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MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

Learning Objectives
After completing this section you should be able to:

• describe the process of mathematical induction

• prove by mathematical induction to establish a given result

• use the strategy of conducting limited trials to formulate a conjecture and proving

it by the method of induction

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The Principle of Mathematical Induction

The principle of mathematical induction is an important property of the positive integers. It is
especially useful in proving statements involving all positive integers when it is known, for
example, that the statements are valid for n = 1, 2, 3 but it is suspected or conjectured that
they hold for all positive integers. The method of proof consists of the following steps:

1. Prove the statement for n = 1 or some other positive integer. (Initial step)

2. Assume the statement is true for n = k, where k is any positive integer. (Inductive
Hypothesis/Assumption)

3. From the assumption in 2, prove that the statement must be true for n = k + 1. (Proof stage)

4. Since the statement is true for n = 1, and if it is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 implies it is true for
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it must be true for all positive integers of n. (Conclusion)

SUMMATIONS

Example 1

Prove by Mathematical Induction that

for all natural values of 𝑛𝑛.

Solution

For 𝑛𝑛 = 1

LHS ∑= r2 = 12 = 1
r 1

RHS 1 (1)(1 + 1)(2(1) + 1) = 1

6

∴ LHS = RHS , hence true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1

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k
1
Assuming that the formula is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 ie ∑= r 2
= k ( k +1)(2k +1)
r 1 6

We use this to show that the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, ie to show that
k +1
1
2 = (k +1) ( k +1+1 )( 2(k +1) +1)
∑
r =1
r 6

Proof

Taking the LHS

k +1
1
k ( k +1 )( 2k +1) + ( k +1) term
th
2 =
∑
r =1
r 6

1
= 𝑘𝑘(𝑘𝑘 + 1)( 2𝑘𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘𝑘 + 1)2
6

1
= (𝑘𝑘 + 1)[𝑘𝑘(2𝑘𝑘 + 1) + 6(𝑘𝑘 + 1)]
6

1
= (𝑘𝑘 + 1)[2𝑘𝑘2 + 7𝑘𝑘 + 6]
6

1
= (𝑘𝑘 + 1)(𝑘𝑘 + 2)(2𝑘𝑘 + 3)
6

1
= (𝑘𝑘 + 1)(𝑘𝑘 + 1 + 1)(2(𝑘𝑘 + 1) + 1)
6
= RHS
∴ true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1

Since the formula is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, and if true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 implies it is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it
follows for the Principle of Mathematical Induction that it is true for all natural values of 𝑛𝑛.

Example 2
1
Prove by induction that 12 + 32 + 52 + 72 + ⋯ + (2𝑛𝑛 − 1)2 = 𝑛𝑛(4𝑛𝑛2 − 1), for 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Solution

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For 𝑛𝑛 = 1: LHS: 12 = 1
1
RHS: 1 (1)(4(1)2 − 1) = (3) = 1,
3 3
LHS = RHS hence true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1.

Assume the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ ℕ, ie assume that

1
12 + 32 + 52 + 72 + ⋯ + (2𝑘𝑘 − 1)2 = 𝑘𝑘( 4𝑘𝑘2 − 1)
3

We want to prove that the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1 ie we will prove that

1
12 + 32 + 52 + 72 + ⋯ + (2(𝑘𝑘 + 1) − 1)2 = (𝑘𝑘 + 1)(4(𝑘𝑘 + 1)2 − 1)
3

Proof
12 + 32 + 52 + 72 + ⋯ + (2(𝑘𝑘 + 1) − 1)2 = 12 + 32 + 52 + 72 + ⋯ + (2𝑘𝑘 − 1)2 +
(𝑘𝑘 + 1)𝑡𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
1
( 2 ) ( ( ) )2
= 𝑘𝑘 4𝑘𝑘 − 1 + 2 𝑘𝑘 + 1 − 1
3
1
= 𝑘𝑘(4𝑘𝑘2 − 1) + (2𝑘𝑘 + 1)2
3

1
= 𝑘𝑘(2𝑘𝑘 + 1)( 2𝑘𝑘 − 1) + (2𝑘𝑘 + 1)2
3

1
= (2𝑘𝑘 + 1)[𝑘𝑘(2𝑘𝑘 − 1) + 3(2𝑘𝑘 + 1)]
3

1
= (2𝑘𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘𝑘2 + 5𝑘𝑘 + 3)
3

1
= (2𝑘𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘𝑘 + 3)(𝑘𝑘 + 1)
3

1
= (𝑘𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘𝑘 + 3)
3

1
= (𝑘𝑘 + 1)(4𝑘𝑘2 + 8𝑘𝑘 + 3)
3

1 ( 2 )
= (𝑘𝑘 + 1) 4𝑘𝑘 + 8𝑘𝑘 + 4 − 1
3

1
= (𝑘𝑘 + 1)(4(𝑘𝑘2 + 2𝑘𝑘 + 1) − 1)
3

1
= (𝑘𝑘 + 1)(4(𝑘𝑘 + 1)2 − 1)

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Hence true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1

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Since the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it should be true for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Example 3

Prove by Mathematical Induction that

for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1, 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Solution 2
For 𝑛𝑛 = 1 LHS 2(1) −1 =
1
12(1+1)2 4

2 1
RHS 1 =
(1+1)2 4

LHS = RHS, hence true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1.

∑ 2r2 −1 2 k2
k
Assuming that for 𝑘𝑘 ≥ 1, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ ℕ.
2 = 2

r =1 r (r +1) (k +1)

(k +1)
2
k +1
2r2 −1
We want to show that ∑ r (r +1)
2 2
=
(k +1+1)
2
r =1

Proof

𝑘𝑘+1
2𝑟𝑟2 − 1 𝑘𝑘2
∑ = 2 + (𝑘𝑘 + 1) 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑡𝑡ℎ
𝑟𝑟2(𝑟𝑟 + 1)2 (𝑘𝑘 + 1)
𝑟𝑟=1

𝑘𝑘2 2(𝑘𝑘+1)2−1
= (𝑘𝑘+1)2 +
(𝑘𝑘+1)2(𝑘𝑘+1+1)2

𝑘𝑘2 2𝑘𝑘2+4𝑘𝑘+1
= (𝑘𝑘+1)2 +
(𝑘𝑘+1)2(𝑘𝑘+2)2

𝑘𝑘2(𝑘𝑘+2)2+2𝑘𝑘2+4𝑘𝑘+1
=
(𝑘𝑘+1)2(𝑘𝑘+2)2

𝑘𝑘4+4𝑘𝑘3+4𝑘𝑘2+2𝑘𝑘2+4𝑘𝑘+1
= (𝑘𝑘+1)2(𝑘𝑘+2)2

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𝑘𝑘4+4𝑘𝑘3+6𝑘𝑘2+4𝑘𝑘+1
=
(𝑘𝑘+1)2(𝑘𝑘+2)2
By inspection (𝑘𝑘 + 1)4 = 𝑘𝑘4 + 4𝑘𝑘3 + 6𝑘𝑘2 + 4𝑘𝑘 + 1

(k +1)
4
k +1
2r2 −1
Thus ∑
r =1 r (r +1)
2 2
=
(k +1) (k + 2)
2 2

(𝑘𝑘+1)2
= (𝑘𝑘+2)2

(𝑘𝑘+1)2
=
(𝑘𝑘+1+1)2

Hence true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1

Since the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it should be true for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Example 4

Prove by Mathematical Induction that for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1, 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

Solution

For 𝑛𝑛 = 1 LHS 1 x 1! = 1 x 1 = 1

RHS (1 + 1)! − 1 = 2! − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1

Hence true when 𝑛𝑛 = 1

Assuming that ∑ ( r x r !) = ( k +1)!−1

r =1

k +1

We want to show that ∑ ( r x r !) = (k +1+1)!−1

r =1

Proof

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𝑘𝑘+1

∑(𝑟𝑟 x 𝑟𝑟!) = (𝑘𝑘 + 1)! − 1 + (𝑘𝑘 + 1)(𝑘𝑘 + 1)!

𝑟𝑟=1

= (𝑘𝑘 + 1)! + (𝑘𝑘 + 1)(𝑘𝑘 + 1)! − 1

= (1 + 𝑘𝑘 + 1)(𝑘𝑘 + 1)! − 1

= (𝑘𝑘 + 2)(𝑘𝑘 + 1)! − 1

= (𝑘𝑘 + 2)! − 1

= (𝑘𝑘 + 1 + 1)! − 1

Hence true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1

Since the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it should be true for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

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Exercise

Prove the following by Mathematical Induction

1 for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ+.

2 for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

3 ∀𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

4 for all positive integers 𝑛𝑛.

5 for all natural values of 𝑛𝑛.

6 , where 𝑛𝑛 is any positive integer.

7 ∀𝑛𝑛 𝜖𝜖 ℤ+

1−𝑟𝑟
10 The geometric progression 1 + 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟𝑟2 + 𝑟𝑟3 + ⋯ + 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛 = , for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 0, 𝑛𝑛 𝜖𝜖 ℤ+.

DIVISIBILLITY

Example 1

For any positive integer 𝑛𝑛, 𝑛𝑛3 + 2𝑛𝑛 is divisible by 3.

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Solution

METHOD 1

For 𝑛𝑛 = 1

𝑛𝑛3 + 2𝑛𝑛 = 13 + 2(1) = 3 which is divisible by 3.

∴ True for 𝑛𝑛 = 1

Assuming that the statement is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘, i.e.

𝑘𝑘3 + 2𝑘𝑘 = 3𝑀𝑀, for some natural number 𝑀𝑀.

We use this to show that the statement is also true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1

Now, when 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1 we have

(𝑘𝑘 + 1)3 + 2(𝑘𝑘 + 1) = 𝑘𝑘3 + 3𝑘𝑘2 + 3𝑘𝑘 + 1 + 2𝑘𝑘 + 2

= 𝑘𝑘3 + 3𝑘𝑘2 + 5𝑘𝑘 + 3

= 𝑘𝑘3 + 2𝑘𝑘 + 3𝑘𝑘 + 3𝑘𝑘2 + 3

= 3𝑀𝑀 + 3𝑘𝑘 + 3𝑘𝑘2 + 3

= 3(𝑀𝑀 + 𝑘𝑘 + 𝑘𝑘2 + 1)

Which is divisible by 3.

Hence true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1.

Since the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it should be true for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

METHOD 2

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑛𝑛) = 𝑛𝑛3 + 2𝑛𝑛

𝑓𝑓(1) = 13 + 2(1) = 3 which is divisible by 3

∴ True for 𝑛𝑛 = 1

Assuming that the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘, 𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒 assuming that

𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘) = 𝑘𝑘3 + 2𝑘𝑘 = 3𝑀𝑀 for 𝑀𝑀 ∈ ℕ

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We want to show that 𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘 + 1) is divisible by 3

Taking 𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘 + 1) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘) = (𝑘𝑘 + 1)3 + 2(𝑘𝑘 + 1) − (𝑘𝑘3 + 2𝑘𝑘)

𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘 + 1) − 3𝑀𝑀 = 𝑘𝑘3 + 3𝑘𝑘2 + 3𝑘𝑘 + 1 + 2𝑘𝑘 + 2 − 𝑘𝑘3 − 2𝑘𝑘

𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘 + 1) − 3𝑀𝑀 = 3𝑘𝑘2 + 3𝑘𝑘 + 3

𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘 + 1) = 3𝑘𝑘2 + 3𝑘𝑘 + 3 + 3𝑀𝑀

= 3(𝑘𝑘2 + 𝑘𝑘 + 1 + 𝑀𝑀)
Which is divisible by 3.

Hence true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1.

Since the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it should be true for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

Example 2

Prove by induction that 4x7𝑛𝑛 + 3x5𝑛𝑛 + 5 is divisible by 12, for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Solution

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑛𝑛) = 4x7𝑛𝑛 + 3x5𝑛𝑛 + 5

𝑓𝑓(1) = 4x71 + 3x51 + 5 = 48 which is divisible by 12

Assuming that the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘, where 𝑘𝑘 ∈ ℕ ie 𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘) = 12𝑀𝑀 for 𝑀𝑀 ∈ ℕ

We want to show that 𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘 + 1) is divisible by 12.

Taking 𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘 + 1) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘) = 4x7𝑘𝑘+1 + 3x5𝑘𝑘+1 + 5 − 4x7𝑘𝑘 − 3x5𝑘𝑘 − 5

𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘 + 1) − 12𝑀𝑀 = 28x7𝑘𝑘 + 15x5𝑘𝑘 + 5 − 4x7𝑘𝑘 − 3x5𝑘𝑘 − 5

𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘 + 1) − 12𝑀𝑀 = 24x7𝑘𝑘 + 12x5𝑘𝑘

𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘 + 1) = 24x7𝑘𝑘 + 12x5𝑘𝑘 + 12𝑀𝑀

𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘 + 1) = 12(2x7𝑘𝑘 + 5𝑘𝑘 + 𝑀𝑀)

Which is divisible by 12

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Hence true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1.

Since the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it should be true for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

Exercise

Prove by induction that:

1 all numbers of the form 8𝑛𝑛 − 2𝑛𝑛 are divisible by 6 for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ+.

2 𝑓𝑓(𝑛𝑛) = 7 2𝑛𝑛 − 48𝑛𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 2304 for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ+.

3 11𝑛𝑛 − 4𝑛𝑛 is divisible by 7 for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ+.

4 𝑓𝑓(𝑛𝑛) = 24x24𝑛𝑛 + 34𝑛𝑛 is a multiple of 5 for every 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

5 13𝑛𝑛 − 4𝑛𝑛 is divisible by 9 for every integer 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1.

6 22𝑛𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 3 for all integers 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 0.

7 𝑃𝑃(𝑛𝑛) = 5𝑛𝑛 + 8𝑛𝑛 + 3 is a multiple of 4 for 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

8 8 is a factor of 52𝑛𝑛 − 32𝑛𝑛 for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ+.

9 𝑃𝑃(𝑛𝑛) = 4𝑛𝑛 + 6𝑛𝑛 − 1 is a multiple of 9 for 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

10 11𝑛𝑛 − 6 is divisible by 5 for every positive integer 𝑛𝑛.

11 32𝑛𝑛+4 − 22𝑛𝑛 is divisible by 5 for every positive integer 𝑛𝑛.

12 42𝑛𝑛+1 + 3𝑛𝑛+2 is a multiple of 13 for 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

MATRICES

Example 1

3 1 3𝑛𝑛 − 2𝑛𝑛 for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1

Let 𝐴𝐴 be the matrix . Prove that 𝐴𝐴 =
0 2 0 2

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Solution

For 𝑛𝑛 = 1

1
𝐴𝐴1 = 3 31 − 21 = 3 1 = 𝐴𝐴
0 21 0 2

∴ true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1.

Assuming that the statement is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘, i.e

𝐴𝐴𝑘𝑘 = (3 3𝑘𝑘 − 2𝑘𝑘)

𝑘𝑘

0 2𝑘𝑘

We use this to show that the statement is also true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, i.e. to show that

Now,

𝐴𝐴𝑘𝑘+1 = 𝐴𝐴𝑘𝑘. 𝐴𝐴1

= (3
𝑘𝑘 3𝑘𝑘 − 2𝑘𝑘) 3 1
0 2𝑘𝑘 0 2

= (3 . 3 3 + 2. 3 𝑘𝑘− 2. 2 )
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘

0 2. 2

= (3 . 3 3. 3 − 2. 2 )
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘

0 2. 2𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘+1 3𝑘𝑘+1 − 2𝑘𝑘+1)

= (3
0 2𝑘𝑘+1

which is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1

Since the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it follows that it is true for all 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1.

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Example 2

1 2
A transformation is defined by the matrix 𝐌𝐌 = .
0 1

(a) Find the matrices (i) 𝐌𝐌2 (ii) 𝐌𝐌3

(b) Write down a suitable form for 𝐌𝐌𝑛𝑛 and use the method of proof by induction to prove it.

Solution
1 2
(a) (i) 𝟐𝟐 1 2 1 2 1 4
𝐌𝐌 = , 𝐌𝐌 = = .
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
(ii) 𝟑𝟑 1 4 1 2 1 6
𝐌𝐌 = = .
0 1 0 1 0 1
1 2𝑛𝑛
(b) 𝐌𝐌𝑛𝑛 = .
0 1
1 2
We want to prove that if 𝐌𝐌 = , then 𝐌𝐌𝑛𝑛 = 1 2
𝑛𝑛 where 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
0 1 0 1

1 2
For 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 𝐌𝐌1 = which is true.
0 1
1 2𝑘𝑘
Assuming that the result holds for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘, ie 𝐌𝐌𝑘𝑘 =
0 1

1 2(𝑘𝑘 + 1)
We want to prove that 𝐌𝐌𝑘𝑘+1 =
0 1

Now, 𝐌𝐌𝑘𝑘+1 = 𝐌𝐌. 𝐌𝐌𝑘𝑘

1 2 1 2𝑘𝑘
=
0 1 0 1

= 1 2𝑘𝑘 + 2
0 1

= 1 2(𝑘𝑘 + 1)
0 1

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Hence true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1

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Since the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it follows that it is true for all 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1.

Exercise
1 0
1 The matrices 𝐀𝐀 and B are given by 𝐀𝐀 = 1 and 𝐁𝐁 =
1 −1 2 −1
(i) Find , (𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀)2, and (𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀)3

(ii) Hence suggest a suitable form for the matrix (𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀)n.

(iii) Use induction to prove that your answer to part (ii) is correct.
(iv) Describe fully the single geometrical transformation represented by (𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀)8

1 2
2 The matrix 𝐌𝐌 is given by 𝐌𝐌 =
0 1
(i) Find 𝐌𝐌2 and 𝐌𝐌3.

(ii) Hence suggest a suitable form for the matrix 𝐌𝐌𝑛𝑛.

(iii) Use induction to prove that your answer to part (ii) is correct.
(iv) Describe fully the single geometrical transformation represented by 𝐌𝐌10.

1 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1−𝑎𝑎
3 Prove by induction that = 1 𝑎𝑎−1
0 𝑎𝑎 0 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛

2 1
4 Prove by induction that if 𝐌𝐌 = 𝐌𝐌𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 + 1 𝑛𝑛
for 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ+
−1 0 −𝑛𝑛 1 − 𝑛𝑛

1 2
5 Let 𝐴𝐴 = . Prove by induction that 𝑛𝑛 1 3𝑛𝑛 − 1 for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 2, …
𝐴𝐴 =
0 3 𝑛𝑛
0 3
6 Prove by induction that 5 8 𝑛𝑛 1 + 4𝑛𝑛 8𝑛𝑛 for
=
−2𝑛𝑛 1 − 4𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1
−2 −3

𝑛𝑛
2 1 2𝑛𝑛 − 1
7 If 𝐴𝐴 = , prove that 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 = 2
0 1 0 1

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1 0 0
8 Given that 𝐀𝐀 = 0 2 1 , use matrix multiplication to find
0 0 1

(a) 𝐀𝐀2 (b) 𝐀𝐀3

1 0 0
(c) Prove by induction that 𝐀𝐀𝑛𝑛 = 0 2𝑛𝑛 − 1 for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1.
0 0 1

cos 𝜃𝜃 − sin 𝜃𝜃
9 Given the matrix A= , show by induction that
sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃

cos 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − sin 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

for all positive integers 𝑛𝑛.
sin 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

1 1 1 1 𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 + 1)
10 Prove by induction that 0 1 1 = 0 1 𝑛𝑛 for every positive
0 0 1 0 0 1
integer 𝑛𝑛.

DERIVATIVES

Example 1

Prove by induction that 𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑛𝑛−1(2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑛𝑛)𝑒𝑒2𝑥𝑥 for every integer 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1.

Solution

For 𝑛𝑛 = 1

LHS: 𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒2𝑥𝑥 = (2𝑥𝑥 + 1)𝑒𝑒2𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

RHS: 21−1(2𝑥𝑥 + 1)𝑒𝑒2𝑥𝑥 = (2𝑥𝑥 + 1)𝑒𝑒2𝑥𝑥

LHS=RHS hence the statement is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1.

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We assume that the formula is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘, i.e.

𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘
(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑘𝑘−1(2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘)𝑒𝑒2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘

We show that it is also true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1 i.e. we want to show that

𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘+1
(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑘𝑘+1−1(2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘 + 1)𝑒𝑒2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘+1

Now,

𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘+1 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘
(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥) = . (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘+1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘

𝑑𝑑
= 2𝑘𝑘−1(2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘)𝑒𝑒2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑
= 2𝑘𝑘−1 (2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘)𝑒𝑒2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 2𝑘𝑘−1(2𝑒𝑒2𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘2𝑥𝑥)

= 2𝑘𝑘−1. 2𝑒𝑒2𝑥𝑥(2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘 + 1)

= 2𝑘𝑘+1−1(2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘 + 1)𝑒𝑒2𝑥𝑥

which is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1.

Since the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it follows that it is true for every
integer 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1.

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OTHER WORKED EXAMPLES

Example 1
1
The function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is defined by 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2 − , 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0.

(𝑛𝑛+1)𝑥𝑥−𝑛𝑛
(a) Prove by induction that 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛(𝑥𝑥) = , 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1

where 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛(𝑥𝑥) denotes the nth composition of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) by itself.

(b) State an expression for the domain of 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛(𝑥𝑥).

Solution

(1+1)𝑥𝑥−1 2𝑥𝑥−1 1
(a) 𝑓𝑓1(𝑥𝑥) = = = 2 − = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
1𝑥𝑥−(1−1) 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

Hence true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1

Assuming the result is true for some integer 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘, where 𝑘𝑘 ≥ 1 ie

(𝑘𝑘+1)𝑥𝑥−𝑘𝑘
𝑓𝑓𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥) = .
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−(𝑘𝑘−1)

We now show the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, that is to show that

(𝑘𝑘+1+1)𝑥𝑥−(𝑘𝑘+1)
𝑓𝑓𝑘𝑘+1(𝑥𝑥) = .
(𝑘𝑘+1)𝑥𝑥−(𝑘𝑘+1−1)

Proof

𝑓𝑓𝑘𝑘+1(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓1 𝑓𝑓𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥)

= 𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥)

(𝑘𝑘+1)𝑥𝑥−𝑘𝑘
= 𝑓𝑓 by assumption
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−(𝑘𝑘−1)
1
=2−
(𝑘𝑘+1)𝑥𝑥−𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−(𝑘𝑘−1)

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𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−(𝑘𝑘−1)
=2−
(𝑘𝑘+1)𝑥𝑥−𝑘𝑘

2[(𝑘𝑘+1)𝑥𝑥−𝑘𝑘]−[𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−(𝑘𝑘−1)]
=
(𝑘𝑘+1)𝑥𝑥−𝑘𝑘

2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘+2𝑥𝑥−2𝑘𝑘−𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘+𝑘𝑘−1
= (𝑘𝑘+1)𝑥𝑥−𝑘𝑘

2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘+2𝑥𝑥−2𝑘𝑘+𝑘𝑘−1
= (𝑘𝑘+1)𝑥𝑥−𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘+2𝑥𝑥−𝑘𝑘−1
=
(𝑘𝑘+1)𝑥𝑥−𝑘𝑘

(𝑘𝑘+2)𝑥𝑥−(𝑘𝑘+1)
=
(𝑘𝑘+1)𝑥𝑥−𝑘𝑘

(𝑘𝑘+1+1)𝑥𝑥−(𝑘𝑘+1)
= (𝑘𝑘+1)𝑥𝑥−(𝑘𝑘+1−1)

Which is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1

Since the result holds for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it should be true for all 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1.

𝑛𝑛−1
(b) 𝑥𝑥 ≠
𝑛𝑛

Example 2

Prove by induction that

1
3

()

Solution

For 𝑛𝑛 = 1:
𝑑𝑑
LHS (𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin(√3𝑥𝑥)) = √3𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 cos(√3𝑥𝑥) + 𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin(√3𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥(√3 cos(√3𝑥𝑥) + sin(√3𝑥𝑥))

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𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
RHS: 2𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin √3𝑥𝑥 + = 2𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 [sin(√3𝑥𝑥) cos + cos(√3𝑥𝑥) sin ]
3 3 3

1
= 2𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 [ sin(√3𝑥𝑥) + √3 cos(√3𝑥𝑥)]
2 2

= 𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥[sin(√3𝑥𝑥) + √3cos(√3𝑥𝑥)]

= 𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥[√3cos(√3𝑥𝑥) + sin(√3𝑥𝑥)]
LHS = RHS, hence true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1

Assuming the result is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘, ie

𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘 1
(𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin(√3𝑥𝑥)) = 2𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin (√3𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) , 𝑘𝑘 ≥ 1, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ ℕ
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘 3

We want to show that the results is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1 ie

𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘+1 1
(𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin(√3𝑥𝑥)) = 2𝑘𝑘+1𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin (√3𝑥𝑥 + (𝑘𝑘 + 1)𝜋𝜋)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘+1 3

Proof

𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘+1 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘
(𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin(√3𝑥𝑥)) = (𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin(√3𝑥𝑥))
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘+1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘

𝑑𝑑
= 2𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin √3𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 by assumption
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3

𝑑𝑑
= 2𝑘𝑘 𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin √3𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3

1
= 2𝑘𝑘 [𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin √3𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + √3𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 cos √3𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ]
3 3

1
= 2𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 [sin √3𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + √3 cos √3𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ]
3 3

𝑥𝑥 1
= 2𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 . 2 [ sin √3𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + √3 cos √3𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ]
2 3 2 3

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
= 2𝑘𝑘+1𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 [cos sin √3𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + sin cos √3𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ]
3 3 3 3

24
 𝜋𝜋
= 2𝑘𝑘+1𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 [sin ( + √3𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 )]
3 3

𝜋𝜋 1
= 2𝑘𝑘+1𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 [sin √3𝑥𝑥 + + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ]
3 3

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𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘+𝜋𝜋
= 2𝑘𝑘+1𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 [sin √3𝑥𝑥 + ]
3

1
= 2𝑘𝑘+1𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin √3𝑥𝑥 + (𝑘𝑘 + 1)𝜋𝜋
3

Which is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1

Since the result holds for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it should be true for all 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1.

Example 3

If 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1, 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ, prove by induction that

1 × 1! + 2 × 2! + 3 × 3! + . . . + 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑛𝑛! = (𝑛𝑛 + 1)! − 1.

Solution

For 𝑛𝑛 = 1

LHS: 1 × 1! = 1

RHS: (1 + 1)! − 1 = 2! − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1

LHS = RHS Hence true for 𝑛𝑛 = 1

Assuming that the result holds for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ ℕ i.e.

1 × 1! + 2 × 2! + 3 × 3! + . . . + 𝑘𝑘 × 𝑘𝑘! = (𝑘𝑘 + 1)! − 1

We want to show that the result also holds for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, ie

1 × 1! + 2 × 2! + 3 × 3! + . . . +(𝑘𝑘 + 1) × (𝑘𝑘 + 1)! = (𝑘𝑘 + 1 + 1)! − 1

Proof

1 × 1! + 2 × 2! + 3 × 3! + . . . +(𝑘𝑘 + 1) × (𝑘𝑘 + 1)! = (𝑘𝑘 + 1)! − 1 + (𝑘𝑘 + 1) × (𝑘𝑘 + 1)!

= (𝑘𝑘 + 1)! + (𝑘𝑘 + 1) × (𝑘𝑘 + 1)! − 1

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= (𝑘𝑘 + 1)! [1 + (𝑘𝑘 + 1)] − 1

= (𝑘𝑘 + 1)! (𝑘𝑘 + 1 + 1) − 1

= (𝑘𝑘 + 1 + 1)! − 1
Which is true for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1

Since the result holds for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1, it should be true for all 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1

Exercise

1 Prove by Mathematical induction that if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 then 𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑛𝑛)𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥, ∀𝑛𝑛 𝜖𝜖 ℤ+.

2 If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 find

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Hence deduce a formula for 𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦

Prove you result for 𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 by Mathematical induction.

∞
3 For any integer 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 0 we have 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒−𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛!

𝑑𝑑
4 Prove the proposition 𝑃𝑃(𝑛𝑛): sin 𝑥𝑥 = (−1)𝑛𝑛 sin 𝑥𝑥

5 Given the equation 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥,

𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦
Prove by induction that a (𝑥𝑥 + 3) + (𝑛𝑛 + 1) =0

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Miscellaneous Questions
2 . Prove by induction that, for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1,
1 The matrix 𝐌𝐌 is given by 𝐌𝐌 =
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛+1 0 1
𝐌𝐌𝑛𝑛 = 2 2 −2 .
0 1

2 Prove by induction that 𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛) = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛−1, for 𝑛𝑛 > 0.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

n
n 2
3 ∑(2r −1)(2r + 3) =
r =1 3
(4n +12n −1) for all positive integer value of 𝑛𝑛.

4 Prove by induction that 2𝑛𝑛 > 2𝑛𝑛 for every positive integer 𝑛𝑛 > 2.

5 Prove by Mathematical induction that 3𝑛𝑛 − 2𝑛𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 4, for 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

6 Prove by induction that (cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃)𝑛𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1.

n
7 Prove by induction that ∑r (2r−1 ) = 1+ (n −1) 2n for all positive integral values of 𝑛𝑛.
r =1

(Zimsec N2011)

8 The 𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡ℎ term of a sequence is given by 𝑈𝑈𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛(2𝑛𝑛 + 1), for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1. The sum of the first 𝑛𝑛
terms is denoted by 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛. Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that
1
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 + 1)(4𝑛𝑛 + 5).
6
n n
(r + 3)(2r +1) = (4n2 + 27n + 41) . [7]
9 Prove by mathematical induction that ∑=r 1 6

(Zimsec J2012)
1
10 Prove that 1 + 8 + 27 + 64 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑛3 = 𝑛𝑛2(𝑛𝑛 + 1)2 for 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ
4

11 Prove by mathematical induction that 4𝑛𝑛+1 + 52𝑛𝑛−1 is a multiple of 21 ∀𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

12 Prove by induction that for all even natural numbers 𝑛𝑛

𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛
(sin 3𝑥𝑥) = (−1)2 x 3 x sin 3𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛
3 1
13 The matrix 𝐃𝐃 is given by 𝐃𝐃 = . Prove by induction that, for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1,
1 1
3𝑛𝑛 (3𝑛𝑛 − 1) 0
𝐃𝐃𝑛𝑛 = 2 .

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“The distance doesn’t matter, it is only the first step that is difficult”

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14 Prove by induction that 𝑑𝑑 (𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 sin 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 , 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1, 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

15 Prove by Mathematical induction that every term of the sequence 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 12𝑛𝑛+1 + 2x5𝑛𝑛 is
a multiple of 7 for 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛
16 The sequence 𝑢𝑢 , 𝑢𝑢 , 𝑢𝑢 , … is given by 𝑢𝑢 = 2 and 𝑢𝑢 = for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1.

2
(i) Find 𝑢𝑢 and 𝑢𝑢 , and show that 𝑢𝑢 = .

Hence suggest an expression for 𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛.

Use induction to prove that your answer to part (ii) is correct.

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