SPECIALIST MATH SUMMARISATION

2022.1.19 Yichen G.

CHAPTER ONE. MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

Mathematical induction
The process of formulating a general result from close examination of the simplest cases is called
mathematical induction.
Process
1. Write down 𝑃𝑛 ;
2. Prove that 𝑃1 is true;
3. Assume that 𝑃𝑘 is true and write down 𝑃𝑘 ;
4. Prove that 𝑃𝑘+1 is true by substituting 𝑃𝑘 ;
5. Write down the ending statement. (‘Since 𝑃1 is true, and 𝑃𝑘+1 is true whenever 𝑃𝑘 is true, 𝑃𝑛 is
true for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ ’.)
Summation (∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓(𝑖))
3
Sample: Prove that ∑𝑛𝑖=1 3𝑖 = 2 (3𝑛 − 1) is true for 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .

3
𝑃𝑛 : ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓(3𝑖 ) = 2 (3𝑛 − 1) for 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+

3
When 𝑛 = 1, 𝑃1 : ∑1𝑖=1 𝑓(3𝑖 ) = 31 = 2 (31 − 1).
∴ 𝑃1 is true.
3
If 𝑃𝑘 is true, 𝑃𝑘 : ∑𝑘𝑖=1 𝑓(3𝑖 ) = (3𝑘 − 1), then
2

3 3𝑘+1 −3 2(3𝑘+1 ) 3𝑘+2 −3 3

𝑃𝑘+1 = ∑𝑘+1 𝑖 𝑘
𝑖=1 𝑓(3 ) = 2 (3 − 1) + 3
𝑘+1
= + = = 2 (3𝑘+1 − 1). (Using 𝑃𝑘 )
2 2 2
∴ 𝑃𝑘+1 is true.
Since 𝑃1 is true, and 𝑃𝑘+1 is true whenever 𝑃𝑘 is true, 𝑃𝑛 is true for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .
Divisibility
Sample: Prove that 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) is divisible by 3, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .
𝑃𝑛 : 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) is divisible by 3 for 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .
When 𝑛 = 1, 𝑃1 : 1(1 + 1)(1 + 2) = 6, which is divisible by 3.
∴ 𝑃1 is true.
If 𝑃𝑘 is true, 𝑃𝑘 : 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) = 3𝐴, where 𝐴 ∈ ℤ+ , then
𝑃𝑘+1 = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1 + 1)(𝑘 + 2 + 1) = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3) = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) + 3(𝑘 +
1)(𝑘 + 2) = 3𝐴 + 3(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) = 3(𝐴 + (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)), which is divisible by 3. (Using 𝑃𝑘 )
∴ 𝑃𝑘+1 is true.
Since 𝑃1 is true, and 𝑃𝑘+1 is true whenever 𝑃𝑘 is true, 𝑃𝑛 is true for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ , which means
that 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) is divisible by 3, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .
Trigonometric Summation

sin ((2𝑛+1)𝑥)
Sample: Prove that ∑𝑛𝑖=1 2cos (2𝑖𝑥) = − 1 is true for 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .
sin (𝑥)

sin ((2𝑛+1)𝑥)
𝑃𝑛 : ∑𝑛𝑖=1 2cos (2𝑖𝑥) = − 1 for 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+
sin (𝑥)

When 𝑛 = 1, 𝑃1 : 𝐿. 𝑆. = ∑1𝑖=1 2cos (2𝑖𝑥) = 2cos (2𝑥);

sin (3𝑥) sin((2+1)𝑥) sin(2𝑥) cos(𝑥)+cos(2𝑥) sin(𝑥)
𝑅. 𝑆 = −1= −1= −1=
sin (𝑥) sin(𝑥) sin(𝑥)
 2 sin(𝑥) cos2(𝑥)+cos(2𝑥) sin(𝑥)
− 1 = 2 cos2 (𝑥) + cos(2𝑥) − 1 = 2 cos2 (𝑥) + 1 − cos 2 (𝑥) + 1 −
sin(𝑥)

2 sin2 (𝑥) = 2 cos(2𝑥) = 𝐿. 𝑆..

∴ 𝑃1 is true.
sin ((2𝑘+1)𝑥)
If 𝑃𝑘 is true, 𝑃𝑘 : ∑𝑘𝑖=1 2cos (2𝑖𝑥) = − 1, then
sin (𝑥)

sin ((2𝑘+1)𝑥)
𝑃𝑘+1 = ∑𝑘+1
𝑖=1 2cos (2𝑖𝑥) = − 1 + 2 cos(2(𝑘 + 1)𝑥) =
sin (𝑥)

sin((2𝑘+1)+𝑥)+2 sin(𝑥) cos(2(𝑘+1)𝑥) sin((2𝑘+1)𝑥)+sin((1+2𝑘+2)𝑥)+sin((−1−2𝑘)𝑥)

−1= −1=
sin(𝑥) sin(𝑥)

sin((2𝑘+1)𝑥)+sin(2(𝑘+1)𝑥)+sin(−(1+2𝑘)𝑥) sin((2(𝑘+1)+1)𝑥)
−1= − 1. (Using 𝑃𝑘 )
sin(𝑥) sin(𝑥)

∴ 𝑃𝑘+1 is true.
Since 𝑃1 is true, and 𝑃𝑘+1 is true whenever 𝑃𝑘 is true, 𝑃𝑛 is true for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .
Product (∏𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓(𝑖))
1
Sample: Prove that ∏𝑛𝑖=1(1 + 𝑖 ) = 𝑛 + 1 is true for 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .

1
𝑃𝑛 : ∏𝑛𝑖=1(1 + 𝑖 ) = 𝑛 + 1 for 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+

1
When 𝑛 = 1, 𝑃1 : ∏1𝑖=1(1 + 1) = 2 = 1 + 1.
∴ 𝑃1 is true.
1
If 𝑃𝑘 is true, 𝑃𝑘 : ∏𝑘𝑖=1(1 + 𝑖 ) = 𝑘 + 1, then

1 1 1 𝑘+2
𝑃𝑘+1 = ∏𝑘+1 𝑘
𝑖=1 (1 + 𝑖 ) = ∏𝑖=1(1 + 𝑖 ) × (1 + 𝑘+1) = (𝑘 + 1) (𝑘+1) = 𝑘 + 2. (Using 𝑃𝑘 )

∴ 𝑃𝑘+1 is true.
Since 𝑃1 is true, and 𝑃𝑘+1 is true whenever 𝑃𝑘 is true, 𝑃𝑛 is true for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .

CHAPTER TWO. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Cartesian form
Any complex number 𝑧 can be presented in Cartesian form as 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝐢, where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.
In Cartesian form, 𝑎 is called the real part of 𝑧 and denoted as 𝑅𝑒(𝑧); 𝑏 is called the imaginary part
of 𝑧 and denoted as 𝐼𝑚(𝑧). As mentioned above, both 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) and 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) are real numbers.
Complex conjugate
The complex conjugate 𝑧 ∗ (𝑧̅) of given 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝐢 is 𝑎 − 𝑏𝐢.
Complex plane
The plane used to represent any complex umber as a vector on two dimensions is called complex plane,
argand place or argand diagram.
The horizontal axis of a complex plane is 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) and the vertical axis of a complex plane is 𝐼𝑚(𝑧).
Complex arithmetic using algebra
Given 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝐢, 𝑤 = 𝑐 + 𝑑𝐢,
𝑧 + 𝑤 = 𝑎 + 𝑐 + (𝑏 + 𝑑)𝐢
𝑧 − 𝑤 = 𝑎 − 𝑐 + (𝑏 − 𝑑)𝐢
𝑧𝑤 = 𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑 + (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝐢
𝑧 𝑎𝑐+𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑐−𝑎𝑑
= + 𝑐 2+𝑑2 𝐢
𝑤 𝑐 2 +𝑑2

Rules for complex conjugates

(𝑧 ∗ )∗ = 𝑧
 (𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 )∗ = 𝑧1 ∗ ± 𝑧2 ∗
(𝑧1 𝑧2 )∗ = 𝑧1 ∗ 𝑧2 ∗
(𝑧 𝑛 )∗ = (𝑧 ∗ )𝑛
(𝑧 + 𝑧 ∗ ) is real; (𝑧 − 𝑧 ∗ ) is imaginary.
Modulus
Given a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝐢, its modulus, denoted |𝑧|, is given by the non-negative real number
|𝑧| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
Properties of modulus
|𝑧̅| = |𝑧|
𝑧𝑧̅ = |𝑧|2
|𝑧1 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 ||𝑧2 |
𝑧 |𝑧 |
| 1| = |𝑧1|
𝑧2 2

|𝑧 𝑛 |
= |𝑧|𝑛
Argument
The argument of a complex number 𝑧, denoted arg (𝑧), is the angle 𝜃 between the positive real axis
and the vector (𝑎𝑏).
𝜃 = arg (𝑧) could be multi-valued.
arg (𝑧) ∈ (−𝜋, 𝜋], which is called the principal domain of arg (𝑧).
Property of Argument
arg(𝑧1 𝑧2 ) = arg(𝑧1 ) + arg (𝑧2 )
Triangle inequality for two complex numbers
For any complex numbers 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 , |𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 | and |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | ≥ |𝑧1 | − |𝑧2 |.
Polar form of a complex number
The polar form of a complex number 𝑥 + 𝑦𝐢 can be represented as 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃) = |𝑧|𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃), where
𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃) is the abbreviation of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃) + 𝐢 ∙ sin(𝜃) = |𝑧|𝑒 𝐢𝜃 .
Notations:

1. The radius or modulus of 𝑧 is given by 𝑟 = |𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , which is always a non-negative number.

𝑦
2. 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃), 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃), = tan (𝜃), where −𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋.
𝑥
𝑥 𝑦
3. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) = , 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) = .
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

Properties of 𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃)
𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃) × 𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜙) = 𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃 + 𝜙)
𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃) ÷ 𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜙) = 𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃 − 𝜙)
𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋) = 𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃) where 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
𝑧 = |𝑧|𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃), 𝑧 ∗ = |𝑧|𝑐𝑖𝑠(−𝜃)
De Moivré’s theorem
[|𝑧|𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃)]𝑛 = |𝑧|𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝑛𝜃), 𝑛 ∈ ℚ
Roots of complex numbers
The 𝑛 solutions of the complex equation 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑐 are called the 𝑛th roots of the complex number 𝑐.
When 𝑐 = 1, the solutions are called the 𝑛th roots of unity. In this case, the 𝑛 complex solutions to 𝑧 𝑛 = 1
2𝜋
are given by {1, 𝜔, 𝜔2 , … , 𝜔𝑛−1 } where 𝜔 = 𝑐𝑖𝑠( 𝑛 ).

𝑛 𝜃+2𝑘𝜋
If 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋), then 𝑧 = √𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠( ).
𝑛
Steps for solving 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑐
1. Write 𝑐 in polar form and use the period of 𝑐𝑖𝑠 to write 𝑐 as |𝑐|𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋) , where 𝑘 =
0,1,2, … , 𝑛 − 1.
2. Take the 𝑛th root of both sides to isolate 𝑧.
3. Use De Moivré’s theorem to distribute the exponent.
4. Substitute all the 𝑘 values from 0 to 𝑛 − 1 to get the 𝑛 complex solutions.
Polynomials
A real polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) of degree 𝑛 is a function of the form 𝑃(𝑥) = ∑𝑛𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯ +
𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 , where 𝑎𝑛 , …, 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 , and 𝑎0 are real numbers and 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0. In the above expression, 𝑛
is the degree of the polynomial, 𝑎𝑛 is the leading coefficient, 𝑎𝑘 is the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑘 , and 𝑎0 is the
constant term.
Adding and subtracting polynomials
Adding and subtracting polynomials is done by adding and subtracting like terms.
𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑚, 𝑛}, 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛
If deg (𝑃(𝑥)) = 𝑚, deg (𝑄(𝑥)) = 𝑛, 𝑃(𝑥) ≠ 𝑄(𝑥), deg(𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑄(𝑥)) = {
≤ 𝑚, 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 = 𝑛
Multiplying polynomials
Multiplying polynomials can be achieved by distributing or expanding the brackets and collecting like
terms or by using synthetic multiplication.
If deg (𝑃(𝑥)) = 𝑚, deg (𝑄(𝑥)) = 𝑛, 𝑃(𝑥) ≠ 𝑄(𝑥), deg(𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑄(𝑥)) = 𝑚 + 𝑛.
Synthetic multiplication
Sample: Expand 4(5𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 4)(−8𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 12).
4(5𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 4)(−8𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 12) = (20𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 + 36𝑥 2 − 44𝑥 +
16)(−8𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 12)
20 -12 36 -44 16
× -8 -4 14 12
240 -144 432 -528 192
280 -168 504 -616 224
-80 48 -144 176 -64
+ -160 96 -288 352 -128
-160 16 40 280 408 -248 -304 192
∴ 4(5𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 9𝑥 − 11𝑥 + 4)(−8𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 14𝑥 + 12) = −160𝑥 7 + 16𝑥 6 + 40𝑥 5 +
4 3 2 3 2

280𝑥 4 + 408𝑥 3 − 248𝑥 2 − 304𝑥 + 192

Polynomial division
𝑃(𝑥) 𝑅
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 = 𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑎𝑥+𝑏

2𝑥 3 +7𝑥 2 +10𝑥+15
Sample: Solve for .
𝑥+2
-2 | 2 7 10 15
| 0 -4 -6 -8
2 3 4 | 7
2𝑥 3 +7𝑥 2 +10𝑥+15 7
∴ = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4 + 𝑥+2
𝑥+2

Synthetic division
When a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 is divided by a linear factor (𝑥 − 𝑘):
k | 𝑎𝑛 … 𝑎2 𝑎1 𝑎0
| 0 … 𝑘𝑏2 𝑘𝑏1 𝑘𝑏0
𝑏𝑛−1 … 𝑏1 𝑏0 | 𝑅
Zero, root, and factors
𝑎 is a zero of 𝑃(𝑥) if 𝑃(𝑎) = 0.
 𝑎 is a root of the equation 𝑃(𝑥 = 0) if 𝑃(𝑎) = 0.
(𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) if 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)(𝑥 − 𝑎).
Weda's Theorem (roots of 𝑃(𝑥) = 0)
−𝑎𝑛−1
𝑆𝑢𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛

(−1)𝑛 𝑎0
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 𝑎𝑛

Remainder Theorem
If 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 − 𝑘) until a constant remainder 𝑅 is obtained, then 𝑅 = 𝑃(𝑘).
Proof: 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)(𝑥 − 𝑘) + 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑃(𝑘) = 𝑄(𝑘)(𝑘 − 𝑘) + 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑃(𝑘)
Factor Theorem
If 𝑥 is a zero of 𝑃(𝑥), then (𝑥 − 𝑘) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥).
Proof: 𝑥 is a zero of 𝑃(𝑥) ⇔ 𝑃(𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 0 = 𝑄(𝑥)(𝑥 − 𝑥) + 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅 = 0. Thus, 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)(𝑥 −
𝑘) ⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑘) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥).

CHAPTER THREE. FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

Composite function
The composite function of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) is defined to be (𝑓 𝑜 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)).
Properties of composite functions
𝑓 𝑜 (𝑔 𝑜 ℎ) = (𝑓 𝑜 𝑔) 𝑜 ℎ
(𝑓 𝑜 𝑔)(𝑥) ≠ (𝑔 𝑜 𝑓)(𝑥)
One-to-one function
A relation that passes both V.L.T. and H.L.T. is a one-to-one function.
Inverse function
Given a one-to-one function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), its inverse function is denoted as 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).
The graph of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is a reflection of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
1. (𝑓 𝑜 𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) = 𝑥 and (𝑓 −1 𝑜 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥.
2. 𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑟𝑎𝑛(𝑓(𝑥)) and 𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑟𝑎𝑛(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)).
Steps for computing 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
1. Given 𝑓(𝑥), let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
2. Swich 𝑥 and 𝑦.
3. Solve for 𝑦, let 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).
Reciprocal functions
1
A reciprocal function can be written in a form of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

1
1. Zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) are vertical asymptotes of .
𝑓(𝑥)

1
2. The local maximum / minimum of 𝑓(𝑥) are local minimum / maximum of .
𝑓(𝑥)

1 1
3. → ±∞ when 𝑓(𝑥) → 0; → 0 when 𝑓(𝑥) → ±∞.
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)

4. Invariant points occur for 𝑓(𝑥) = ±1.

1 1
5. > 0 when 𝑓(𝑥) > 0; < 0 when 𝑓(𝑥) < 0.
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)

1 1
6. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing when 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing; 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing when 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is

decreasing.
Rational function
 𝑃(𝑥)
A rational function can be written in a form of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥).

𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑 𝑎
For a rational function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑥+𝑑 : horizontal asymptote: 𝑥 = − 𝑐 ; vertical asymptote: 𝑦 = (only if
𝑐

the power is the same).

𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐
If 𝑓(𝑥) = , then there is an oblique asymptote 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 obtained through the polynomial
𝑑𝑥+𝑒
division.
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑥 2 +𝑑𝑥+𝑒, then the vertical asymptote is 𝑥 = 0 and the horizontal asymptote is 𝑦 = 𝑡, where
𝑡 represents any zero of 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒.
Absolute function

An absolute function can be written in a form of 𝑦 = |𝑥| = √𝑥 2 .

1. Remove the graph for 𝑥 < 0 and reflect the graph for 𝑥 > 0 to convert 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) to 𝑦 = 𝑓(|𝑥|).
2. Keep the graph for 𝑥 ≥ 0 and reflect the graph for 𝑓(𝑥) < 0 to convert 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) to 𝑦 = |𝑓(𝑥)|.

CHAPTER FOUR. VECTORS

Vector
Vectors can be presented in the following three forms:
𝑥
1. Coordinates form - (𝑦) or [𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧].
𝑧

⃗⃗ ), where 𝑖⃗ = [1,0,0], 𝑗⃗ = [0,1,0], 𝑘

2. (𝑖, 𝑗) form - (𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘 ⃗⃗ = [0,0,1].

Properties of three-dimensional vectors

Given that 𝑎⃗ = [𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ], 𝑏⃗⃗ = [𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ], 𝑘 ∈ ℝ.

1. The magnitude of a three-dimensional vector 𝑣⃗ = [𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ] is given by a non-negative real number
‖𝑣⃗‖ = √𝑣1 2 + 𝑣2 2 + 𝑣3 2 . A vector is a unit vector if ‖𝑣⃗‖ = 1.

2. 𝑎⃗ ± 𝑏⃗⃗ = [𝑎1 ± 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 ± 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 ± 𝑏3 ]
3. 𝑘𝑎⃗ = [𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ]

4. Two vectors are parallel if 𝑎⃗ = 𝑘𝑏⃗⃗.

1 𝑘
5. |𝑎|
𝑎⃗ represents a unit vector in the direction of 𝑎⃗ . |𝑎|
𝑎⃗ represents a vector with length 𝑘 in the

𝑘
direction of 𝑎⃗. ± |𝑎| 𝑎⃗ represents a vector with length 𝑘 that is parallel to 𝑎⃗.

Scalar (dot) product

The scalar product represents the amount of one vector going in the direction of another.

𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗ = [𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ] ∙ [𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ] = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3

Properties for scalar (dot) product

Commutative property of dot product - 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑎⃗

Distributive property of dot product - 𝑎⃗ ∙ (𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗) = 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑐⃗

 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑎⃗ = ‖𝑎⃗‖2 , √𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑎⃗ = ‖𝑎⃗‖.
Angle between two non-zero vectors
⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗∙𝑏
The angle 𝜃 between two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ is given by the formula cos(𝜃) = ‖𝑎⃗⃗‖‖𝑏⃗⃗‖, 0° < 𝜃 < 180°.
Cross product
The scalar product gives a vector that is perpendicular to other two vectors.
𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2
𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = [𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ] × [𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ] = |𝑏 𝑏 | 𝑖⃗ − |𝑏 𝑏 | 𝑗⃗ + |𝑏 𝑏 | 𝑘
⃗⃗ = [𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 𝑏1 −
2 3 1 3 1 2
𝑎1 𝑏3 , 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 ]

Note that 𝑎⃗𝑏⃗⃗ is undefined.

Properties for cross product

Distributive property of cross product - 𝑎⃗ × (𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗) = 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗ × 𝑐⃗

𝑎⃗ ∙ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) gives a scalar quantity.

|𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗| = |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗|sin (𝜃)

Applications for cross product
1 1
𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 2 |𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗| = 2 |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗|sin (𝜃)

𝐴𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 = |𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗|

𝐴𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑑 = |𝑎⃗ ∙ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗)| = |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗|cos (𝜃)

1 1
𝐴𝑡𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎ℎ𝑒𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 6 |𝑎⃗ ∙ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗)| = 6 |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗|cos (𝜃)
Equations of a three-dimensional line
𝑥 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑎1 𝑏1
𝑦 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
Vector equation - ( ) = ( 2 ) + 𝜆 ( 2 ), where ( 2 ) is the position vector and ( 2 ) is the direction
𝑏
𝑧 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑎3 𝑏3
vector.
𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏1
Parametric equation - {𝑦 = 𝑎2 + 𝜆𝑏2 .
𝑧 = 𝑎3 + 𝜆𝑏3
𝑥−𝑎1 𝑥−𝑎2 𝑥−𝑎3
Cartesian equation - 𝜆 = = = .
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

Constant Velocity Problems

𝑥
( ) = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑡𝑏⃗⃗ , (𝑡 ≥ 0) , where 𝑎⃗ represents the initial position vector, 𝑡 represents time, and 𝑏⃗⃗
𝑦
𝑧
represents the velocity vector.

Hence, |𝑏⃗⃗| represents the speed.

Classification of relationship between lines by augmented matrix
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐
For a 2 × 2 linear system of two equations and two unknowns given by { , the
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑓
 𝑎 𝑏 | 𝑐
corresponding augmented matrix is given by [ ].
𝑑 𝑒 | 𝑓
1. The lines are intersecting if there is a unique solution for 𝑥 and 𝑦.
2. The lines are parallel if 0𝑥 + 0𝑦 = 𝑘.
3. The lines are coincident if 0𝑥 + 0𝑦 = 0.
4. The lines are skew if parameters do not equate.
Shortest distance from a point to a line

Let 𝑁 be a point on 𝐿1 with direction vector 𝑏⃗⃗ that is closest to 𝑃. Thus, the shortest distance

𝑃𝑁 ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗ = 0. Coordinates of 𝑁 is given by substituting 𝜆 into 𝐿1 .

occurs ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Shortest distance between two skew lines

Given two skew lines 𝐿1 : ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟1 = 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝜇𝑤

𝑟1 = 𝑎⃗ + 𝜆𝑣⃗ and 𝐿1 : ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ , where 𝜆, 𝜇 ∈ ℝ . Hence, the shortest
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗∙(𝑣
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗×𝑤
⃗⃗⃗)|
distance between 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 is 𝑑 = |𝑣
⃗⃗×𝑤
⃗⃗⃗|
, where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two points on 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 respectively.
Angle between two lines
|𝑏 ∙𝑏 | ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
The angle between two lines is given by the formula cos(𝜃) = |𝑏⃗⃗ 1||𝑏⃗⃗2 |, (0° < 𝜃 < 90°)where 𝑏⃗⃗1 and
1 2

𝑏⃗⃗2 are direction vectors of the lines respectively.

Matrices
𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝑞 𝑎𝑝 + 𝑏𝑟 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑏𝑠
[ ]×[ ]=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑟 𝑠 𝑐𝑝 + 𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑞 + 𝑑𝑠
𝑎 𝑏 1 𝑑 −𝑏
If 𝐴 = [ ], then 𝐴−1 = 𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐 [ ].
𝑐 𝑑 −𝑐 𝑎
Plane
𝑥 𝑎1 𝑣1 𝑤1
Vector equation - 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑠𝑣⃗ + 𝑡𝑤 𝑎 𝑣 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗, which can also be written as (𝑦) = ( 2 ) + 𝑠 ( 2 ) + 𝑡 ( 2 ).
𝑧 𝑎3 𝑣3 𝑤3
Cartesian equation - if a plane has normal vector 𝑛⃗⃗ = [𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶] and 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a point on the plane,
then the Cartesian equation of the plane will be 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0.

The normal vector 𝑛⃗⃗ of a plane is given by 𝑛⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗, where 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are two non-parallel vectors on
the corresponding plane of 𝑛⃗⃗.
Distance between two planes
|𝐴𝑥1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐𝑧1 +0)|
𝑑= √𝐴2 +𝐵2 +𝐶 2

Angle between a line and a plane

|𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
⃗⃗∙𝑏
1
sin(𝜃) = |𝑛⃗⃗||𝑏⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| 1

Angle between two planes

|𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗∙𝑛
1 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
cos(𝜃) = |𝑛⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
1 2

Solving 3 × 3 linear systems

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝑑1 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 | 𝑑1
[𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝑑2 ] ⇒ [𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | 𝑑2 ]
𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 = 𝑑3 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 | 𝑑3
 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 | 𝑑
Use row operations to reduce the system into row-echelon form, which refers to [0 𝑒 𝑓 | 𝑔].
0 0 ℎ | 𝑖
Classification of relationship between planes by finding the row-echelon form
𝑖
1. Unique solution (three planes intersect at a unique point), where ℎ ≠ 0, 𝑖 ≠ 0, 𝑧 = ℎ.
2. No solution (two coincident planes and one parallel plane; two parallel planes and one intersecting
plane; three parallel planes; line of intersection between two planes is parallel to the third plane), where ℎ =
0, 𝑖 ≠ 0, 0𝑧 = 𝑖.
3. Infinite many solutions (three coincident planes; two coincident planes and one intersecting plane; three
planes intersect at a common line), where ℎ = 0 , 𝑖 = 0 , the bottom row is [0 0 0 | 0] . In this
situation, the solution is given by 𝑧 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑞 + 𝑙𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑝 + 𝑘𝑡 (parametric equations).
Problem-solving for planes
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
1. Find the cartesian form - find the normal vector by 𝑛⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , and then substitute a given point.

2. Find where the line meets the plane - substitute the parametric equations of the line into the plane.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ by 𝐴𝑁
3. Find the foot of the normal 𝑁 from the point 𝐴 to the plane - find 𝐴𝑁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝑛⃗⃗, and then

substitute ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑁 into the cartesian equation of the plane to calculate 𝑁.
4. Find the mirror image of the point 𝐴 through a plane - find 𝜆 by the equation the line intersecting the
plane (𝐿 = 𝐴 + 𝜆𝑛⃗⃗), then 𝐴′ = 2𝜆.

CHAPTER FIVE. INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES

Integrations
𝑏
Definite integral - ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎);
Indefinite integral - ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) = ⋯ + 𝑐, where 𝑐 ∈ ℝ.
Rules of Integration
For 𝑘, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, the following rules of integration are presented:
∫ 0 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘
∫ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+𝑐
1
∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 + 𝑐

1 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛+1
∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑛+1
+𝑐
1
∫ sin (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
1
∫ cos (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
1
∫ sec 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 tan(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑘 𝑘
∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ln(|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏|) + 𝑐
1 𝑥
∫ √𝑎2−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = arcsin (𝑎) + 𝑐
 1 𝑥
∫ − √𝑎2−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = arccos (𝑎) + 𝑐
𝑎 𝑥
∫ 𝑎2 +𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = arctan (𝑎) + 𝑐
Trigonometric identities
1 1
sin2 (𝜃) = 2 − 2 cos (2𝜃)

1 1
cos2 (𝜃) = 2 + 2 cos (2𝜃)
tan2 (𝜃) = sec 2 (𝜃) − 1
Integration by substitution
∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢, where 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥).
Sample: find ∫(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥)4 (2𝑥 + 3) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥, then = 2𝑥 + 3.
𝑑𝑥

1 1 1
∴ ∫(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥)4 (2𝑥 + 3) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑥 = 4+1 𝑢4+1 = 5 𝑢5 = 5 (2𝑥 + 3)5.

Trigonometric substitution
Let 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝜃), ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = ⋯ 𝑑𝜃.

1. ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 – let 𝑥 = 𝑎sin (𝜃) so that 1 − sin2 (𝜃) = cos2 (𝜃);

2. ∫ √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 – let 𝑥 = 𝑎tan (𝜃) so that sec 2 (𝜃) − 1 = tan2(𝜃);

3. ∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 – let 𝑥 = 𝑎sec (𝜃) so that tan2 (𝜃) + 1 = sec 2 (𝜃);

4. ∫ sec 𝑚 (𝑥) tan𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 – 1) when 𝑚 and 𝑛 are both even, factor out sec 𝑚 (𝑥) and substitute 𝑢 =
tan (𝑥) in to the expression; 2) when 𝑛 is odd, factor out sec(𝑥) tan (𝑥) and substitute 𝑢 = sec (𝑥); 3)
when 𝑚 is odd, use integration by parts;
5. ∫ cos𝑚 (𝑥) sin𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 – 1) when 𝑚 and 𝑛 are both even, use double angle identity; 2) when one of
them is odd, used the formula sin2(𝜃) + cos 2 (𝜃) = 1.
Integration by Parts
∫ 𝑢𝑣′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′𝑣 𝑑𝑢, where 𝑢 is easy to differentiate and 𝑣′ is easy to integrate.
Area between two functions
If 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, then the area A of the region bounded by the graphs of the functions
𝑏
between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is given by 𝐴 = ∫𝑎 (𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥.
Solids of revolution
𝑏 𝑏
The volume of rotation about the x-axis is given by 𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫𝑎 (𝑓(𝑥))2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫𝑎 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥;
𝑏 𝑏
The volume of rotation about the x-axis is given by 𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫𝑎 (𝑓 −1 (𝑥))2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫𝑎 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥.

CHAPTER SIX. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND VECTOR CALCULUS

Implicit differentiation
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
(𝑦 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑦 𝑛−1 , which also works for chain rule, product rule and quotient rule.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Steps for related rates

1. If not given, draw a labelled diagram of the situation;
2. Distinguish between variables and constants;
 3. Write an equation connecting the variables;
4. Differentiate the equation with respect to time 𝑡;
5. Substitute the values for the particular case corresponding to some instant in time and solve to find the
unknown.
Differential equation
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Separable differential equation

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Separation of variables method

𝑑𝑦
For a separable differential equation = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑦), following steps are presented to separate variables:
𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑦
1. Divide both sides by 𝑔(𝑦) to get = 𝑓(𝑥);
𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑦 1
2. Multiply both sides by 𝑑𝑥 to get 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥;
𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑥

1
3. Integrate both sides to get ∫ 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥;

4. Solve for the two integrals separately and write the arbitrary integration constant 𝑐 on the right side
of the equation;
5. Write the solution as 𝑦 = ℎ(𝑥) or 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐.
Remarks: 𝐴 = ±𝑒 𝑐 , 𝑏 = ±𝑒 −𝑐 .
Slope fields
𝑑𝑦
For a differential equation given by 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) or = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦). A slope field or direction field is a
𝑑𝑥

collection of short line segments in the (𝑥, 𝑦) – plane whose slopes or gradients match that of a solution of
the given first-order differential equation.
A curve passing through a certain point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) in the plane would model a solution curve of the
differential equation through the point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).
Logistic growth
𝑑𝑃 𝑃 𝑃(𝐴−𝑃)
= 𝑘𝑃 (1 − 𝐴) = 𝑘 , where 𝑘𝑃 controls the growth and 𝐴 is the limiting population size.
𝑑𝑡 𝐴

𝑑𝑃 𝑃
Sample: find 𝑃(𝑡) given that = 𝑘𝑃 (1 − 𝐴).
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑃 𝑃 𝐴−𝑃 𝑃(𝐴−𝑃)
= 𝑘𝑃 (1 − 𝐴) = 𝑘𝑃 ( ) = 𝑘( )
𝑑𝑡 𝐴 𝐴
𝐴 𝑑𝑃 𝐴 𝑑𝑃 1 1 𝑑𝑃
= 𝑘 ⇒ ∫ 𝑃(𝐴−𝑃) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫(𝑃 + 𝐴−𝑃) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑃(𝐴−𝑃) 𝑑𝑡

𝑃
∴ ln|𝑃| − ln|𝐴 − 𝑃| = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝑐 ⇒ ln |𝐴−𝑃| = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝑐

𝑃 𝐴−𝑃
= ±𝑒 𝑘𝑡+𝑐 ⇒ = ±𝑒 −𝑘𝑡−𝑐 = ±𝑒 −𝑐 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 = 𝑏𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 , where 𝑏 = ±𝑒 −𝑐 .
𝐴−𝑃 𝑃

𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
∴ 𝑃 − 1 = 𝑏𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ⇒ 𝑃 = 1 + 𝑏𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ⇒ 𝑃 = 1+𝑏𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

Parametric equations
A curve defined by the parametric equations 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡 , 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 , (𝑡 ∈ ℝ ∪ 𝑡 ≥ 0 ) is a
parametric curve.
Parametrisation of circles
 Cartesian equation - (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
Parametric equation - 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎 + 𝑟cos (𝜔𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑏 + 𝑟sin (𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋
Period - 𝜔

Speed - 𝑟𝜔
𝑑𝜃
Angular velocity - .
𝑑𝑡

Parametrisation of ellipses
(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
Cartesian equation - + =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
Parametric equation - 𝑥(𝑡) = ℎ + 𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑘 + 𝑏 sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑠2
𝑠 is maximised when = 0.
𝑑𝑡
Remarks: (ℎ, 𝑘) is the centre of the ellipse, 𝑎 represents the horizontal distance between (ℎ, 𝑘) and
the edge, 𝑏 represents the vertical distance between (ℎ, 𝑘) and the edge.
Velocity and speed
Suppose the parametric equations of a curve are given by 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡, 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡, its initial
point is (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) and direction vector is [𝑎, 𝑏].
Let 𝑃(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡)) be an object moving on the curve. The corresponding velocity vector is given by 𝑣⃗ =

[𝑥 ′ (𝑡), 𝑦 ′ (𝑡)]. Therefore, the speed of the object is given by 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = |𝑣⃗| = √𝑣⃗ ∙ 𝑣⃗ = √[𝑥 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑦 ′ (𝑡)]2 .

𝑑𝑦
𝑦′(𝑡) 𝑦′(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝑦′ (𝑡)
represents the gradient of velocity vector and = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 = = 𝑑𝑥 ; arctan (𝑥 ′ (𝑡)) represents
𝑥′(𝑡) 𝑥′(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡

the angle of the moving object.

The velocity vector 𝑣⃗ is always tangent to the curve traced out by the moving object.
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑
The acceleration of the moving object is given by 𝑎 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = (2 𝑣 2 ) 𝑑𝑥.
Arc lengths of parametric curves
The length of an arc traced out by an object 𝑃(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡)) from 𝑡 = 𝑎 to 𝑡 = 𝑏 is given by the formula
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑙 = ∫𝑎 |𝑣⃗| 𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑎 √𝑣⃗ ∙ 𝑣⃗ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑎 √[𝑥 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑦 ′ (𝑡)]2 𝑑𝑡.
Bézier curves
Given the starting point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) and the finishing point (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) , and control points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and
(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) , the Bézier curve has parametric equations 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 3 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑡 2 + 𝑐𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 3 +

𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥3 − 3𝑥2 + 3𝑥1 − 𝑥0 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑦3 − 3𝑦2 + 3𝑦1 − 𝑦0

𝑏 = 3𝑥2 − 6𝑥1 + 3𝑥0 𝑏𝑦 = 3𝑦2 − 6𝑦1 + 3𝑦0
𝑏𝑦 𝑡 2 + 𝑐𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑦 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1, where { 𝑥 and .
𝑐𝑥 = 3𝑥1 − 3𝑥0 𝑐𝑦 = 3𝑦1 − 3𝑦0
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦0
{