GOA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

“BHAUSAHEB BANDODKAR TECHNICAL EDUCATION COMPLEX"

FARMAGUDI, PONDA- GOA - INDIA

S.E.(COMPUTER/IT) SEM-IV
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

DEVELOPED BY MATHEMATICS FACULTY

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE & HUMANITIES
GOA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
TOPICS TO BE COVERED:
➢ FIRST PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

➢ EXAMPLES ON FIRST PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

➢ SECOND PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

➢ EXAMPLES ON SECOND PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
First principle of Mathematical Induction:

Let P(n) be a statement for each n ∈ N. Then P(n) is true for all n ∈ N if

1. Basis step: P(1) is true

2. Inductive step: If P(k) is true, then P(k + 1) is true.

The assumption that P(k) is true is called the inductive hypothesis

 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
𝑛(𝑛+1)
1. Prove that 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = 2
for all positive integers n.
𝑛(𝑛+1)
Solution: Let P n : 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ + 𝑛 =
2
1(1+1)
For 𝑛 = 1, 1 =
2
∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true
𝑘(𝑘+1)
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯+ 𝑘 = ------ (1)
2
Adding 𝑘 + 1 on both sides
𝑘 𝑘+1
1 + 2 + 3 + 4+ ⋯+ 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 1 = + (𝑘 + 1)
2
𝑘 (𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)
= 𝑘+1 + 1 =
2 2
(𝑘+1)(𝑘+1+1)
=
2
∴ P(k+1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers n.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
2. Prove that 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 = 6
for all positive integers n.
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
Solution: Let P n : 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + ⋯ + 𝑛 2 = 6
1(1+1)(2∙1+1)
For 𝑛 = 1, 12 = 6
∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true
𝑘(𝑘+1)(2𝑘+1)
12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + ⋯ + 𝑘 2 = 6
------ (1)
Adding (𝑘 + 1)2 on both sides
𝑘 𝑘 + 1 2𝑘 + 1
12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + ⋯ + 𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 1 2 = + (𝑘 + 1)2
6
𝑘(2𝑘+1)
= 𝑘+1 + (𝑘 + 1)
6
2𝑘 2 +7𝑘+6 𝑘+1 (𝑘+2)(2𝑘+3)
= 𝑘+1 =
6 6
𝑘+1 (𝑘+1+1)(2(𝑘+1)+1)
=
6
∴ P(k+1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers n.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
3. Prove that 1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + ⋯ + 2𝑛 = 2𝑛+1 − 1 for any n  1.
Solution: P(1) is the equation 1 + 2 = 21+1 − 1 or 3 = 22 − 1, which is true.
Assume P(k) is true
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + ⋯ + 2𝑘 = 2𝑘+1 − 1 ----- (1)
To prove P(k+1): 1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + ⋯ + 2𝑘 + 2𝑘+1 = 2𝑘+1+1 − 1 is true
Adding 2k+1 on both sides of (1)
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + ⋯ + 2𝑘 + 2𝑘+1 = 2𝑘+1 − 1 + 2𝑘+1
= 2 ∙ 2𝑘+1 − 1
= 2𝑘+1+1 − 1

∴ P(k+1) is true
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers n.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
4. Use mathematical induction to prove that for all positive integers n,
12 22 32 𝑛2 𝑛(𝑛+1)
+ + + ⋯+ =
1∙3 3∙5 5∙7 2𝑛−1 (2𝑛+1) 2(2𝑛+1)
12 22 32 𝑛2 𝑛(𝑛+1)
Solution: Let P n : + + + ⋯+ =
1∙3 3∙5 5∙7 2𝑛−1 (2𝑛+1) 2(2𝑛+1)
12 1(1+1)
For 𝑛 = 1, =
1∙3 2(2+1)
∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true
12 22 32 𝑘2 𝑘(𝑘+1)
+ + + ⋯+ = ------ (1)
1∙3 3∙5 5∙7 2𝑘−1 (2𝑘+1) 2(2𝑘+1)
(𝑘+1)2
Adding on both sides
2𝑘+1 (2𝑘+3)
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
12 22 32 𝑘2 (𝑘 + 1)2 𝑘 𝑘+1 (𝑘 + 1)2
+ + + ⋯+ + = +
1∙3 3∙5 5∙7 2𝑘 − 1 2𝑘 + 1 2𝑘 + 1 2𝑘 + 3 2 2𝑘 + 1 2𝑘 + 1 (2𝑘 + 3)
𝑘+1 𝑘 𝑘+1
= +
2𝑘+1 2 2𝑘+3
𝑘+1 𝑘 2𝑘+3 +2 𝑘+1
=
2𝑘+1 2 2𝑘+3
𝑘+1 2𝑘 2 +5𝑘+2
=
2𝑘+1 2 2𝑘+3
𝑘+1 (2𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)
=
2𝑘+1 2 2𝑘+3
𝑘+1 (𝑘+1+1)
=
2 2 𝑘+1 +1
∴ P(k+1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive
integers n.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
5. Use mathematical induction to prove that for all positive integers n,

𝜋
2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ + 2 = 2 cos
2𝑛+1

(The number of square roots is n).

𝜋
Solution: Let P n : 2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ + 2 = 2 cos
2𝑛+1
𝜋 1
For 𝑛 = 1, 2 = 2 cos =2∙ = 2
24 2
∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true

𝜋
2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ + 2 = 2 cos
2𝑘+1
𝑘 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Adding 2 on both sides and taking square roots

𝜋
2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯+ 2 = 2 + 2 cos
2𝑘+1

𝑘+1 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠

𝜋 𝜃
= 2 1 + cos 1 + cos 𝜃 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
2𝑘+1 2
𝜋
𝑘+1
= 2 ∙ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2
2

𝜋
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
2𝑘+2
𝜋
= 2 cos 2 𝑘+1 +1

∴ P(k+1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers n.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
6. Use mathematical induction to prove that 𝑛3 − n is divisible by 3 for all positive integers n.
Solution: Let P n : 𝑛3 − n = 3𝑞 ; 𝑞 ∈ 𝑍
For 𝑛 = 1, 13 −1 = 3 ∙ 0
∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true
𝑘 3 − k = 3𝑟 ; 𝑟 ∈ 𝑍------ (1)
Consider (𝑘 + 1)3 − k + 1 = 𝑘 3 + 3𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 1 − 𝑘 − 1
= (𝑘 3 − 𝑘) + 3𝑘 2 + 3𝑘
= 3𝑟 + 3𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
= 3(𝑟 + 𝑘 𝑘 + 1 )
= 3𝑠
∴ P(k+1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers n.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
7. Use mathematical induction to prove that 2 ∙ 7𝑛 + 3 ∙ 5𝑛 − 5 is divisible by 24 for all positive integers n.
Solution: Let P n : 2 ∙ 7𝑛 + 3 ∙ 5𝑛 − 5 = 24𝑞 ; 𝑞 ∈ 𝑍
For 𝑛 = 1, 2 ∙ 7 + 3 ∙ 5 − 5 = 24 ∙ 1
∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true
2 ∙ 7𝑘 + 3 ∙ 5𝑘 − 5 = 24𝑟 ; 𝑟 ∈ 𝑍------ (1)
Consider 2 ∙ 7𝑘+1 + 3 ∙ 5𝑘+1 − 5 = 7 ∙ 2 ∙ 7𝑘 + 3 ∙ 5𝑘+1 − 5
= 7(24𝑟 − 3 ∙ 5𝑘 + 5) + 3 ∙ 5𝑘+1 − 5
= 7 ∙ 24𝑟 − 21 ∙ 5𝑘 + 35 + 15 ∙ 5𝑘 − 5
= 7 ∙ 24𝑟 − 6 ∙ 5𝑘 + 30
= 7 ∙ 24𝑟 − 6 ∙ 5(5𝑘−1 − 1)
= 7 ∙ 24𝑟 − 6.5(4𝑚)
= 24(7𝑟 − 5𝑚)
= 24𝑠
∴ P(k+1) is true
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers n.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
8. Use mathematical induction to show that if A is a finite set with n elements, then A has 2𝑛 subsets.
Solution: Let P n : A set A containing n elements has 2𝑛 subsets

For n =1, Let 𝐴1 = 𝑎1

The subsets of 𝐴1 are ∅ , 𝐴1 i. e. 21 subsets

∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true
The set 𝐴𝑘 = 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , ⋯ , 𝑎𝑘 containing k elements has 2𝑘 subsets
Now consider 𝐴𝑘+1 = 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , ⋯ , 𝑎𝑘 , 𝑎𝑘+1 = 𝐴𝑘 ∪ 𝑎𝑘+1
Excluding the element 𝑎𝑘+1 , there are 2𝑘 subsets and including 𝑎𝑘+1 there are 2𝑘 subsets .
Total number of subsets of 𝐴𝑘+1 = 2𝑘 + 2𝑘 = 2𝑘+1
∴ P(k+1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers n.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
9. Use mathematical induction to prove that 𝑛 < 2𝑛 for all positive integers n.
Solution: Let P n : 𝑛 < 2𝑛
For 𝑛 = 1, 1 < 21
∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true
𝑘 < 2𝑘

𝑘 + 1 < 2𝑘 + 1

< 2𝑘 +2𝑘 ∵ 1 < 21 < 2𝑘

< 2 ∙ 2𝑘

< 2𝑘+1
∴ P(k+1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers n.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
10. Use mathematical induction to prove that 𝑛! < 𝑛𝑛 for all integers 𝑛 ≥ 2.
Solution: Let P n : 𝑛! < 𝑛𝑛
For 𝑛 = 2, 2! < 22
∴ P(2) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for k ≥ 2.
𝑘! < 𝑘𝑘
k<k+1
𝑘
(𝑘 + 1) ∙ 𝑘! < (𝑘 + 1) ∙ 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 < (𝑘 + 1)𝑘

(𝑘 + 1)! < (𝑘 + 1) ∙ (𝑘 + 1)𝑘

< (𝑘 + 1)𝑘+1
∴ P(k+1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers 𝑛 ≥2.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
11. Use mathematical induction to prove that 2𝑛 < 𝑛! for all integers 𝑛 ≥4.
Solution: Let P n : 2𝑛 < 𝑛!
For 𝑛 = 4, 24 < 4!
∴ P(4) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for k ≥ 4.
2𝑘 < 𝑘!

2 ∙ 2𝑘 < 2 ∙ 𝑘!
∵ 2 < 𝑘 + 1 as k ≥ 4
2𝑘+1 < (𝑘 + 1) ∙ 𝑘!

2𝑘+1 < (𝑘 + 1)!

∴ P(k+1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers 𝑛 ≥4.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
12. Use mathematical induction to prove that,
1 1 1 1
+ + + ⋯+ > 𝑛 for all integers 𝑛 ≥2
1 2 3 𝑛
1 1 1 1
Solution: Let P n : + + + ⋯+ > 𝑛
1 2 3 𝑛
1 1
For 𝑛 = 2, + = 1.7071 > 2 = 1.4142
1 2
∴ P(2) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for k ≥ 2.
1 1 1 1
+ + + ⋯+ > 𝑘
1 2 3 𝑘

1
Adding on both sides
𝑘+1

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ⋯+ + > 𝑘+
1 2 3 𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘+1
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
1 1 1 1 1 𝑘∙ 𝑘+1+1
+ + + ⋯+ + >
1 2 3 𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘+1

𝑘∙ 𝑘+1 ∵ k<k+1
>
𝑘+1 𝑘 < 𝑘+1

𝑘+1
>
𝑘+1

> 𝑘+1
∴ P(k+1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers 𝑛 ≥2.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
1 1 1 1
13. Use mathematical induction to prove that 1 + + + ⋯ + <2− whenever n ≥2.
4 9 n2 𝑛
1 1 1 1
Solution: Let P n : 1 + + + ⋯ + <2−
4 9 n2 𝑛
1 1
For 𝑛 = 2, 1 + = 1.25 < 2 − = 1.5
4 2
∴ P(2) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for k ≥ 2.
1 1 1 1
1 + 4+ 9 + ⋯+ <2−𝑘
k2 ∵k<k+1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + ⋯+ + < 2 − 𝑘 + (k+1)2 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) < (𝑘 + 1)2
4 9 k2 (k+1)2
1 1 1 1
< 2 − 𝑘 + 𝑘(𝑘+1) >
𝑘(𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)2
1 1
< 2 − 𝑘 − 𝑘(𝑘+1)
k+1 −1 1
< 2 − 𝑘(𝑘+1) < 2−
(𝑘+1)
∴ P(k+1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers 𝑛 ≥2.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
14. Use Mathematical induction to prove that 𝑛2 ≥ 2𝑛 + 3 for all n > 3.
Solution: Let P n : 𝑛2 ≥ 2𝑛 + 3
For 𝑛 = 3, 32 = 2 ∙ 3 + 3
∴ P(3) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for k ≥ 3.
𝑘 2 ≥ 2𝑘 + 3
Adding 2𝑘 + 1 to both sides
𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1 ≥ 2𝑘 + 3 + 2𝑘 + 1 ∵k≥3
(𝑘 + 1)2 ≥ 2𝑘 + 3 + 2 2𝑘 + 1 ≥ 2
≥ 2(𝑘 + 1) + 3
∴ P(k+1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers 𝑛 ≥ 3.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
15. Use Mathematical induction to prove that 2n + 1 < 2𝑛 for all n > 3.
Solution: Let P n : 2n + 1 < 2𝑛
For 𝑛 = 3, 2 ∙ 3 + 1 < 23
∴ P(3) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for k ≥ 3.
2k + 1 < 2𝑘
Adding 2 to both sides
2k + 1 + 2 < 2𝑘 + 2
2(k + 1) + 1 < 2𝑘 + 2𝑘
< 2 ∙ 2𝑘

< 2𝑘+1
∴ P(k+1) is true.
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers 𝑛 ≥3.
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
16. Use Mathematical induction to prove that every positive integer n ≥ 24 can be
written as a sum of 5’s and/or 7’s.
Solution: Let 𝑃 𝑛 : 𝑛 = 5𝑝 + 7𝑞 where 𝑝 ≥ 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑞 ≥ 2
For 𝑛 = 24, 24 = 5 × 2 + 7 × 2 𝑞≥2
∴ P(24) is true.
Assume P(k) is true where k ≥ 24.
k = 5𝑝1 + 7𝑞1 where 𝑝1 ≥ 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑞1 ≥ 2
Case 1) k = 5𝑝1 + 7𝑞1 where 𝑝1 ≥ 4
k + 1 = 5𝑝1 + 7𝑞1 + 1
= 5 𝑝1 − 4 + 7𝑞1 + 1 + 20
= 5 𝑝1 − 4 + 7(𝑞1 + 3)
= 5𝑟 + 7𝑠 where r = 𝑝1 − 4 and s = 𝑞1 + 3
∴ P(k+1) is true
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Case 2) k = 5𝑝1 + 7𝑞1 where 𝑞1 ≥ 2
k + 1 = 5𝑝1 + 7𝑞1 + 1
= 5𝑝1 + 7(𝑞1 − 2) + 1 + 14
= 5 𝑝1 + 3 + 7(𝑞1 − 2)
= 5𝑟 + 7𝑠 where r = 𝑝1 + 3 and s = 𝑞1 − 2
∴ P(k+1) is true
Hence by first principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers
𝑛 ≥ 24
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Second principle of Mathematical Induction:

Let P(n) be a statement for each n ∈ N. Then P(n) is true for all n ∈ N if

1. Basis step: P(1) is true

2. Inductive step: P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true for 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑘.

 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
1. Use induction to prove that any positive integer 𝑛 ≥ 2 is either a prime or product of primes.
Solution: Let P n : Every positive integer 𝑛 ≥ 2 is either a prime or product of primes
For 𝑛 = 2, 2 is a prime number.
∴ P(2) is true.
Assume P(n) is true for 2 ≤ n ≤ 𝑘.
Consider the integer k+1
Either k+1 is prime or composite
Case 1) If k+1 is prime, then P(k + 1) is true.
Case 2) If k+1 is composite, then
𝑘 + 1 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 where 2 ≤ a, b < 𝑘
By induction hypothesis, 𝑎, 𝑏 are primes or product of primes
Therefore, 𝑘 + 1 is product of two or more primes.
∴ P(k+1) is true
Hence by second principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers 𝑛 ≥ 2
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
1. Let 𝑎0 = 1, 𝑎1 = 2, 𝑎2 = 3 and 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−3 for 𝑛 ≥ 3 .Use induction to prove that
𝑎𝑛 < 3𝑛 for all positive integers.
Solution: Let P n : 𝑎𝑛 < 3𝑛
For 𝑛 = 1, 𝑎1 = 2 < 31
∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(n) is true for 1 ≤ n ≤ 𝑘.
𝑎𝑛 < 3𝑛 for 1 ≤ n ≤ 𝑘
Consider 𝑎𝑘+1 = 𝑎𝑘 + 𝑎𝑘−1 + 𝑎𝑘−2
< 3𝑘 +3𝑘−1 +3𝑘−2
< 3𝑘 + 3𝑘 + 3𝑘
< 3 ∙ 3𝑘
< 3𝑘+1
∴ P(k+1) is true
Hence by second principle of Mathematical Induction, P n is true for all positive integers 𝑛
THANK YOU!