Bharath Ramakrishnan

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Binghamton University,
Binghamton, NY 13902
Experimental Characterization of
Cong Hiep Hoang1 Two-Phase Cold Plates Intended
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Binghamton University,
Binghamton, NY 13902
for High-Density Data Center
e-mail: hhoang2@binghamton.edu
Servers Using a Dielectric Fluid
Sadegh Khalili
Department of Mechanical Engineering, High-performance computing (HPC) data centers demand cutting edge cooling techni-

Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/electronicpackaging/article-pdf/143/2/020904/6686390/ep_143_02_020904.pdf by guest on 30 January 2024

Binghamton University,
Binghamton, NY 13902
Yaser Hadad
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Binghamton University,
Binghamton, NY 13902
Srikanth Rangarajan
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Binghamton University,
Binghamton, NY 13902
Arvind Pattamatta
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology,
Chennai 600036, India
ques like direct contact liquid cooling (DCLC) for safe and secure operation of their
high-power density servers. The two-phase flow boiling heat transfer technique is widely
believed to address the heating problem posed by HPC racks. In this study, a novel
liquid-cooled cold plate containing microchannel and jet impingement arrangement was
characterized for its two-phase flow and thermal behavior. A sophisticated bench top
setup involving a mock package was developed to carry out the experiments in a con-
trolled fashion using a dielectric fluid Novec/HFE-7000. Two-phase flow boiling in cold
plates which has a strong dependency on surface phenomena were carefully studied at
various levels of inlet pressure, subcooling, flow rates, and heat flux levels to the mock
package. A resistance network was invoked to determine the average heat transfer coeffi-
cient at various exit qualities estimated by the energy balance equation. While the results
make it evident that, the high heat generating components can be kept at operable condi-
tions using the two-phase cooling; a deeper insight at the outcomes could pave way for
more energy efficient cold plate designs. The experiment was carried out with a large
heated surface of 6.45 cm2 and maximum dissipated heat flux was around 63.6 W/cm2
corresponding to chip power of 410 W. Base temperature was kept below 75  C and pres-
sure drop did not exceed 21 kPa. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4049928]

Keywords: cold plates, data center thermal management, flow boiling, rack level cooling,
Bahgat Sammakia two-phase cooling
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Binghamton University,
Binghamton, NY 13902

1 Introduction cooling. Traditional air-cooled data center nowadays operate at a

rack density of 7 kW. Air cooling using computer room air han-
Data centers (DC) in recent times are seeing an unprecedented
dlers (CRAHs), raised floors, hot/cold aisle containment systems,
rise in computing capability, especially with the advent of artifi-
chillers and evaporative coolers are still the traditional method of
cial intelligence (AI), deep learning, and machine learning plat-
cooling majority of current DCs. With the miniaturization of
forms. Apart from the communication, social media, video-
micro-electronic components and with the tendency toward grow-
streaming services, and travel, the list of beneficiaries from AI
ing component density, air cooling becomes inefficient and
and machine learning include the medical industry (DNA
demand bigger heat sinks with bigger fans at the chassis level thus
sequencing, genome mapping), autonomous vehicles, cryptocur-
hindering a rise in the rack density. Though the bigger heat sink
rencies, and advanced scientific computing. High-performance
problem can be mitigated using an efficient heat pipe combined
computing (HPC) is made possible with the arrival of advanced
with high performing thermal interface material (TIM), air cool-
hardware like graphical processing units, field programmable gate
ing could still be ineffective due to its low heat carrying capacity
arrays (FPGAs), and application specific integrated circuits
compared to liquids. As a result, majority of the current and older
(ASICs) working sometimes in tandem with CPUs. For example,
(legacy) DCs are facing the real high heat-generating issues and
NVIDIA’s V100 graphical processing unit and Intel Xeon’s scal-
are looking for simple, cost-effective, energy-efficient, smaller,
able processor (skylake) [1] are currently operating at wattage of
and smarter cooling solutions in order to accommodate this rise in
300 W and 205 W, respectively. These high chip wattages and the
computing capability.
requirement to keep the minimum interconnect distance between
Liquid cooling on the other hand can offer smaller size cooling
the processors; translate to higher wattage densities at the rack
options while also enriching the energy efficiency. It is because
level in a DC operation. Thus, the rack densities can go up to
the heat carrying capacity of liquids like water, mineral oils, or
25–35 kW.
dielectric fluids is generally greater than that of air. For example,
Servers which are the major producers of heat in a datacenter
Water’s specific heat capacity is 4180 Jkg1K1 and air’s specific
operation are customarily stacked in a rack level arrangement
heat capacity is 993 Jkg1K1 therefore water has 4.2 times more
facilitating serviceability, scalability, and more importantly
specific heat capacity. By using liquid cooling, the size of the heat
sinks can be reduced drastically, thus promoting a natural rise in
1
Corresponding author. server component density. Comparing with air cooling, the reli-
Contributed by the Electronic and Photonic Packaging Division of ASME for ability of the components is greatly improved in liquid cooling, by
publication in the JOURNAL OF ELECTRONIC PACKAGING. Manuscript received October
13, 2020; final manuscript received January 18, 2021; published online March 5, bringing the liquid closer to the component using cold plates with
2021. Assoc. Editor: Ronald Warzoha. TIM thereby reducing the overall thermal resistance from the

Journal of Electronic Packaging Copyright V

C 2021 by ASME JUNE 2021, Vol. 143 / 020904-1
device’s junction to ambience. Although liquid cooling is not a
new solution to electronics thermal management, it is seeing its
resurgence among the data center industries. One of the global
frontrunners of AI industry and one of the pioneers of data center
thermal management, Google [2] are looking at liquid cooling as
a great option to cut down chilling expenditures, while also maxi-
mizing their cooling system efficiency. The tech giant also indi-
cated that their latest high-performance racks equipped with
tensor processing units (TPUs) are being liquid cooled.
The cooling system characterized in the current study is
intended for a rack-level deployment. A typical rack-level direct
contact liquid cooling (DCLC) system which is available in a data
center of Binghamton University is as shown in Fig. 1. coolant
distribution unit (CDU) which is the brain of a rack-level system
usually sits on the top or bottom of a rack and could take sizes
from 4 U to 6 U usually dictated by the cooling capability. The
heat exchanger in the CDU contain two flow loops (1) a primary
loop carrying the facility water and (2) a secondary loop carrying
the coolant through individual servers as shown in the figure. The
cold plates which are TIM attached to the processing chips
exchange heat with the secondary side coolant as it runs through
individual servers. Multiple pumps are positioned for redundancy.
Various sensors are lined up in the fluid lines to identify the vari-
ous states of the system. The number of cold plates hinge on the
number of heat generating devices intended to be cooled by
DCLC.
The data center facility at Binghamton University houses multi-
ple racks divided among three cold aisles covering a total area of
215 m2. A commercially available two-phase cooling system [3]
is installed on to one such rack for analyzing its flow and thermal
performance at a variety of data center operating conditions. The
rack cooled by the two-phase cooling system contains 14 Dell
PowerEdge (2 U chassis) servers, with two processing chips per
Fig. 1 A typical rack-level DCLC system showing the arrange-
ment of servers, rack manifolds, and CDU
020904-2 / Vol. 143, JUNE 2021
chassis. The rack-level two-phase system is equipped with tem-
perature, flow, and pressure sensors at multiple locations in order
to track the behavior of the system at different levels of operation.
The results obtained from investigating the rack level two-phase
system will be published in a separate article from the authors.
Although the ultimate aim is to achieve an energy-efficient
rack-level system, this article focuses on the results obtained at a
component or cold plate level. This is required because the two-
phase operation of a cold plate is often influenced by various fac-
tors like inlet pressure, inlet coolant subcooling, input power to
the dies. On top of the operational parameters, two-phase cooling
also depends on the surface-fluid combination and the geometry
of the cold plate. The following three paragraphs narrate the high-
lights/advantages and the challenges/complexity which comes
with the two-phase cooling technique before explaining the results
Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/electronicpackaging/article-pdf/143/2/020904/6686390/ep_143_02_020904.pdf by guest on 30 January 2024
obtained from experimentally characterizing a two-phase cold
plate using a dielectric fluid.
The complexities associated with the two-phase system are
greater than the conventional air-cooled or single-phase liquid-
cooled system owing to its nature of coexisting in two-phases
within the system. But the different intricacies of two-phase cool-
ing can be overcome considering the several benefits it can offer
which include high heat transfer capability, reduced system size,
weight, and pumping power, temperature uniformity (isothermal-
ity), and ease of scalability.
The heat transfer coefficient associated with two-phase cooling
is several times greater than what single-phase cooling could
achieve. Two-phase heat transfer, by its principle, involves growth
and departure of vapor bubbles from the heated surface. This
action not only creates local turbulence near the heated surface
but also draws liquid toward the surface at a very high frequency.
This very nature of two-phase cooling helps in addressing hot-
spots (from the processors cores) much effective than single-
phase cooling. The several advantages associated with two-phase
heat transfer in fact drive the cooling scheme for future generation
electronics. Several pioneering works [4–13] dedicated toward
high heat flux thermal management has reported the high heat
transfer capability associated with two-phase cooling comparing
to air cooling or single-phase cooling. Two-phase cooling for high
heat flux management have been reported on applications ranging
from cooling heavy electronics (insulated-gate bipolar transistor
power modules) [14,15] to high-performance data center servers
[16]. Two-phase cooling in a data center environment can be real-
ized in several ways like total immersion cooling of server mod-
ules [17] or embedded two-phase liquid-cooled microprocessor
[18] or two-phase evaporators [19,20] or microchannel flow boil-
ing using heat sinks/cold plates.
Agostini et al. [21] performed the thermal resistance vs pump-
ing power variation comparing different cooling techniques. The
various technologies subjected for comparison include microchan-
nel (single-phase and two-phase), porous media (single-phase and
two-phase), and jet impingement. It was observed that the two-
phase microchannel cold plates offer the least thermal resistance
while also requiring minimum pumping power for high heat flux
thermal management. Various researchers in the past have
explored the benefits of two-phase cooling in microchannel heat
sink applications, but without identifying the numerous challenges
posed by the two-phase flow. The presence of two-phase in micro-
channels can cause hydrodynamic instabilities and pressure drop
oscillation in the channels as reported in the Refs. [14,22,23].
These instabilities in pressure drop can be mitigated by (a) using
throttling valves [24], (b) developing artificial nucleation sites
[25,26], (c) using divergent channels [25], or (d) use of surface
enhancement coatings [27]. Experimental works on microgaps
[28] reported issues due to flow reversal or oscillations especially
at high heat flux and recommendation of a pressure restrictor at
the heat sink inlet was provided.
Pool boiling characteristics of several fluorinated coolants like
Novec/HFE 649 [29], Novec/HFE 7000 [30,31], and FC-72 [13]
have been observed and well documented in the past. Unlike pool
Transactions of the ASME
boiling, the mechanisms of flow boiling are more complicated;
therefore, the knowledge of pumped two-phase cooling in server
electronics or data center is limited. As a result, applications of
pumped two-phase cooling in server electronics are rare. In order
to improve knowledge of pumped two-phase cooling, thermal
engineers and scientists in data center need to pay attention to
two-phase cooling is not only server electronics applications but
also other electronics applications. Works like [32] have been
dedicated toward analyzing the saturated two-phase flow boiling
in microchannels where correlations based on the available exper-
imental data were developed to predict and later model the boiling
heat transfer coefficient in small channels. As rightly pointed out
in Ref. [23], the goals of flow boiling heat transfer intended for
high-density applications would be (a) to promote onset of boiling
(ONB) at a lower heat flux, (b) to increase the slope of the boiling
curve (increasing nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient), and
(c) to increase the critical heat flux (CHF) value. This work aims
to study the effects of operating parameters on the performance of
a two-phase multijet/microchannel cold plate with coolant Novec/
HFE-7000 intended for applications in the data center.
In this paper, a bench top experimental setup was developed to
characterize thermal and hydraulic performance of an impingement
multijet/microchannel cold plate with dielectric coolant Novec/
HFE-7000. Flow boiling performance of a commercially available
cold plate was characterized in detail. The influence of coolant inlet
subcooling, coolant flow rate, and input power to the performance
of cold plate were analyzed. The thermal resistance and average
heat transfer coefficient of the cold plate were obtained following a
thermal resistance network and the approximate vapor quality was
estimated by invoking the energy balance equation. The variation of
pressure drop through the cold plate with heat flux and flow rate
was presented. The experimental data were compared with predic-
tion from an existing correlation for two-phase boiling. The scope
this article is to elucidate the benefits of liquid cooling especially
the two-phase cooling technique when deployed in a high-density
data center environment using a novel cold plate design.
2 Experimental Setup and Data Reduction
This section discusses the choice of dielectric coolant, cold
plate design, and the mock package used. The details of the cool-
ant test loop which houses various instruments and their associ-
ated uncertainties would follow next. The final segment of this
section details about the data collection and data reduction
procedure.
2.1 Dielectric Coolant. The choice of dielectric coolant
depends on several factors like operating pressure, target junction
temperature, working cost, safety, and compatibility of the ele-
ments in the processing loop. Even in the worst-case failure sce-
nario in terms of leakage, unlike water or other single-phase
coolants, dielectric fluids tend not to damage the electronics as
they are electrically nonconductive. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
and hydrofluoroethers (HFEs) are some of the most common
dielectric coolants which are used in the electronics industry. A
low global warming potential dielectric coolant from 3 M, Novec/
HFE 7000 [33] which has a boiling point of 34  C at atmospheric
pressure is used in the current study. The coolant Novec/HFE
7000 developed by 3M company (St. Paul, MN) was chosen for
this study based on the desired operating temperature dictated by
its low boiling point. Its low boiling point would also allow oper-
ating at low pressures which is desirable when it comes to tubing/
hoses. Also, Novec/HFE 7000 has better thermal properties (spe-
cific heat, latent heat of vaporization, thermal conductivity) com-
pared to other fluids listed in Table 1. At the same time, the
dielectric strength of Novec 7000 is much higher than its contem-
poraries making it a favorable choice for this study.
2.2 Cold Plate. The Cold Plate module characterized in the
article as shown in Fig. 2 is developed to have two-phase flow
Journal of Electronic Packaging
boiling inside them. The novelty of this cold plate lies in the
arrangement of plastic cap containing the jets and the base part
containing the microchannels. The plastic cap contains the inlet
and outlet manifold. The plastic cap is 3D printed with the jets of
required size which dictates the two-phase flow. The plastic cap is
360 deg rotatable which makes it easier for the cold plates to be
installed in any orientation within the server chassis and thus
facilitating easy fluid path. The orientation of the jets and the
tilted top surface of the cap help the vapor to exit the evaporator
easier and decrease the risk of flow reversal. The microchannels
are manufactured using the skiving process. The base copper part
of the cold plate was grooved to install two small T-type thermo-
couples for measuring the average base temperature Tb (some-
times referred to as wall temperature, Tw in two-phase
terminology). The T-type thermocouples which are calibrated
Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/electronicpackaging/article-pdf/143/2/020904/6686390/ep_143_02_020904.pdf by guest on 30 January 2024
using a precision oven were thermally bonded to the grooves
using a high conducting adhesive (Omegabond).
The schematic of the cold plate containing the microchannel
and jet impingement arrangement is shown in Fig. 3. The usage of
jets eliminates channel-channel oscillations or the manifolds
crosstalk issue in the microchannels as reported in the literature.
The plastic top part contains the inlet and outlet section. The inlet
section extends to a jet impinging arrangement as shown in Fig. 3.
The two-phase mixture resulting from vaporization of the coolant
exits through the outlet.
Microchannels in the cold plate have a fin height of 3000 lm
with fin thickness and channel width being 120 lm and 120 lm,
respectively. The fin height does not entirely contribute like in
conventional single-phase convective heat transfer but rather act
as nucleation sites and helps in the growth and departure of vapor
bubbles from the heater surface. Thus, the bubble departure size
and nucleation site density are dictated by the microchannel size
and the number of channels, respectively. Figure 4 schematically
shows the bubble formation, growth, and departure from the cold
plate surface.
2.3 Mock Package. A detailed two-dimensional representa-
tion of the mock package is as shown in Fig. 5. Copper blocks
with a cross-sectional area of 1-in.  1-in. (6.45 cm2) and with a
total height of 4.25 in. was built to mimic a typical processor die.
Four cartridge heaters (Omega: CIR 3020/120 V) were installed in
its bottom and were powered using a DC power supply (Sorenson:
DCS 100E). Three resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
(Minco Part no: S13282PD3T36) were installed along the length
of the copper block to represent the temperature gradient. The
heat flux at the top of the copper block was estimated using Four-
ier’s law of heat conduction,
Q€ in ¼ kAðDT=DxÞ (1)
where k is the thermal conductivity of copper, A is the cross-
sectional area of the block and DT is the measured temperature
gradient along the copper block. The copper block heater arrange-
ment is kept in place using high conducting Ultem material. The
setup including the mock package was thoroughly insulated on all
sides leaving out the top surface such that all the heat from the
heater reaches the cold plate. Proper care was taken while manu-
facturing and assembling the different parts to put together the
mock package. The fit and the flatness of the heater surface were
ensured at all stages of manufacturing using a height gage and a
flatness indicator.
The advantages of building mock packages over thermal test
vehicle or thermal load board are (a) it is relatively inexpensive
and easy to build, (b) it can reach higher power levels than con-
ventional thermal test vehicle/thermal load board, and (c) uniform
heat flux can be achieved at the top surface. The cold plate sub-
jected for characterization was installed on top of the copper
blocks with a layer of thermal interface material. Graphite sheet
(TIM HT C3200) [39] having a thermal conductivity of 7 W/mK
JUNE 2021, Vol. 143 / 020904-3
 Table 1 Properties of dielectric coolant Novec 7000 at 1 atm

Properties FC 72 [34] FC 3284 [35] HFE 649 [36] FC 77 [37] HFE 7100 [38] HFE 7000 [33]

Saturation temp ( C) 56 50 49 97 61 34
Latent heat of vaporization (kJ=kg) 88 105 88 89 111.6 142
Thermal conductivity (W=mK) 0.057 0.062 0.059 0.063 0.0698 0.075
Specific heat (J=kgK) 1100 1100 1103 1100 1173 1300
Surface tension (mN/m) 10 13 10.8 13 13.6 12.4
Dielectric constant (at 1 kHz) 1.75 1.86 1.8 1.9 7.4 7.4
Global warming potential High High 1 — 320 530

using an external power supply. The inlet subcooling of the cool-

ant entering the cold plate was maintained using a laboratory

Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/electronicpackaging/article-pdf/143/2/020904/6686390/ep_143_02_020904.pdf by guest on 30 January 2024

Fig. 2 Cold plate characterized in this study (Images from 1 to
4 clockwise, (1) exposed cold plate parts, (2) cold plate contain-
ing the microchannels, (3) zoomed up images of the channels,
and (4) T-type thermocouples installed at the back of the copper
part for base temperature measurement)
Fig. 3 Schematic of the cold plate exposing the jet impinge-
ment and microchannel arrangement
was used as the thermal interface material reported in this study
because of its ease of application and removal.
made liquid-liquid heat exchanger. An external chiller unit
(Julabo, Part no. LH40) with an operating range of 40 to 250  C
was used to control the inlet subcooling at the heat exchanger.
For the set of results discussed in this article, the temperature at
the inlet of the cold plate was intentionally maintained at a tem-
perature much lower than its corresponding saturation tempera-
ture. A flowmeter (Omega, Part no. FTB 313D) with an operating
range of 0.2–2 lpm was used to measure the flow rate of the liquid
coolant entering the cold plate. T type thermocouples and pressure
gages were installed to represent system states at the cold plate
inlet and exit. The pressure and temperature sensors were con-
nected to a data acquisition system (DAQ) and a sophisticated
LabVIEW program was developed to read/write the measurement
data. The details of the different data sensing, their associated
uncertainties and the corresponding DAQ device are listed in
Table 2. The overall measurement uncertainty in sensible heat
was estimated to be less than 610%. The error analysis using root
sum square method [40,41] was carried out for the experimental
uncertainty in the heat transfer coefficient for various heat fluxes.
The uncertainties of the heat transfer coefficient generally
decrease with heat flux and drop from 13% at heat flux 8 W/cm2
to the minimum 2.7% at heat flux 46.5 W/cm2. The details of
uncertainty analysis can be found in the Appendix. The fluid level
in the reservoir was monitored at regular intervals for any fluid
loss. It was observed that the fluid fill ratio in the reservoir can
influence the system pressure and hence the boiling characteristics
inside the cold plate. This is because; change in system pressure
can alter the dielectric coolant’s boiling point or saturation tem-
perature. For the set of results discussed in this article, the fluid
level in the reservoir was maintained at a constant level during all
the test runs.
Figure 7 shows the variation of input power and output power
for the tests conducted using a severely subcooled coolant. This
was done such that heat captured at the cold plates is by purely
single-phase heat transfer for major portion of the tests. Thus, any
discrepancies which may occur from estimation of heat picked by
the latent heat of vaporization are avoided. The input power Qin to
the mock package was estimated according to

Qin ¼ kAðDTCu block =DxÞ (2)

2.4 Bench Top Setup. A sophisticated bench top setup as
shown in Fig. 6 was carefully assembled to conduct experiments
in a controlled fashion. The setup contains two reservoirs arranged
in series. Pump 1 and pump 2 (Koolance, part no. PMP-500
pump, G 1/4 BSP) branches out of the common reservoir 2. While
pump 2 pushes the dielectric fluid through the primary coolant
loop containing the cold plate, pump 1 thrust the fluid through the
heat exchanger loop containing a radiator. The reservoirs were
setup this way such that the two-phase fluid coming out of cold
plate enters into reservoir 1 and condenses upon mixing with the
colder liquid. The uncondensed vapor in reservoir 1 rises to the
top and the liquid coolant from reservoir 1 flows to reservoir 2 so
that both pumps 1 and 2 do not undergo cavitation. Pump 1 and 2
were operated using an external power supply (Agilent, Part no.
DCS- 100E), and the fan speed in the radiator was controlled
And the output power Qout (sensible heat) picked by the cold
plates was estimated according to
Qout _¼ m Novec Cp;Novec ðT out  Tin Þ (3)
But after 200 W mark, Twall >Tsat thus kick-starting latent heat
removal process. Based on the knowledge gained from an earlier
study (mock package and warm water cooling), the energy loss
did not vary greatly going from 200 W to 300 W. The heat loss
associated with the test setup was estimated to be about 10% at
the maximum power level tested.
A tight experimental procedure was followed to conduct tests
in an organized way. A typical test run takes about 4.5–5 h to
complete. Before collecting any actual data by powering the dies,

020904-4 / Vol. 143, JUNE 2021 Transactions of the ASME

 Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/electronicpackaging/article-pdf/143/2/020904/6686390/ep_143_02_020904.pdf by guest on 30 January 2024
Fig. 4 Schematic depicting the ebullition cycle in three stages (1) bubble formation, (2) bubble
growth, and (3) bubble departure from the nucleation sites

the dielectric coolant was allowed to run through the system loop
at constant flow rate and at the desired set coolant temperature for
about 30 min to degasify any previously formed/trapped vapor
molecules. The heat flux to the dies was then varied in small
increments by adjusting the power supply. The wall temperature
was recorded after the system reaches a steady-state. Data were
recorded during increasing and decreasing heat flux cycles in
order to capture any hysteresis in two-phase heat transfer which
typically occurs at the ONB. The majority of the data presented in
this article belong to the increasing heat flux cycle of the test runs.
Hence, it also should be noted that that the results carry with them
any inconsistencies and unpredictability of the temperature over-
shoot phenomenon which accompanies the increasing heat flux
portion of tests. A good repeatability with the tests was observed
showing the efficacy of the test setup and the test procedure
followed.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Effect of Subcooling. The primary independent variables
in the current study are coolant inlet subcooling, coolant flow rate,
and input power to the dies. Tests were conducted at various lev-
els of coolant temperatures ranging from 38  C to 54  C to study
the effect of coolant subcooling on the boiling characteristics. The
pressure at the inlet and outlet of the cold plate was recorded and
the coolant’s corresponding saturation temperature was matched
by looking up the data sheet from the coolant manufacturer.

Fig. 5 Mock package showing the arrangement of copper block heaters and the cold plate

Journal of Electronic Packaging JUNE 2021, Vol. 143 / 020904-5

 Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/electronicpackaging/article-pdf/143/2/020904/6686390/ep_143_02_020904.pdf by guest on 30 January 2024
Fig. 6 Schematic of the bench top setup developed for two-phase flow boiling
characterization

Table 2 Data sensing instruments used in the cold plate characterization

Instrument Measurand Uncertainty DAQ module

Pressure gages (2 numbers) Omega: Pressure at inlet, 60.8 kPa NI- USB-6009,
PX309050A5V and outlet National Instrument,
Austin, TX
T-type thermocouples (2 numbers) (Omega: TTSS-14E-6) Coolant temperature at inlet, and outlet 60.3  C NI 9219
T-type thermocouple (2 numbers) Laboratory Made Cold plate base metal temperature measurement 60.5  C NI-9219
RTDs (3 numbers) Measuring temperature gradient across the mock package 60.3  C NI-9219

Fig. 7 Energy balance comparison between input power and Fig. 8 Flow boiling curve showing the effect of inlet subcool-
output power using a severely subcooled coolant ing at various input power levels at a constant flow rate of 1 lpm

Figure 8 shows the flow boiling curve showing the variation of
wall super heat (Tw  Tsat ) to the applied heat flux heat flux, (qÞ_ in
the coordinate axes. The following are the major inferences:
When Tw < Tsat , heat transfer would occur primarily by single-
phase convection. This behavior is very much noticeable when the
degree of subcooling is higher as indicated by the blue dotted lines
in Fig. 8. Albeit when the wall temperature is higher than the satu-
ration temperature, this excess temperature (or wall super heat) is
insufficient to support bubble formation and growth. It is possible
for the onset of nucleate boiling to be delayed until the mean
coolant enthalpy is higher than that of the saturated liquid [42].
The value of ONB heat flux decreases slightly with rise in inlet
coolant temperature. When the ONB value is reached, bubbles
begin forming at nucleation sites on the cold plate microchannels.
The nucleation sites are generally associated with crevices or pits
on the surface in which the nondissolved gas or vapor accumulates
and results in bubble formation. As the bubble grow and depart
from the surface, they carry latent heat away from the surface pro-
ducing turbulence and mixing that increases the heat transfer rate.
Boiling under these conditions is referred to as nucleate boiling

020904-6 / Vol. 143, JUNE 2021 Transactions of the ASME

[42]. The heat transfer in this region is a complicated mixture of
single-phase forced convection and nucleate boiling. This regime
continues to rise with wall superheat until the bubble formation
occupies the entire heat-generating surface.
In the partial subcooling regime, when the degree of subcooling
is lower than the coolant’s saturation temperature. Figure 9 shows
the variation in coolant temperatures for three levels of inlet sub-
cooling while dissipating a total power of 300 W at a flow rate of
1 lpm. This figure also indicates the transition from combined sen-
sible þ latent heat transfer process (partial subcooled nucleate
boiling) to entirely two-phase process (fully developed nucleate
boiling) as the inlet coolant temperature is increased toward its
saturation temperature.
Figure 10 shows the variation in cold plate wall temperature
ðTwall ) and the junction temperature ðTj ) at different heat input
condition at a coolant flow rate of 1 lpm and at a coolant tempera-
ture of 38  C. The junction temperature was extrapolated from the
RTD measurements used in the mock package. Whereas the cold
plate temperature was measured using thermocouples installed in
the bottom of the cold plate. Resistances including the TIM,
spreading, convection/caloric resistance, conduction in cold plate
base account for the difference between the junction (Tj ) and the
cold plate base temperature (Twall ).
3.2 Cold Plate Thermal Resistance and Heat Transfer
Coefficient. The two-phase flow boiling which has a strong
dependency on input power can be explained well with the help of
a resistance network model. The cold plate thermal resistance Rcp
as shown in Eq. (4) is defined as the ratio of the difference
between average wall temperature ðTwall;avg Þ and the coolant inlet
temperature ðTin ) to the input power supplied (Q)
Twall;avg  Tin
Rcp ¼ (4)
Q
The cold plate thermal resistance was observed to be independent
of inlet subcooling, at the same time appeared to have a strong
dependency on input power levels as shown in Fig. 11. This
behavior is very different compared to single-phase cooling where
the input power level or inlet subcooling does not have an influ-
ence on the cold plate thermal resistance at a constant flow rate. It
can be observed in Fig. 11 that there were two regimes when input
power increases from 30 W to maximum power 300 W. From
30 W to 160 W, thermal resistance reduced with heat flux due to
nucleate boiling. When input power exceeded 160 W, thermal
resistance did not change much with input power due to convec-
tive boiling. In convective boiling regime, thermal resistance and
heat transfer coefficient are more dependent on flow rate [43].
At the lower heat flux level, the bubbles generated do not have
enough superheat to detach from the surface thus hindering the
Fig. 9 Variation in bulk coolant temperatures while dissipating
a total power of 300 W at a flow rate of 1 lpm
Journal of Electronic Packaging
Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/electronicpackaging/article-pdf/143/2/020904/6686390/ep_143_02_020904.pdf by guest on 30 January 2024
Fig. 10 Cold plate temperature (Twall ) and the junction temper-
ature (Tj ) at different heat input condition at a coolant flow rate
of 1 lpm and a coolant temperature of 38  C
new coolant reach the heated surface. This behavior at lower heat
flux is pronounced when the inlet temperature is high where
there’s a natural tendency for bubbles to grow bigger and not con-
dense with the colder bulk fluid. As the ONB is crossed, the cold
plate thermal resistance drops with increasing input power show-
ing the efficiency in latent heat removal process where the vapor
bubbles grow and detach from the surface creating turbulence.
When the wall temperature exceeds the local saturation temper-
ature, boiling occurs. Even though there is a significant level of
vapor production from the heated surface, the amount of vapor
produced may not be sufficient enough to alter the quality of the
bulk coolant. The results reported in the current article belong
entirely to the subcooled boiling regime where the inlet tempera-
ture of the bulk coolant at the cold plate was lower than saturation
temperature.
An approximate estimation of vapor quality (vapor production)
at various heat flux levels was carried out by calculating the heat
picked by the coolant according to the latent heat of vaporization
(Qvapor ). First, the sensible heat (Qsensible ) picked by the coolant
was calculated according to
_ Cp ðTout  Tin Þ
Qsensible ¼ mliquid (5)
_ ) of the subcooled coolant was
Where the mass flow rate (mliquid
measured using a flowmeter, the coolant temperatures (Tout ; Tin )
were measured using the thermocouples stationed at the inlet and
outlet of the cold plate and the specific heat of the coolant (Cp )
was estimated based on average coolant temperatures. With the
Fig. 11 Variation of cold plate thermal resistance with input
power supplied at various levels of inlet subcooling and a con-
stant flow rate of 1 lpm
JUNE 2021, Vol. 143 / 020904-7
knowledge of heat losses from the setup and uncertainty associ-
ated with the measurements, the heat picked by vapor was approx-
imately estimated according to
Qvapor ¼ ðQtotal  Qsens  Qloss Þ (6)
The mass flow rate of vapor (m_ vapor ) produced was then esti-
mated according to (Qvapor =hfg Þ, where hfg is the “latent of heat of
vaporization” obtained using the coolant property chart. Since the
latent heat of vaporization is much larger than the coolant’s sensi-
ble heat, the mass flow rate of vapor generated is much smaller
compared to that of bulk liquid coolant’s flow. The percentage
quality was then calculated using the relation as shown in the fol-
lowing equation:
_
mvapor
x ¼ 100% (7)
_
mliquid þ mvapor
_
The plot in Fig. 12 shows the percentage vapor production on
the primary y axis and the corresponding the heat transfer coeffi-
cient on secondary y axis with respect to heat flux supplied on x-
axis. In order to plot the uncertainty of experimental data, the
error bar was added to heat transfer coefficient in the case of cool-
ant inlet temperature 38  C. The error bar was added to only one
case of inlet temperature in order to avoid the overlap in uncer-
tainty in Fig. 12. The uncertainty of heat transfer coefficient for
the other cases of inlet temperature is similar to the case of inlet
temperature 38  C. It can be noticed that the amount of vapor pro-
duction increases with the increasing heat flux especially at lower
heat flux levels indicating bubble formation and latent heat
removal process. The approximate percentage of vapor produced
reaches a plateau after a certain heat flux level indicating the
absence of fresher nucleation sites to help sustain the nucleate
boiling heat transfer. A heat average heat transfer coefficient, h
was estimated from the calculated cold plate thermal resistance
while assuming negligible conduction and spreading resistance.
The heat transfer coefficient was calculated by
Q
h¼ (8)
AðTb  Tin Þ
where Q is the input power (W), A is the area covered by micro-
channel (m2), Tb is wall temperature ( C) and Tin is the inlet tem-
perature ( C). Accordingly, the average heat transfer coefficient, h
increases with the input heat flux especially at lower input power
levels and reaches a saturation point. A maximum average heat
Fig. 12 Variation in quality of vapor production with input
power supplied at various levels of inlet subcooling and a con-
stant flow rate of 1 lpm
020904-8 / Vol. 143, JUNE 2021
transfer coefficient of 12,500 W=m2 K was estimated while dissi-
pating a total power of 300 W at a flow rate of 1 lpm.
3.3 Boiling Curve. The mechanism of subcooled boiling has
been an active field of interest/research in the past. Several
researchers have devised many prediction methods based on the
premise that both forced convection and nucleate boiling mecha-
nisms exist and act independently in the subcooled flow boiling
regime. Upon several investigations, it has been postulated that
the total heat flux is often a sum of contribution due to single-
phase liquid qspl_ convection and nucleate boiling qsnb _ . Rohse-
now’s model [42] is widely used in predicting the partial sub-
cooled boiling heat transfer. Rohsenow proposed to use
Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/electronicpackaging/article-pdf/143/2/020904/6686390/ep_143_02_020904.pdf by guest on 30 January 2024
conventional single-phase correlation according to Eq. (9) to pre-
dict the single-phase contribution to the total heat flux. Rohsenow
further postulated that the nucleate boiling contribution to the total
heat flux could be computed using the correlation developed for
nucleate pool boiling according to Eq. (10). It can be seen in
Eq. (10) that heat flux is a function of coolant properties such as
liquid viscosity lL, liquid and vapor density qL, qv, latent heat hfg,
surface tension r, specific heat CpL and Prandtl number. In addi-
tion, heat flux varies with the third power of wall temperature and
saturation temperature. The term Csf represents the interaction
between copper surface and the coolant. Breaking down the flow
boiling curve to know the characteristic behavior of different
regimes is of extreme importance both in terms of a better under-
standing of results and for developing semi-empirical numerical
models. The flow boiling curve as shown in Fig. 13 was plotted
for the case when the coolant inlet temperature is 38  C and inlet
flow rate is 1 lpm. The applied heat flux was plotted on the y axis,
while the measured wall temperature was plotted on the x axis.
Q=A ¼ hle ½Tw  Tl ðzÞ (9)
  " #3
Q gðqL  qv Þ 1=2 CpL ðTW  Tsat Þ
¼ lL hfg (10)
A r Csf hfg PrnL
The single-phase contribution when Tw < Tsat was extrapolated
linearly based on the experimental results. The nucleate boiling
contribution was found out according to Eq. (7). The physical
properties of the coolant were obtained from the coolant property
sheet, while the constants Csf was estimated at the maximum heat
flux dissipated, r and s were found to be 0.33 and 1.7, respectively,
from the literature. The surface correction factor Csf which is
based on surface-fluid combination was found to be a crucial fac-
tor in determining the nucleate boiling contribution. The nucleate
Fig. 13 Flow boiling curve obtained for the case when the inlet
coolant temperature is 38  C and inlet flow rate is 1 lpm
Transactions of the ASME
boiling portion was added to the single-phase contribution to pre-
dict the partial subcooling regime as shown in Fig. 13.
In the low heat flux region, the experimental data outperformed
Rohsenow’s correlation. This is possibly due to the combined con-
vection and nucleation behavior in this region. After the 200 W
mark, single-phase convective heat transfer dominates the heat
transfer process thus letting Rohensow’s prediction to perform
better. Considering the various complexities and uncertainties
posed by the two-phase flow boiling, it was observed that the pre-
diction using the Rohsenow method was within an acceptable
range to the applied heat flux especially at the lower heat flux lev-
els. The predicted results were also compared with that of a pool
boiling scenario [29] and were found to be in reasonable agree-
ment especially at the lower heat flux range before it transitions to
single-phase.
3.4 Effects of Flow Rate. The set of results discussed in
Secs. 3.1–3.3 were obtained for different coolant inlet temperature
conditions (inlet subcooling), at a constant flow rate of 1 lpm.
However, in order to study the effect of coolant flow rate on flow
boiling behavior, all the different tests conducted at a flow rate of
1 lpm were carefully repeated but this time at a flow rate of 0.7
lpm and 1.25 lpm. It was observed that the two-phase flow boiling
has minimum dependency on flow rate in the range of heat flux
tested. Cold plate thermal resistance was estimated at different
input power levels and at different flow rates for a constant cool-
ant inlet temperature of 38  C using Eq. (2). It can be observed in
Fig. 14 that the cold plate thermal resistance has minimum
dependence on the flow rate especially while transitioning from
single-phase to nucleate boiling mechanism. In the nucleate boil-
ing region, thermal performance is weekly dependent on flow rate
and highly dependent on fin configuration, surface roughness, and
nucleate site density [41,42,44,45].
While the thermal resistance has minimal dependence on cool-
ant flow rate, the pressure drop across the cold plates varies signif-
icantly going from 0.7 lpm to 1.25 lpm. The following Fig. 15
shows the variation in pressure drop at different input power con-
ditions at three different flow rates (0.7, 1, and 1.25 lpm) using a
coolant temperature of 38  C. The pressure drop increases with
input power showing the addition of two-phase vapor bubbles to
the stream. At the power level tested 300 W, the pumping power
requirement decreases by about 60% going from 1 to 0.7 lpm
which is significant in terms of savings.
The results reported in this article correspond to the partial sub-
cooled nucleate boiling regime. It also should be noted that the
CHF was never reached in the set of results obtained at any given
input condition. The scope of the current article is limited to sub-
cooled boiling while it is well understood from the theory and lit-
erature that, flow boiling peaks with its performance only in the
fully developed nucleate boiling regime exhibiting maximum heat
transfer coefficient. Fully developed saturated flow boiling can be
Fig. 14 Cold plate thermal resistance estimated at different
input power levels under different coolant flow rates and a con-
stant coolant inlet temperature of 38  C
Journal of Electronic Packaging
Fig. 15 Cold plate pressure drop estimated at different input
Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/electronicpackaging/article-pdf/143/2/020904/6686390/ep_143_02_020904.pdf by guest on 30 January 2024
power levels under different coolant flow rates and at a con-
stant coolant inlet temperature of 38  C
achieved by climbing to higher power levels using a subcooled
coolant or operating at different inlet qualities using a saturated
coolant. Several literatures reported great heat transfer capability
while operating at an exit quality ranging from 0.3 to 0.5. The
mock package and the system flow loop needed design tweaks to
enable operating at higher power levels and at different inlet qual-
ity conditions without compromising the experimental quality.
While at this point, the discussions pertain to a single cold plate
scenario, evaluating the performance of two-phase flow boiling by
operating multiple devices in series and parallel mode will be cov-
ered in the subsequent article from the authors. While the future
tests are not only restricted to changing inlet coolant conditions,
efforts are made to characterize and evaluate the performance of
different fluid-surface combinations as well in an attempt to
reduce the ONB and increase the CHF. Although the overall aim
is to boost up the energy efficiency in a rack-level operation, the
two-phase boiling behavior at the component level has to be thor-
oughly understood before translating that to address a system-
level problem.
4 Conclusion
A sophisticated test setup was built to observe the flow boiling
performance of a novel cold plate using a dielectric fluid Novec/
HFE 7000 under a variety of operating conditions like flow rate,
coolant subcooling, and input power to the dies. The characterized
cold plate was able to dissipate 410 W comfortably while operat-
ing well below the CHF. A maximum heat transfer coefficient of
12500 W/m2K was estimated using a resistance network at an inlet
coolant temperature of 38  C and at a flow rate of 1 lpm. Reduced
flow rate tests reveal that significant savings with the pumping
power could be achieved by two-phase cooling. The obtained
results were identified to be in the partial subcooled nucleate boil-
ing regime. A classic Rohsenow model was evoked in identifying
the single-phase convection and nucleate boiling contribution in
the partial subcooled boiling.
The real benefit of two-phase flow boiling could be reaped
while operating multiple cold plates (devices) together in series.
Two-phase cold plates when properly designed and put together
for operation can mitigate modern compute or HPC rack-level
cooling problem much better than existing air cooling and single-
phase cooling options and will also be scalable for future genera-
tion computing. Future studies are planned to optimize the cold
plate and to test a rack-level multiserver system for efficiency and
stability under various power levels and different flow rates.
Acknowledgment
This work is supported by NSF IUCRC Award No. IIP-
1738793. The author would like to express gratitude toward Ste-
ven Schon (Quantacool), Mark Seymour (Futurefacilites) for their
valuable inputs during the work. The author would like to thank
JUNE 2021, Vol. 143 / 020904-9
Pat and Ron from Progressive Tool Co. at Endwell, NY for their Equation (A1) is the basic equation of uncertainty analysis.
help toward putting the mock package setup. Each term represents the contribution made by the uncertainty in
one variable, Xi, to the overall uncertainty in the result, dR. Each
Funding Data term has the same form: the partial derivative of R with respect to
Xi multiplied by the uncertainty interval for that variable DXi.
 National Science Foundation (Grant No. IIP-1738793; Three RTDs mounted to copper block (Fig. 16) were used for
Funder ID: 10.13039/100000001). measuring power dissipated to cold plate. Power Q is calculated
using Fourier’s law (Eq. (A2)). In which, Tbot and Ttop are the tem-
perature readings using RTD 1 at the bottom and RTD 3 at the top
Nomenclature as shown in Fig. 16, respectively, and Dx is the distance between
these two RTDs. A stands for the top surface area of copper block
Cp ¼ specific heat of the coolant (kJ/kgK)
where heat transfer goes through
Csf ¼ surface correction factor
hfg ¼ latent heat of vaporization (J/kg) KAðTbot  Ttop Þ
lpm ¼ liters per minute Q¼ (A2)
Dx

Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/electronicpackaging/article-pdf/143/2/020904/6686390/ep_143_02_020904.pdf by guest on 30 January 2024

m_ liquid ¼ mass flow rate of the coolant (kg/s)
m_ vapor ¼ mass flow rate of the vapor (kg/s) Substituting Q from Eq. (A2) to Eq. (8), we obtain the equation
Pr ¼ Prandtl number for heat transfer coefficient
Qw ¼ heat picked by the coolant
Tin ¼ inlet temperature ( C) K ðTbot  Ttop Þ
Tj ¼ junction temperature ( C) h¼ (A3)
DxðTb  Tin Þ
Tout ¼ outlet temperature ( C)
Tsat ¼ saturation temperature ( C)
Twall ¼ wall temperature ( C) Uncertainty of heat transfer coefficient can be obtained by
TIM ¼ thermal interface material applying basic equation of uncertainty (A1) for the heat transfer
q00spl ¼ single-phase liquid heat flux (W/cm2) coefficient Eq. (A3) with five variables (N ¼ 5): Tb, Tin, Dx, Tbot,
q00snb ¼ subcooled nucleate boiling heat flux (W/cm2) and Ttop.
Qtotal ¼ total heat dissipated (W)
Qsens ¼ sensible heat picked by coolant (W)
Qvapor ¼ latent heat picked by vapor (W) References
Qloss ¼ heat loss from the package (W) [1] Rodriguez, A., Li, W., Ye, J., Rappoport, R., Segal, E., Yamada, K., Mahesh-
U¼ rack unit (1 U ¼1.75 in.) wari, N., Zhang, R., Meiri, E., Bleiweiss, A., and Huang, Z., 2020, “Intel’s Scal-
x¼ vapor quality (%) able Processor and NVIDIA’s GPU Intended for AI Applications,” Intel, Santa
DT ¼ temperature difference ( C) Clara, CA, accessed Feb. 17, 2021, https://www.intel.ai/amazing-inference-
performance-with-intel-xeon-scalable-processors/
Dx ¼ distance between RTDs (m) [2] Google, 2018, “Google’s Efficiency: How We Do It?” Google, Menlo Park,
CA, accessed Feb. 17, 2021, https://www.google.com/about/datacenters/
efficiency/internal/
Greek Symbols [3] Carbon, 2021, “Two Phase Cooling System,” Carbon, Redwood City, CA,
l ¼ dynamic viscosity (kg/ms) accessed Feb. 17, 2021, https://www.carbon3d.com/resources/case-study/
q ¼ mass density (kg/m3) ebullient-3d-prints-waterless-liquid-cooling-technology/
[4] Qu, W., and Mudawar, I., 2004, “Transport Phenomena in Two-Phase Micro-
Channel Heat Sinks,“ASME J. Electron. Packag., 126(2), pp. 213–224.
Subscripts [5] Zhou, S., Xu, X., and Sammakia, B. G., 2013, “Modeling of Boiling Flow in
Microchannels for Nucleation Characteristics and Performance Optimization,”
l ¼ liquid state Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 64, pp. 706–718.
v ¼ vapor state [6] Qu, W., and Mudawar, I., 2003, “Flow Boiling Heat Transfer in Two-Phase
Micro-Channel Heat Sinks––I: Experimental Investigation and Assessment of
Appendix Correlation Methods,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 46(15), pp. 2755–2771.
[7] Qu, W., and Mudawar, I., 2003, “Flow Boiling Heat Transfer in Two-Phase
The uncertainty of thermal resistance in this paper was calcu- Micro-Channel Heat Sinks––II: Annular Two-Phase Flow Model,” Int. J. Heat
lated using the root sum square method [40,41] Mass Transfer, 46(15), pp. 2773–2784.
[8] Kandlikar, S. G., 2012, “History, Advances, and Challenges in Liquid Flow and
Flow Boiling Heat Transfer in Microchannels: A Critical Review,” ASME. J.
( 2 )1=2
N 
Heat Transfer, 134(3), p. 034001.
X @R [9] Bruder, M., Riffat, P., and Sattelmayer, T., 2019, “Identification of Universal
dR ¼ DXi (A1) Heat Transfer Characteristics Along the Boiling Curve for Vertical Subcooled
i¼1
@Xi Flow Boiling of Refrigerant Novec 649,” Heat Mass Transfer, 55(12), pp.
3493–3507.
[10] Bruder, M., Sembach, L., Krumova, V., and Sattelmayer, T., 2018, “Local Data
of Heat Flux, Wall Temperature and the Void Phase Along the Boiling Curve
During Vertical Subcooled Flow Boiling of Refrigerant Novec 649 at a Copper
Wall,” Data Brief, 21, pp. 1415–1429.
[11] Bruder, M., Sembach, L., Lampl, D., Hirsch, C., and Sattelmayer, T., 2019,
“Local Measurements on Vertical Subcooled Flow Boiling of Refrigerant
Novec 649,” Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 119, pp. 108–122.
[12] An, Z., Jia, L., Li, X., and Ding, Y., 2017, “Experimental Investigation on
Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Management Based on Flow Boiling in Mini-
Channel,” Appl. Therm. Eng., 117, pp. 534–543.
[13] Strak, K., Piasecka, M., and Maciejewska, B., 2018, “Spatial Orientation as a
Factor in Flow Boiling Heat Transfer of Cooling Liquids in Enhanced Surface
Minichannels,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 117, pp. 375–387.
[14] Park, C., Vallury, A., and Perez, J., “Advanced Hybrid Cooling Loop Technol-
ogy for High Performance Thermal Management,” AIAA Paper No. 2006-
4059.
[15] Sharar, D. J., Morgan, B., Jankowski, N. R., and Bar-Cohen, A., 2011, “Two-
Phase Minichannel Cold Plate for Army Vehicle Power Electronics,” ASME
Paper No. IPACK2011-52079.
Fig. 16 Copper block and position of RTDs used for measuring [16] Ohadi, M. M., Dessiatoun, S. V., Choo, K., Pecht, M., and Lawler, J. V., 2012,
heat flux “A Comparison Analysis of Air, Liquid, and Two-Phase Cooling of Data

020904-10 / Vol. 143, JUNE 2021 Transactions of the ASME

 Centers,” 28th Annual IEEE Semiconductor Thermal Measurement and Man-
agement Symposium (SEMI-THERM), San Jose, CA, Mar. 18–22, pp. 58–63.
[17] Gess, J., Bhavnani, S., Ramakrishnan, B., Johnson, R., Harris, D., Knight, R.,
Hamilton, M., and Ellis, C., 2014, “Investigation and Characterization of a
High Performance, Small Form Factor, Modular Liquid Immersion Cooled
Server Model,” Semiconductor Thermal Measurement and Management Sym-
posium (SEMI-THERM), San Jose, CA, Mar. 9–13, pp. 8–16.
[18] Schultz, M. D., Parida, P. R., Gaynes, M., Ozsun, O., McVicker, G., Drechsler,
U., and Chainer, T., 2017, “Microfluidic Two-Phase Cooling of A High Power
Microprocessor Part A: Design and Fabrication,” 16th IEEE Intersociety Con-
ference on Thermal and Thermomechanical Phenomena in Electronic Systems
(ITherm), Orlando, FL, May 30–June 2, pp. 450–457.
[19] Valenzuela, F., Ortega, A., Jones, G., Fleischer, A., Schon, S., and Tipton, R.,
2017, “Experiments on the Simultaneous Two-Phase Liquid Cooling of Multi-
ple Simulated Servers at Differing Vertical Rack Positions in Steady State,”
16th IEEE Intersociety Conference on Thermal and Thermomechanical
Phenomena in Electronic Systems (ITherm), Orlando, FL, May 30–June 2, pp.
871–877.
[20] Salamon, T., Amalfi, R. L., Lamaison, N., Marcinichen, J., and R. Thome, J.,
2017, “Two-Phase Liquid Cooling System for Electronics, Part 1: Pump-Driven
Loop,” 16th IEEE Intersociety Conference on Thermal and Thermomechanical
Phenomena in Electronic Systems (ITherm), Orlando, FL, May 30–June 2,
pp. 667–677.
[21] Agostini, B., Fabbri, M., Park, J. E., Wojtan, L., Thome, J. R., and Michel, B.,
2007, “State of the Art of High Heat Flux Cooling Technologies,” Heat Trans-
fer Eng., 28(4), pp. 258–281.
[22] Mudawar, I., 2011, “Two-Phase Microchannel Heat Sinks: Theory, Applica-
tions, and Limitations,” ASME J. Electron. Packag., 133(4), p. 041002.
[23] Garimella, S. V., Persoons, T., Weibel, J. A., and Gektin, V., 2017, “Electronics
Thermal Management in Information and Communications Technologies: Chal-
lenges and Future Directions,” IEEE Trans. Compon. Packag. Manuf. Technol.,
7(8), pp. 1191–1205.
[24] Zhang, T., Tong, T., Chang, J. Y., Peles, Y., Prasher, R., Jensen, M. K., Wen, J.
T., and Phelan, P., 2009, “Ledinegg Instability in Microchannels,” Int. J. Heat
Mass Transfer, 52(25–26), pp. 5661–5674.
[25] Ting, C., and Pan, C., 2011, “Convective Boiling in a Parallel Microchannel
Heat Sink With a Diverging Cross Section and Artificial Nucleation Sites,”
Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci., 35(5), pp. 810–815.
[26] Li, W., Wang, Z., Yang, F., Alam, T., Jiang, M., Qu, X., Kong, F., Khan, A. S.,
Liu, M., Alwazzan, M., Tong, Y., and Li, C., 2020, “Supercapillary
Architecture-Activated Two-Phase Boundary Layer Structures for Highly Sta-
ble and Efficient Flow Boiling Heat Transfer,” Adv. Mater., 32(2), p. 1905117.
[27] Gupta, S. K., and Misra, R. D., 2018, “An Experimental Investigation on Flow
Boiling Heat Transfer Enhancement Using Cu-TiO2 Nanocomposite Coating on
Copper Substrate,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci., 98, pp. 406–419.
[28] Han, X., Fedorov, A., and Joshi, Y., 2016, “Flow Boiling in Micro-Gaps for
Thermal Management of High Heat Flux Microsystems,” ASME J. Electron.
Packag., 138(4), p. 040801.
[29] Ramakrishnan, B., Bhavnani, S. H., Gess, J., Knight, R. W., Harris, D., and
Johnson, R. W., 2014, “Effect of System and Operational Parameters on the
Performance of an Immersion-Cooled Multichip Module for High Performance
Computing,” Semiconductor Thermal Measurement and Management Sympo-
sium (SEMI-THERM), San Jose, CA, Mar. 9–13, pp. 24–28.
Journal of Electronic Packaging
[30] Jakubowska, B., Mikielewicz, D., and Klugmann, M., 2019, “Experimental
Study and Comparison With Predictive Methods for Flow Boiling Heat Trans-
fer Coefficient of HFE7000,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 142, p. 118307.
[31] Radwan, A., Ookawara, S., and Ahmed, M., 2019, “Thermal Management of
Concentrator Photovoltaic Systems Using Two-Phase Flow Boiling in Double-
Layer Microchannel Heat Sinks,” Appl. Energy, 241, pp. 404–419.
[32] Bertsch, S. S., Groll, E. A., and Garimella, S. V., 2008, “Review and Compara-
tive Analysis of Studies on Saturated Flow Boiling in Small Channels,” Nano-
scale Microscale Thermophys. Eng., 12(3), pp. 187–227.
[33] 3M, 2020, “Low Global Warming Potential Dielectric Fluid Novec 7000,” 3M,
St. Paul, MN, accessed Feb. 17, 2021, https://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/
121372O/3m-novec-7000-engineered-fluid-tds.pdf
[34] 3M, 2020, “3MTM FluorinertTM Electronic Liquid FC-72,” 3M, St. Paul, MN,
accessed Feb. 17, 2021, https://www.3m.com/3M/en_US/company-us/all-
3m-products/~/3M-Fluorinert-Electronic-Liquid-FC-72/?N¼5002385+3290667393
&rt=rud
[35] 3M, 2020, “3MTM FluorinertTM Electronic Liquid FC-3284,” 3M, St. Paul, MN,
accessed Feb. 17, 2021, https://www.3m.com/3M/en_US/company-us/all-3m-
Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/electronicpackaging/article-pdf/143/2/020904/6686390/ep_143_02_020904.pdf by guest on 30 January 2024
products/~/3M-Fluorinert-Electronic-Liquid-FC3284/?N=5002385+3290667346
&preselect=8709318+8710710+8736409+8745514&rt=rud
[36] 3M, 2020, “3MTM NovecTM 649 Engineered Fluid” 3M, St. Paul, MN, accessed
Feb. 17, 2021, https://www.3m.com/3M/en_US/company-us/all-3m-products/~/
3M-Novec-649-Engineered-Fluid/?N=5002385+3290667401&rt=rud
[37] Sigma-Aldrich, 2020, “FluorinertTM FC-77,” Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO,
accessed Feb. 17, 2021, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/
f4758?lang=en&region=US
[38] 3M, 2020, “3MTM NovecTM 7100 Engineered Fluid,” 3M, St. Paul, MN,
accessed Feb. 17, 2021, https://www.3m.com/3M/en_US/company-us/all-3m-
products/~/3M-Novec-7100-Engineered-Fluid/?N=5002385+3290667247&rt=rud
[39] Hoffmeyer, M., Subramanian, P., Beyerle, R., and Mann, P., 2017, “Novel
Graphite-Based TIM for High Performance Computing,” 16th IEEE Intersoci-
ety Conference on Thermal and Thermomechanical Phenomena in Electronic
Systems (ITherm), Orlando, FL, May 30–June 2, pp. 243–250.
[40] Moffat, R. J., 1988, “Describing the Uncertainties in Experimental Results,”
Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci., 1(1), pp. 3–17.
[41] Hoang, C., Khalili, H., Ramakrisnan, S., Rangarajan, B., Hadad, S., Radmard,
Y., Sikka, V., Schiffres, K., and Sammakia, S. B., 2020, “An Experimental
Apparatus for Two-Phase Cooling of High Heat Flux Application Using an
Impinging Cold Plate and Dielectric Coolant,” 36th Semiconductor Thermal
Measurement, Modeling & Management Symposium (SEMI-THERM), San
Jose, CA, Mar. 16–20, pp. 32–38.
[42] Rohsenow, W. M., 1952, “A Method of Correlating Heat Transfer Data for Sur-
face Boiling Liquids,” Trans. ASME, 74, p. 969.
[43] Karayiannis, T. G., and Mahmoud, M. M., 2017, “Flow Boiling in
Microchannels: Fundamentals and Applications,” Appl. Therm. Eng., 115,
pp. 1372–1397.
[44] Buchanan, R. A., and Shedd, T. A., 2013, “Extensive Parametric Study of Heat
Transfer to Arrays of Oblique Impinging Jets With Phase Change,” ASME J.
Heat Transfer, 135(11), p. 111017.
[45] Hoang, C. H., Rangarajan, S., Khalili, S., Ramakrisnan, B., Radmard, V.,
Hadad, Y., Schiffres, S., and Sammakia, B., 2021, “Hybrid Microchannel/
Multi-Jet Two-Phase Heat Sink: A Benchmark and Geometry Optimization
Study of Commercial Product,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 169, p. 120920.
JUNE 2021, Vol. 143 / 020904-11