
equipment.for
printing
When structures
printing a by the
structure, operation
the of
printer the 3DCP
equipment equipment.
is A
temporarily brief description
stopped
face for printing structures by the operation of the 3DCP equipment. A brief description to of
installeach
the
interface
support; is as follows:
after
of each interfacetheissupport is installed, printing is continued.
as follows:
Figure 8. HMI of 3DCP equipment.

Figure 8. HMI of 3DCP equipment.
(2) AUTO
(1) JOG window:
window:the working
this coordinates
interface of eachusing
prints structures axis aare
3Dadjusted by individually
slicing G-code. A camera
operatingdisplays
function each axis
theofmovement
the printerstatus
equipment. Two cameras
of the nozzle and the are used to
progress of check the equip-
the G-code when
ment status
printing while running
a structure each axis
and checks individually.
the input status of the transferred mixture in the printer
In addition,
hopper. It managesafter
thesetting each axis origin
basic information of theindividually, the equipment
parameters (e.g., state extrusion
moving speed, is exam-
ined by a function to return to the machine origin. In addition, in the equipment
speed, layer thickness, number of layers, and material slump) required for printing a operation,
a crucial and
structure function is tothe
displays operate
machineeach axis
and workindividually
coordinatesforofequipment
the printermaintenance
equipment. Whenafter
printing the structure.
(3) EDIT window: this function uploads the G-code generated from the printer slicing
package to the control system and subsequently modifies, verifies, or saves it. The simple
G-code for equipment testing is written manually and saved as a file. G-code verification
Materials 2023, 16, 34 9 of 21
printing a structure, the printer equipment is temporarily stopped to install the support;
after the support is installed, printing is continued.
(2) JOG window: the working coordinates of each axis are adjusted by individually
operating each axis of the printer equipment. Two cameras are used to check the equipment
status while running each axis individually.
In addition, after setting each axis origin individually, the equipment state is examined
by a function to return to the machine origin. In addition, in the equipment operation,
a crucial function is to operate each axis individually for equipment maintenance after
printing the structure.
(3) EDIT window: this function uploads the G-code generated from the printer slicing
package to the control system and subsequently modifies, verifies, or saves it. The simple
G-code for equipment testing is written manually and saved as a file. G-code verification
involves debugging all lines simultaneously or debugging one line sequentially. In the
verification, the G-code is described as a 3D shape, and the problem line numbers are
indicated if there are algorithm problems in the G-code.
4. Straight-Line Printing Test

4.1. Printing Materials
The mortar mix for the WP test of the 3DCP system was derived based on multiple
mix tests performed several times in advance, and the mixture proportions are summarized
in Table 3 [15]. The specified compressive strength was 50 MPa and the water-to-binder
ratio was 38.4%. As a binder, 90% type 1 ordinary Portland cement was used, and 10%
undensified silica fume was used to fill the voids between cement particles and ensure
high strength and durability. The results of the ASTM C150 [29] test showed that the used
cement had a specific gravity of 3.15 g/cm3 , a specific surface area of 3770 cm3 /g, an initial
setting time of 210 min, and 290 min for final setting. The results of testing silica fume
according to ASTM C1240 [30] showed the SiO2 content was 91.6%, loss on ignition was
2.3%, 45 µm residue was 3.9%, and specific surface area was 204,000 cm2 /g. Silica sand
with 95.5% SiO2 content was used as the fine aggregate. To maintain a constant particle
size of the fine aggregate and shape stability of the printed product, Nos. 3, 6, and 7
silica sands with sizes of 1.2–2.4 mm, 0.25–0.70 mm, and 0.17 to 0.25 mm, respectively,
were used. To improve the printability and buildability of the 3D printed concrete and
provide an anti-washout performance underwater, a viscosity-modifying agent (VMA)
produced by Dongnam was used with 2.0% water content [15]. The VMA dosage was
determined through the anti-washout test and buildability test on the printing concrete
with the VMA dosage variable. A powder-type methylcellulose VMA having a density
of 0.75 ± 0.05 g/cm3 and a solid content of 97.0 ± 2.0% was used. To smoothly extrude
and print the mix mortar using the 3DCP system, a light brown liquid polycarboxylic
acid-based high-range water-reducing agent (HRWRA) with a solid content of 30.1 ± 2.0%
and a density of 1.07 ± 0.1 g/cm3 was used. The HRWRA content for each printing test is
listed in Table 3, and 0.5%–0.8% binder was used.
Mortar mixes based on the mixture proportions in Table 3 were used and printed using
the 3DCP system similarly and in the same order in all six types of print tests. This reduced
the change in the mechanical properties of 3DCP by the age of the mix material as much
as possible [31]. After mixing each mortar, a slump-flow test according to ASTM C1437
was performed twice using the mortar immediately after the end of mixing and the first
printed mortar to measure consistency [32]. When the hydration of cementitious particles
is not considered, buildability and pumpability are closely related to the slump flow of a
material [23]. The HRWRA content was adjusted to ensure the slump flow immediately
after mixing was 110–120 mm. This was because if the slump flow is extremely small,
clogging of the pump and poor printability may be caused, whereas if the slump flow is
extremely large, the buildability may deteriorate. Based on Table 3, the slump flow at the
start of printing increases by approximately 4–8 mm compared to that immediately after
Materials 2023, 16, 34 10 of 21
mixing. This is probably because high pressure and heat are generated as the mortar passes
through the pump, hose, and hopper, causing the HRWRA to react more actively [15].
Table 3. Mixture proportioning and test results of slump flow.
Unit Weight (kg/m3 ) Admixture (%) Slump Flow (mm)

Printing Test W/B (%)
W C SF S VMA HRWRA (1) (2)
Nozzle#1 0.7 120 128
Nozzle#2 0.7 113 119
Straight
Nozzle#3 0.7 111 118
line 38.4 250 586 66 1310 2.0
Nozzle#4 0.7 117 123
Nozzle#5 0.8 114 119
Curved shape 0.5 110 114
Note: W—water; C—cement; B—binder; SF—silica fume; S—sand; VMA—viscosity modifying agent; HRWRA—
high range water reducing agent; slump flow (1): tested using mortar after the end of mixing; slump flow (2):
tested using the first printed mortar.
4.2. Nozzle
In this study, five types of nozzles, shown in Figure 9, were manufactured to evaluate
the print quality of underwater additive concrete based on the difference in nozzle details.
All nozzles were designed to receive a material with a 60 × 60 mm square cross-section and
print a 60 mm wide and 30 mm high rectangular cross-section. Nozzle#1 was the simplest
shaped nozzle with a 60 × 30 mm rectangular opening and a reduced cross-section in a
ratio of 1:0.188. Nozzle#2 had the same opening as Nozzle#1, double the section reduction
ratio (1:0.375) as Nozzle#1, and fixed trowels with a size of 30 × 30 mm installed on the
left and right sides of the nozzle tip. For Nozzle#3, the section was reduced in a ratio of
1:0.167, and in addition to 40 × 30 mm trowels on both sides, a 60 × 30 mm rear trowel
was installed. For Nozzles#1 and #2, the 60 × 30 mm cross-section of the printed part
was determined by the nozzle opening of the lower surface. In contrast, for Nozzle#3, it
was determined by the 60 × 30 mm front opening. Nozzle#4 had the same conditions as
Nozzle#3 except that the three-sided trowel was inclined at 30◦ instead of being vertical.
Nozzle#5 was manufactured by installing an upper roof on the front opening of Nozzle#4
and increasing the length of the trowel on both sides to 63 mm. Nozzles#1 and #2 were
manufactured by cutting, bending, welding, and plating a steel plate, and Nozzle#3, #4,
and #5 were manufactured by 3D printing with a polycarbonate material.
4.3. Evaluation Method

Straight-line printing tests of the five types of nozzles were conducted in air and
underwater. After completing the air printing (AP) on a plywood installed on a water tank,
as shown in Figure 2, the plywood was removed, and WP was conducted in the water tank.
A part was printed in a linear shape with a length of 1 m, and all layers were printed in
the same direction to maintain the same time difference between the layers (Figure 10).
The nozzle movement speed was fixed as 2000 mm/min. Therefore, the printing time gap
between the layers was approximately 68 s. The printing height of each layer was set as
30 mm, and four layers were deposited. When each of the five straight-line printing tests
were performed underwater, the measured water temperature in the water tank was in
the range of 17.2 to 24.8 degrees. In this study, it was regarded the water temperature
difference in that range has little effect on the deformation of the printed part. The effect of
water temperature on the deformation of the printed part has not been studied yet, and the
research will be conducted in the future.
Nozzle#5 was manufactured by installing an upper roof on the front opening of Nozzle#4
and increasing the length of the trowel on both sides to 63 mm. Nozzles#1 and #2 were
Materials 2023, 16, 34 11 of#4,
manufactured by cutting, bending, welding, and plating a steel plate, and Nozzle#3, 21
and #5 were manufactured by 3D printing with a polycarbonate material.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
Materials 2023, 16, 34 12 of 22
Figure 9.9. Types
Figure Types and
and details
details of
ofnozzle
nozzle(The
(Theunit
unitofoflength
lengthis ismm):
mm):(a)(a)
Nozzle#1; (b) (b)
Nozzle#1; Nozzle#2; (c)
Nozzle#2;
Nozzle#3; (d) Nozzle#4; (e) Nozzle#5.
(c) Nozzle#3; (d) Nozzle#4; (e) Nozzle#5.
4.3. Evaluation Method

Straight-line printing tests of the five types of nozzles were conducted in air and un-
derwater. After completing the air printing (AP) on a plywood installed on a water tank,
as shown in Figure 2, the plywood was removed, and WP was conducted in the water
tank. A part was printed in a linear shape with a length of 1 m, and all layers were printed
in the 10.
Figure same direction to maintain the same time difference between the layers (Figure 10).
Figure 10. Designed
The nozzle Designed
movement
printing
printing test
speed
schedule
testwas
schedule for straight
fixedfor
as straight
line.
line.
2000 mm/min. Therefore, the printing time gap
between
In the the layers test
was approximately 68 s. The printing height of
byeach layer wasWP.
set as
the printing
printing testforforeach
eachnozzle,
nozzle,three
three rows
rows werewereprinted
printed byboth APAP
both andand WP.In
30
all mm,
rows, and four
thethe layers
hopper were deposited.
spindle-shaft When
rotation each
speed of
(HSRS) the five
was straight-line
setset printing
differently tests
between 9
In all rows, hopper spindle-shaft rotation speed (HSRS) was differently between
9were
rpm
rpm performed
and
and1616rpm rpmunderwater,
totoproduce the measured
producedifferences
differences water
ininthe temperature
theprint
print output in the water
output amounts
amounts and tank wasthe
and evaluate
evaluate in
the range
quality of 17.2
of each to 24.8
printed degrees.
part. The In this study,
The correlation it was
between
between theregarded
HSRS and thethe
water
printtemperature
output rate
difference in that range has little effect
(printing mass per minute) was derived by measuringon the deformation of
measuring the weightweight of the part.
the printed Themortar
printed effect
of water temperature
for a certain period. on
period. Figure the
Figure 11,deformation
11, confirms of the
confirms aa linear printed
linear relationshippart has
relationship betweennot been
betweenthem. studied yet,
them.Accordingly,and
Accordingly,
the research
HSRSs
HSRSs of 10, will be conducted
12, 14, and 16 rpmindischarge
the future.print output at speeds of 13.2, 15.3, 17.5, and
kg/min,respectively.
19.6 kg/min, respectively.
After four layers and three rows were printed, the print quality was evaluated. Qualita-
tive print
35 quality was evaluated by examining the surface defects, deformation degree, and
dimensional consistency of the top layer of the deposited part [33]. Quantitative printability
g mass per min. (kg/min.)
and buildability,
30 such as changes in the width and height of a deposited part compared
to the designed values, were not evaluated. 23.94This is because the interlayer time interval
25
and appropriate printing material properties, such as the initial yield stress and elastic
modulus, were not determined considering the size of the target structure. Therefore, the
18.59
20
15 13.17
10
Figure 10. Designed printing test schedule for straight line.
In the printing test for each nozzle, three rows were printed by both AP and WP. In
Materials 2023, 16, 34 all rows, the hopper spindle-shaft rotation speed (HSRS) was set differently between 9
12 of 21
rpm and 16 rpm to produce differences in the print output amounts and evaluate the
quality of each printed part. The correlation between the HSRS and the print output rate
(printing
deformationmassofper
theminute) was due
lower layer derived by deposition
to the measuring ofthethe
weight
upperoflayer
the printed mortar
was inevitably
for a certain period. Figure 11, confirms a linear relationship between them. Accordingly,
large, which had a significant influence on the change in the width and height of the entire
HSRSs of 10,
deposited 12,Moreover,
part. 14, and 16arpm dischargemethod
standardized print output at speeds of evaluating
for quantitatively 13.2, 15.3, 17.5, and
the print
19.6 kg/min,
quality is notrespectively.
available worldwide.
35
Printing mass per min. (kg/min.)
30
23.94
25
18.59
20
15 13.17
10
0
5 10 15 20 25
Spindle shaft rotation speed (rpm)
Figure
Figure11.
11.Relationship
Relationshipbetween
betweenspindle
spindleshaft
shaftrotation
rotation speed
speed and
and printing
printing mass
mass per
per min.
min.
A specimen
After wasand
four layers manufactured
three rows toweremeasure
printed,thethe
density and compressive
print quality strength
was evaluated. by
Qual-
coringprint
itative the deposited parts
quality was prior to by
evaluated hardening.
examining Astheshown in Figure
surface defects, 12,deformation
a cylindricaldegree,
coated
paper
and mold withconsistency
dimensional a diameterof ofthe
50 top
mmlayer
and of
a height of 100 mm,
the deposited part with both open top
[33]. Quantitative and
print-
bottom surfaces was vertically inserted into the deposited parts at approximately
ability and buildability, such as changes in the width and height of a deposited part com- 30 min.
After the
pared deposited
to the designedparts werewere
values, made,notand the remaining
evaluated. This is samples
because outside the mold
the interlayer timewere
in-
Materials 2023, 16, 34 13 of 22
removed
terval andtoappropriate
separate theprinting
six specimens.
materialSpecimens
properties, manufactured in air were
such as the initial yieldcured
stressinand
air
for 2 days
elastic with plastic
modulus, sheets
were not covered,considering
determined and after demolding, theytarget
the size of the werestructure.
placed in There-
curing
water.
fore, theIndeformation
the case of specimens
of the lowermanufactured
layer due tounderwater,
the deposition afterofseparating
the upper the specimens
layer was in-
from
evitably large, which had a significant influence on the change in the width and heightre-of
from the
the deposited
deposited parts, they
they were
were transferred
transferred to to
a a curing
curing water
water tank,tank, which
which was was
removed
moved
after
the after
two
entire two demolded,
days, days,part.
deposited demolded, andacured
and cured
Moreover, in in again.
water watermethod
standardized again. for quantitatively evaluating
the print quality is not available worldwide.
A specimen was manufactured to measure Top viewthe density and compressive strength by
coring the deposited parts prior to hardening. As shown in Figure 12, a cylindrical coated
paper
50×100mold
mm with a diameter of 50 mm and a height of 100 mm, with both open top and
cylinder
bottom surfaces was vertically inserted into the deposited parts at approximately 30 min.
specimen
After the deposited parts were made, and the remaining samples outside the mold were
cored
removed to separate the six specimens. Specimens manufactured in air were cured in air
for 2 days with plastic sheets covered, and after demolding, they were placed in curing
water. In the case of specimens manufactured underwater, after separating the specimens
Side view
Figure12.
Figure Coringsixsix5050× ×
12.Coring 100100
mm mm cylinder
cylinder specimens.
specimens.
The densities of the six cylindrical specimens at 7 and 28 d of age for each deposited
The densities of the six cylindrical specimens at 7 and 28 d of age for each deposited
part were measured according to EN 12390-7 [34]. The mass used for the density calculation
part were measured according to EN 12390-7 [34]. The mass used for the density calcula-
was measured with a scale in a dry surface condition in air, and the volume was obtained
tion was measured with a scale in a dry surface condition in air, and the volume was
by actual measurements. The compressive strengths of the cylindrical specimens used for
obtained by actual measurements. The compressive strengths of the cylindrical specimens
the density measurements at 7 and 28 d of age were measured according to ASTM C39 [35].
used for the density measurements at 7 and 28 d of age were measured according to ASTM
The compressive strength test was performed using a 5 MN compression tester, and a load
C39 [35]. The compressive strength test was performed using a 5 MN compression tester,
was applied at a rate of 0.25 MPa/s.
and a load was applied at a rate of 0.25 MPa/s.
4.4. Evaluation Results

4.4.1. Print Quality
Figure 13 shows the results of the straight-line printing. In the deposited part, the
first digit of the name is the nozzle number, the second digit is the HSRS, and the last digit
denotes AP or WP. For example, 1–12 WP deposited part is a test specimen printed in
Materials 2023, 16, 34 13 of 21
4.4. Evaluation Results

4.4.1. Print Quality
denotes AP or WP. For example, 1–12 WP deposited part is a test specimen printed in water
at an HSRS of 12 rpm using Nozzle#1. Table 4 qualitatively scores print quality. The scores
for each surface defect, deformation degree, and dimensional consistency are subjectively
marked from 1 (good quality) to 5 (bad quality), and the average of the three scores is
calculated as the overall score.
Table 4. Evaluation of printing quality.
Free of Overall
Deformation Dimensional
Printing Test Specimen Surface Print
Degree Consistency
Defects Quality
1–10 AP 2 4 2 2.7
1–12 AP 1 5 2 2.7
1–14 AP 1 5 2 2.7
Nozzle#1
1–10 WP 4 4 2 3.3
1–12 WP 3 5 2 3.3
1–14 WP 3 5 2 3.3
2–10 AP 2 2 1 1.7
2–12 AP 2 2 1 1.7
2–14 AP 1 3 1 1.7
Nozzle#2
2–12 WP 5 2 1 2.7
2–14 WP 4 3 1 2.7
2–16 WP 3 4 1 2.7
3–10 AP 2 2 1 1.7
Straight 3–12 AP 1 3 1 1.7
line 3–14 AP 1 4 1 2.0
Nozzle#3
3–12 WP 3 3 1 2.3
3–14 WP 2 4 1 2.3
3–16 WP 1 5 1 2.3
4–10 AP 1 2 1 1.3
4–12 AP 1 2 1 1.3
4–14 AP 1 3 1 1.7
Nozzle#4
4–12 WP 4 2 1 2.3
4–14 WP 2 3 1 2.0
4–16 WP 1 5 1 2.3
5–9 AP 3 2 1 2.0
5–11 AP 2 3 1 2.0
5–13 AP 1 4 1 2.0
Nozzle#5
5–10 WP 4 3 1 2.7
5–12 WP 2 4 1 2.3
5–14 WP 1 5 1 2.3
Curved shape 3 3 3 3.0
Note: 1—good; 3—normal; 5—bad.
Overall, dimensional consistency was found to be good. In the case of WP, surface
cracking occurred from the side and the surface quality was worse than that of air printing
in the same HSRS [15]. Presumably, the cohesion on the surface of the printout, which is
the contact surface with water, was reduced because the mortar that passed through the
nozzle came into contact with water. However, further research on the cause is needed.
denotes AP or WP. For example, 1–12 WP deposited part is a test specimen printed in
water at an HSRS of 12 rpm using Nozzle#1. Table 4 qualitatively scores print quality. The
Materials 2023, 16, 34
scores for each surface defect, deformation degree, and dimensional consistency are sub-
14 of 21
jectively marked from 1 (good quality) to 5 (bad quality), and the average of the three
scores is calculated as the overall score.
Materials 2023, 16, 34 14 of 22
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
Figure
Figure13.
13.Results
Resultsofofstraight-line
straight-lineprinting:
printing:(a)(a)Nozzle#1;
Nozzle#1;(b)
(b)Nozzle#2;
Nozzle#2;(c)(c)Nozzle#3;
Nozzle#3;(d)
(d)Nozzle#4;
Nozzle#4;
(e) Nozzle#5.
(e) Nozzle#5.
Table 4. Evaluation of printing quality.
Free of
Deformation Dimensional Overall Print
Printing Test Specimen Surface
Degree Consistency Quality
Defects
Materials 2023, 16, 34 15 of 21
For Nozzle#1, a large change in the cross-section of the printout was obtained. The
cross-sections of all layers were trapezoidal. This was because the size of the deformation
differed according to the height of the layer as the printout was printed. Moreover, the
printing discharge pressure and its own weight increased as it went down to the bottom of
the layer when the printout was printed and started to be deposited on the lower layer. This
phenomenon became larger as the HSRS increased, causing the printing discharge pressure
and height of the layer to increase. In the case of WP, a surface crack was observed in
1–12 WP, and the degree of surface defects was normal only when the HSRS was increased
to 14 rpm or higher. However, a large deformation was caused by the high printing
discharge pressure.
In the case of Nozzle#2, the trapezoidal cross-sectional shape was eliminated by
installing fixed trowels on both sides. However, in WP, the surface cracks were larger than
those in Nozzle#1. This may be due to the differences in the material rheology; however,
presumably, the cracks increased as the fixed trowel scratched the cracked surface. This
phenomenon could be reduced by increasing the printing discharge amount. However, at
HSRS 14 rpm or higher, the discharge amount was excessive, and overflow in the direction
of the nozzle movement occurred. If this overflow phenomenon continues to accumulate,
the cross-sectional size of the printout may change significantly, and in curved printing, the
curved shape may be deformed.
In the case of Nozzle#3, the overflow phenomenon of Nozzle#2 was eliminated by
adding a rear trowel to the trowel on both sides. In addition, as the opening was formed on
the front side, the surface cracking phenomenon was reduced during WP while confining
on five sides, except for the opening in contact with water. However, owing to the high
confinement, the pressure on the lower layer increased, deformation of the lower layer
occurred significantly, and a cross-section higher than the opening height was formed,
showing a convex surface.
In the case of Nozzle#4, the three-sided trowel of Nozzle#3 was inclined by 30◦ to
reduce the five-sided confinement pressure during printing, thereby reducing the deforma-
tion of the lower layer and the convex surface phenomenon. However, as the confinement
was lowered, the surface cracking phenomenon during WP became larger than that of
Nozzle#3. Regarding the overall print quality score, Nozzle#4 showed the best result, and
among the WP specimens, 4–14 WP showed the best score with 2.0 points.
In the case of Nozzle#5, the surface convex phenomenon could be removed by in-
stalling an upper roof on the front opening of Nozzle#4. However, owing to the additional
confinement of the upper roof, the deformation of the lower layer increased, and the surface
cracking phenomenon was significant during WP. In addition, the length of the side trowels
had to be increased from 40 to 63 mm for the installation of the upper roof, and the length
of this extended trowel may have an adverse effect on curved-shape printing.
4.4.2. Hardened Properties

Figures 14–18 show the density and compressive strength results of all specimens
measured at 7 and 28 d of age. Overall, the density and compressive strength trends were
similar. In addition, a good print quality implies a high density and compressive strength.
Therefore, if material and equipment system conditions that can satisfy good print quality
are derived, the hardened properties will also be satisfactory.
In almost all specimens, the density increased with increasing age. The additional
production of hydrates by the hydration reaction apparently contributed to the density
increase. The density of the WP specimen was slightly lower than that of the AP specimen
because the cohesion between the cement paste particles was reduced and loosened owing
to contact with water [15]. Nozzles#3 and #4 showed different results because the trowel
confines on five sides as soon as the printout contacts water, maintaining cohesion and
preventing looseness between the cement paste particles.
4.4.2. Hardened
4.4.2. Hardened Properties
Properties
Figures 14–18
Figures 14–18 show
show thethe density
density and
and compressive
compressive strength
strength results
results of
of all
all specimens
specimens
measured at 7 and 28 d of age. Overall, the density and compressive strength
measured at 7 and 28 d of age. Overall, the density and compressive strength trends weretrends were
similar. In addition, a good print quality implies a high density and compressive
similar. In addition, a good print quality implies a high density and compressive strength. strength.
Materials 2023, 16, 34 Therefore, ifif material
Therefore, material and
and equipment
equipment system
system conditions
conditions that
that can
can satisfy
satisfy good
good print
print quality
quality
16 of 21
are derived,
are derived, the
the hardened
hardened properties
properties will
will also
also be
be satisfactory.
satisfactory.
2200
2200 80
80
7days 28days
Nozzle#1
Nozzle#1 Nozzle#1
Nozzle#1 7days 28days
7days 28days 7days 28days
70
(MPa)
70
strength(MPa)
2100
2100 60
60 53.0 53.8
53.8 52.8 53.0
51.3 53.0 52.8 53.0
(kg/m3)3)
50.4
Compressivestrength
51.3 50.4
50
Density(kg/m
50 43.9 43.9
43.9 43.3 43.1
40.8 43.9 41.8 43.3 43.1
40.8 41.8
2000
2000 40
40
Density
2145
Compressive
2140
2138
2135
2134
2133
2145
2128
2128
2140
2122
2138
2135
2134
2133
2115
2113
2128
2128
2109
2122
2115
2113
2109
30
30
1900
1900 20
20
10
10
1800
1800 00
10AP
11
10AP 12AP
22
12AP 14AP
33
14AP 12WP
44
12WP 14WP
55
14WP 16WP
66
16WP 10AP
11
10AP 12AP
22
12AP 14AP
33
14AP 12WP
44
12WP 14WP
55
14WP 16WP
66
16WP
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Hardened
Hardened properties
properties of Nozzle#1
Nozzle#1 specimens:
specimens: (a)
(a) density;
density; (b)
(b) compressive
compressive strength.
strength.
Figure 14. Hardened properties ofofNozzle#1 specimens: (a) density; (b) compressive strength.
2200
2200 80
80
Nozzle#2
Nozzle#2 Nozzle#2
Nozzle#2
7days 28days 7days
7days 28days
28days
7days 28days 70
(MPa)
strength(MPa) 70
2100
2100 60
60
Compressivestrength
(kg/m3)3)
50 47.2 47.8 46.7

Density(kg/m
50 47.2 47.8 46.7 45.8

45.8
41.7
41.7 41.0
38.0 41.0
2000
2000 40
40 38.0 35.1 35.2 34.8
33.7 35.2
Density
Compressive
33.7 33.2 35.1 34.8

33.2
2109
2096
2109
30
2080
2096
2066
2065
30
2080
2061
2058
2055
2052
2066
2065
2047
2046
2061
2058
2055
2038
2052
2047
2046
2038
1900
1900 20
20
10
10
1800
1800 00
10AP
11
12AP
22
14AP
33
12WP
44
14WP
55
16WP
66
10AP 12AP 14AP 12WP 14WP 16WP
10AP 12AP 14AP 12WP 14WP 16WP 11
10AP 22
12AP 33
14AP 44
12WP 55
14WP 66
16WP
Materials 2023, 16, 34 (a)

(a) (b)
(b) 17 of 22
Figure15.
Figure
Figure 15.Hardened
15. Hardenedproperties
Hardened propertiesofof
properties ofNozzle#2
Nozzle#2specimens:
Nozzle#2 specimens:(a)
specimens: (a)density;
(a) density;(b)
density; (b)compressive
(b) compressivestrength.
strength.
2200 80
Nozzle#3 Nozzle#3
7days 28days 7days 28days
70
Compressive strength (MPa)
2100 60
Density (kg/m3)
48.6
50 44.9
43.0 41.7
39.2 40.7
37.0 36.4
2000 40 35.8 36.7 35.8
33.5
2116
2115
2103
2098
2097
2092
2092
2082
30
2079
2074
2067
2057
1900 20
10
1800 0
10AP
1 12AP
2 14AP
3 12WP
4 14WP
5 16WP
6 10AP
1 12AP
2 14AP
3 12WP
4 14WP
5 16WP
6
(a) (b)
Figure16.
Figure 16.Hardened
Hardenedproperties
propertiesofofNozzle#3
Nozzle#3specimens:
specimens:(a)
(a)density;
density;(b)
(b)compressive
compressivestrength.
strength.
2200 80
Nozzle#4 Nozzle#4 7days 28days
7days 28days
70
pressive strength (MPa)
2100 60 54.5 55.9 56.0

53.6
Density (kg/m3)
44.9 44.6
50 44.3 44.4
42.1 41.8 41.0
39.6
2000 40
2159
2147
2141
2133
2133
2126
2125
2118
2115
2115
2113
2110
30
10
10
1800
1800 0
0
10AP
1
10AP
1 12AP
2
12AP
2 14AP
3
14AP
3 12WP
4
12WP
4 14WP
5
14WP
5 16WP
6
16WP
6 10AP
1
10AP
1 12AP
2
12AP
2 14AP
3
14AP
3 12WP
4
12WP
4 14WP
5
14WP
5 16WP
6
16WP
6
Materials 2023, 16, 34

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) 17 of 21
Figure
Figure 16.
16. Hardened
Hardened properties
properties of
of Nozzle#3
Nozzle#3 specimens:
specimens: (a)
(a) density;
density; (b)
(b) compressive
strength.
2200
2200 80
80
Nozzle#4
Nozzle#4 Nozzle#4
7days
7days 28days
28days 7days 28days
70
(MPa)
70
strength(MPa)
2100
2100 60
60 54.5 55.9
55.9 56.0
56.0
54.5 53.6
53.6
Compressivestrength
(kg/m33))
44.9 44.6
44.6
44.9
Density(kg/m
50
50 44.3 44.4
42.1 44.3 44.4 41.8
42.1 39.6 41.8 41.0
41.0
39.6
2000
2000 40
40
2159
Density
Compressive
2147
2159
2141
2133
2133
2147
2126
2141
2125
2133
2118
2133
2115
2115
2113
2126
2125
2110
2118
2115
2115
2113
2110
30
30
1900
1900 20
20
10
10
1800
1800 0
0
10AP
1
10AP
1 12AP
2
12AP
2 14AP
3
14AP
3 12WP
4
12WP
4 14WP
5
14WP
5 16WP
6
16WP
6 10AP
1
10AP
1 12AP
2
12AP
2 14AP
3
14AP
3 12WP
4
12WP
4 14WP
5
14WP
5 16WP
6
16WP
6
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 17.
Figure17. Hardened
17.Hardened properties
propertiesofof
Hardenedproperties Nozzle#4
ofNozzle#4 specimens:
Nozzle#4specimens: (a)
specimens:(a) density;
(a)density; (b)
density;(b) compressive
(b)compressive strength.
strength.
Figure
2300
2300 80
80
Nozzle#5
Nozzle#5 Nozzle#5
7days
7days 28days
28days 7days 28days
(MPa)
strength(MPa) 70
70
2200 55.5
55.5
2200 55.8
60
60 55.8 51.6 52.3
51.6 52.0 52.3
Compressivestrength
49.4
(kg/m33))
52.0 49.4
Density(kg/m
2100 50
50
2100 42.2 43.8
43.8
42.2 41.4
41.4 39.4
39.4
40 35.1
35.1
40 33.9
Density
Compressive
33.9
2221
2219
2218
2214
2213
2208
2204
2204
2221
2201
2202
2219
2218
2196
2214
2195
2213
2208
2204
2204
2201
2202
2196
2000
2195
2000 30
30
20
20
1900
1900
10
10
1800
1800 0
0
9AP
1
9AP
1 11AP
2
11AP
2 13AP
3
13AP
3 10WP
4
10WP
4 12WP
5
12WP
5 14WP
6
14WP
6 9AP
1
9AP
1 11AP
2
11AP
2 13AP
3
13AP
3 10WP
4
10WP
4 12WP
5
12WP
5 14WP
6
14WP
6
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 18.
Figure18. Hardened
18.Hardened properties
propertiesofof
Hardenedproperties Nozzle#5
ofNozzle#5 specimens:
Nozzle#5specimens: (a)
specimens:(a) density;
(a)density; (b)
density;(b) compressive
(b)compressive strength.
strength.
Figure
In
In almost
Inall all
all specimens,
specimens,
almost the
the density
the compressive
specimens, increased
strength
density with
tended
increased withtoincreasing age.
increase with
increasing The
The additional
age.increasing age,
additional
production
and
production of
of hydrates
most specimens by
by the
showed
hydrates thea hydration
tendency of
hydration reaction apparently
compressive
reaction contributed
strength
apparently increase to
contributed asthe
to thedensity
the HSRS
density
increase.
increase. The
increased. density
density of
An increase
The in the
of the WP
the specimen
printing
WP was
was slightly
discharge
specimen pressurelower
slightly than
increased
lower that
than the of
of the
the AP
thatprintout AP specimen
robustness.
specimen
because
because the cohesion between the cement paste particles was reduced and loosened owing
In the
Nozzles#1 cohesion
and #2, between
under the the
same cement
HSRS, paste
the particles
WP was
specimen reduced
showed aand loosened
lower compressive
owing
strength than the AP specimen. This is also owing to the decrease in the cohesion between
the cement paste particles in water. In the case of the 2–12 WP specimen, which showed
severe surface cracking, the compressive strength at 28 days was significantly reduced
by 13% compared to the 2–12 AP specimen. Nozzles#3, #4, and #5 did not show this
trend because of the increase in the compressive strength during WP with the nozzle
opening moving forward and being constrained from five sides. However, in the case of
3–16 WP and 4–16 WP specimens, the compressive strength was lower than those of the
AP specimens and even lower than that of the low-HSRS specimen. This is because the
deformation of the lower layer was extremely large owing to the high printing discharge
pressure and confinement force.
5. Curved Shape Printing Test

Based on the results of the straight-line printing tests with different nozzle variables,
the optimal conditions for WP were derived, and a curve-shaped printing test was per-
formed underwater. As the printing material, a mortar mixed with the same materials and
in the same mixing proportions as in the straight-line printing tests was used. In addition,
0.5% HPWRA was used. As shown in Table 3, the slump flows immediately after the
pressure and confinement force.
5. Curved Shape Printing Test

Based on the results of the straight-line printing tests with different nozzle variables,
the optimal conditions for WP were derived, and a curve-shaped printing test was per-
Materials 2023, 16, 34 18 of 21
formed underwater. As the printing material, a mortar mixed with the same materials and
in the same mixing proportions as in the straight-line printing tests was used. In addition,
0.5% HPWRA was used. As shown in Table 3, the slump flows immediately after the end
end of mixing
of mixing and and attime
at the the time of initial
of initial printing
printing were were 110114
110 and andmm,114respectively.
mm, respectively. The
The reason
reason for the reduction in the amount of the HPWRA is the minimization
for the reduction in the amount of the HPWRA is the minimization of the layer defor- of the layer
deformation and improvement
mation and improvement in thein buildability
the buildability while
while ensuring
ensuring rheology
rheology such
such thatthat there
there are
are no problems in pumping and printing. To realize curves of various
no problems in pumping and printing. To realize curves of various curvatures within acurvatures within
1000××
a1000 730
730 mmmm rectangle,
rectangle, thethe shape
shape shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 19 was
19 was designed,
designed, a G-code
a G-code was was
pro-
programmed,
grammed, and a printing test was conducted. Nozzle#4, HSRS 14 rpm, and nozzlenozzle
and a printing test was conducted. Nozzle#4, HSRS 14 rpm, and move-
movement
ment speedspeed of 2000
of 2000 mm/min,
mm/min, whichwhich
is the is the combination
combination with
with the theprinting
best best printing perfor-
performance
mance
in the straight-line printing tests, were applied, and five layers were deposited with awith
in the straight-line printing tests, were applied, and five layers were deposited one-
alayer
one-layer
heightheight
of 30 of 30 mm.
mm.
Figure19.
Figure 19.Designed
Designedcurved
curvedshape
shapefor
forprinting
printingtest.
test.
The results of the curved WP are shown in Figure 20. As summarized in Table 4,
the print quality is evaluated as three points. The surface of the straight part was good,
whereas surface cracking was observed in the curved part, particularly on the outside of
the curved part with a large curvature. As expected, the 3DCP equipment in this study
changed the direction of the nozzle movement while rotating it. Thus, when the nozzle was
rotated, the distance inside the curve is short, and the distance outside the curve is long;
thus, there was a difference in the amount of printing mortar discharged between the inside
and outside of the nozzle. The deformation degree of the lower layer was good because
the slump flow was minimized. The dimensional consistency of the straight-line part was
good, whereas a width difference of the curved part with a small radius of curvature was
observed. Moreover, the height of the outside of the curved part was lower than that of the
inside. Therefore, the dimensional consistency was evaluated as 3.
After completing the curved WP, three ϕ50 × 100 mm cylindrical specimens were
extracted from positions C1, C2, and S, which are shown in Figure 19. Similar to the
straight-line printing tests, the specimens were manufactured by coring a coated paper
mold vertically into the deposited part, and the hardened properties on 28 days of age after
curing in water were measured. Figure 21 shows the results for density and compressive
strength. Similar to the print quality results, the density and compressive strength of the
curved parts (C1 and C2) were lower than those of the straight part (S). This also is owing
to the non-uniform material discharge caused by the nozzle rotation in the curved part.
The nozzle with fixed trowels used in this study has limitations in solving this problem. As
suggested by Khoshnevis [25], a trowel can be deflected at different angles (by computer
control). Using the printed material can improve the output quality of the curved parts and
print quality is evaluated as three points. The surface of the straight part was good,
whereas surface cracking was observed in the curved part, particularly on the outside of
the curved part with a large curvature. As expected, the 3DCP equipment in this study
changed the direction of the nozzle movement while rotating it. Thus, when the nozzle
was rotated, the distance inside the curve is short, and the distance outside the curve is
Materials 2023, 16, 34 19 of 21
long; thus, there was a difference in the amount of printing mortar discharged between
the inside and outside of the nozzle. The deformation degree of the lower layer was good
because the slump flow was minimized. The dimensional consistency of the straight-line
create various
part was good, non-orthogonal structures
whereas a width withofsmooth
difference and accurate
the curved part withsurfaces. Furthermore,
a small radius of cur-
printing materials that can prevent the reduction in cohesion in the concrete matrix
vature was observed. Moreover, the height of the outside of the curved part was lower during
WP
thanshould
that ofbethe
developed.
inside. Therefore, the dimensional consistency was evaluated as 3.
Materials 2023, 16, 34 20 of 22
Figure20.
Figure 20.Result
Resultof
ofcurved
curvedshape
shapeunderwater
underwaterprinting.
printing.
80After completing the curved WP, three φ50 × 100 mm cylindrical specimens were
2400
extracted from positions C1, C2, and S, which are shown in Figure 19. Similar to the
70 Compressive strength Density
straight-line printing tests, the specimens were manufactured by coring a coated paper
Compressive strength (MPa)
mold60 vertically into the deposited55.5

part, and2300
the hardened properties on 28 days of age
53.3 52.1
after curing in water were measured. Figure 21 shows the results for density and com-
Density (kg/m3)
50
pressive strength. Similar to the print quality results, the density and compressive
strength
40 of 2171
the curved 2176
parts (C1 and
2178 C2) were
2200 lower than those of the straight part (S).
This also is owing to the non-uniform material discharge caused by the nozzle rotation in
30
the curved part. The nozzle with fixed trowels used in this study has limitations in solving
this20problem. As suggested by Khoshnevis [25], 2100 a trowel can be deflected at different an-
gles10(by computer control). Using the printed material can improve the output quality of
the curved parts and create various non-orthogonal structures with smooth and accurate
0
surfaces. Furthermore, printing materials that 2000
can prevent the reduction in cohesion in the
C1 C2 S
concrete matrix during WP should be developed.
Figure21.
Figure Hardenedproperties
21.Hardened properties of
of curved
curved shape
shape underwater
underwater printing
printing specimens.
specimens.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
The developed 3DCP system detects the amount of printing material in the printer
Theand
hopper developed 3DCP system
automatically controlsdetects the amount
the operation of theof progressive
printing material
pumpin the that
such printer
the
hopper and automatically controls the operation of the progressive pump such
printing material can be extruded to the nozzle tip at a fixed constant speed. In this study, that the
printing material
the technical can be
details extruded
of the to the3DCP
developed nozzleequipment,
tip at a fixedwhich
constant speed.
have manyInadvantages,
this study,
the technical details of the developed 3DCP equipment, which have
were presented. The main advantages are buffering the pulsation problem of the pumpingmany advantages,
were presented.
device, The main
having precise advantages
control of the are buffering
extrusion the pulsation
amount using aproblem
pressureofplate
the pumping
installed
device, having precise control of the extrusion amount using a pressure
in the printer hopper, and an excellent surface quality and dimensional accuracy plate installed in
of the
the printer hopper, and an excellent surface quality and dimensional
printed layer using the square nozzles. Using this 3DCP system, printing tests in air accuracy of the
printed layer using
and underwater the square
were performednozzles. Using this
to improve the3DCP system, printing
performance of WP by tests in air and
changing the
underwater were
nozzle details. performed to
Straight-line improve
printing thewere
tests performance
performed of using
WP byfive
changing
nozzles: thea nozzle
nozzle
details.
withoutStraight-line printing tests
a trowel (Nozzel#1), were performed
a nozzle with fixed using
trowelsfive nozzles:toa nozzle
attached without
both sides a
of the
trowel (Nozzel#1), a nozzle with fixed trowels attached to both sides of
nozzle (Nozzle#2), a nozzle with trowels attached to rear and both sides to confine fivethe nozzle (Noz-
zle#2), a nozzle with
sides (Nozzle#3), trowels
a nozzle with attached to reartrowel
a three-sided and both
anglesides
inclined by 30◦ five
to confine sides#4),
(Nozzle (Noz-
and
zle#3), a nozzle with a three-sided trowel angle inclined by 30° (Nozzle #4), and a nozzle
with a roof added to the Nozzle#4 opening (Nozzle #5). By evaluating the linear printing
performance, it was found that in the case of printing underwater, the surface quality was
worse than that of air printing in the same HSRS. Nozzle#4 reduced cracking on the un-
Materials 2023, 16, 34 20 of 21
a nozzle with a roof added to the Nozzle#4 opening (Nozzle #5). By evaluating the linear
printing performance, it was found that in the case of printing underwater, the surface
quality was worse than that of air printing in the same HSRS. Nozzle#4 reduced cracking
on the underwater-printed surface and had the best print performance. In addition, the
hardened properties of the underwater-printed surface were good. Especially, 4–14WP
showed the best print quality score with 2.0 points, which is the closest to 1 point indicating
good printing quality, and the most high compressive strength of 56.0 MPa; therefore,
Nozzle#4 was derived as the optimal nozzle for printing underwater A curved underwater
printing test was additionally performed using Nozzle#4, and the printing performance
was generally normal; however, problems of nonuniform material discharge and cracking
of the outer surface in the curved part were observed. These problems could be solved by
applying a trowel to the nozzle that moves automatically and can be applied from multiple
angles. In addition, printed materials that can prevent the reduction in cohesion in the
concrete matrix during WP should be developed.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.-M.Y. and H.-K.K.; methodology, H.-K.K. and J.-M.Y.;
writing—original draft preparation, J.-M.Y. and H.-K.K.; writing—review and editing, J.-M.Y.; val-
idation, I.-B.P. and H.-K.K.; investigation, I.-B.P. and J.-M.Y.; project administration, H.L.; funding
acquisition, H.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was a part of the project titled ‘Development of concrete composite mate-
rial for additive layering in underwater’ (No. 20200555), funded by the Ministry of Oceans and
Fisheries, Korea.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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1 Department of Civil Engineering, Keimyung University, 1095 Dalgubeol-daero, Dalseo-gu,

Materials 2023, 16, 34. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010034 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Figure 1. The performance of 3DCP during the printing process.

3. Underwater 3DCP System

Table 1. Specification of linear and rotation guide.

Moving Distance Drive Guide Type Repetition Accuracy

Table 2. Specification of servo motor.

Rated Power Rated Revolution Rated Torque

Materials 2023, 16, 34 9 of 22

Figure 8. HMI of 3DCP equipment.

4. Straight-Line Printing Test

Table 3. Mixture proportioning and test results of slump flow.

Unit Weight (kg/m3 ) Admixture (%) Slump Flow (mm)

4.3. Evaluation Method

(a) (b) (c)

4.3. Evaluation Method

4.4. Evaluation Results

4.4. Evaluation Results

Table 4. Evaluation of printing quality.

Materials 2023, 16, 34 14 of 22

Table 4. Evaluation of printing quality.

4.4.2. Hardened Properties

50 47.2 47.8 46.7

50 47.2 47.8 46.7 45.8

33.7 33.2 35.1 34.8

Materials 2023, 16, 34 (a)

2100 60 54.5 55.9 56.0

Materials 2023, 16, 34

5. Curved Shape Printing Test

5. Curved Shape Printing Test

Materials 2023, 16, 34 20 of 22

mold60 vertically into the deposited55.5

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