DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY,

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES,

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF LAFIA.

LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY AND CULTURE

(SOC 222)
MRS BAGE-JOHN, DOROTHY AKPOVYE
(COURSE LECTURER)
dorothy.olaku@yahoo.com
ROOM 32, PERMANENT SITE CAMPUS,
LAFIA - NIGERIA

SYLLABUS

MODULE ONE
INTRODUCTION

Basic Concepts

Language
Society
Culture
Values
Norms

MODULE TWO
SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS
Dyad
Groups

MODULE THREE
SOCIAL INTERACTION
Levels of Interaction
Elements of Interpersonal Communication
Uses of Interpersonal Communication

MODULE FOUR
LANGUAGE, SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Language and Social Context
Language and Cultural Context
Accents and Dialects
Gender, Language and Culture
Communication Accommodation and Code-Switching
Language and Cultural Bias

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 MODULE ONE
INTRODUCTION

Language

Language can be defined as a system of vocal and written symbols commonly

accepted and understood by a given human community and by which members of that social
group communicate (Ohaegbu, 1992). It is a system of symbols which allows us to
communicate abstract thoughts (Henslin, 2004). Language is transmitted culturally; that is, it
is learned. To a lesser extent it is taught, when parents, for example, deliberately encourage
their children to talk and to respond to talk, correct their mistakes, and enlarge their
vocabulary.

Language as a system

Language is an attribute of all human beings. Let me stress here that language is
defined as a system of learned rules that organize our speaking and other kinds of
communication based on particular categories of symbols. That system of rules creates a
general plan for any kind of communication (verbal and written) (Lee, 1959). Language has
to be considered as a carrier of meaning. In this sense language (as culture) is often defined as
symbolic meaning system. Language as a system is composed largely of arbitrary symbols
(words) that are used to communicate meaning from one mind to another. The members of
given speech community using symbols and common rules are able to communicate almost
unlimited number of different messages and ideas. It is impossible to talk about culture and
society (or such parts of society as community or association) without social bond. That
social bond can exist only on the basis of symbolic communication. Thus, language is the
most important medium of human communication (in horizontal and vertical dimensions).
This general communicational function of language has gotten in Vincent Ostrom's approach,
two major contextual meanings. In other words, language serves two major (interrelated and
mutually dependent) functions: (1) language is a carrier of specific content of learning; and
(2) language is a critical factor creating, reshaping and binding social relationships. The first
function means processes of cultural transmission in time and space. Considering the
language as a fundamental element of culture we can say that culture is learned
(anthropologists and sociologists, to describe that process of learning commonly use such
terms as socialization, enculturation, or in case of intercultural learning acculturation) and
transmitted via symbols.

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 Language is a specific vehicle to the transmission of particular content of culture from
generation to generation, person to person, group to group, one culture to another. For
example: "The triangulation between: (1) events and relationships; (2) words or symbols; and
(3) ideas, images, or thoughts means that words in serving as media of communication can be
used to transmit learning from one individual to another in contemporary or succeeding
generations. So long as ideas and chains of thought can be translated into words, the learning
acquired by one individual can be transmitted to other individuals and become available for
them to use. Now knowledge or new discoveries can be acquired by those who have access to
a common language without being required to make each discovery anew from individual
experience" (Ostrom, 1992: 7).

Culture
According to E.B. Tylor (1871), culture is “that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, moral, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
man as a member of society”. This classic definition of culture by the English anthropologist
Sir Edward Burnett Tylor explains the fact that culture covers a very wide area of human life
and behaviour, and language is manifestly a part, probably the most important part, of it. The
two (2) components of culture are:

 Material Culture, which consists of physical things we can see and touch, such as
tools, objects, physical traits, etc.
 Non-material Culture consists of abstract and non-visible aspect of culture, but are
part of way of life of a group of people. E.g. knowledge, attitude, values, beliefs etc.
Non-material culture is further divided into (a) Cognitive Culture (Knowledge) and
(b) Normative Culture (norm).
Culture has many characteristics, some of them are: culture is learnt, relative,
transmitted from generation to generation, some aspects of culture are universal, etc. Culture
creates and establishes socially shared ground of common understanding. Culture is not only
a kind of linguistic index that contains general directives of human actions. Culture helps to
define concrete kinds of situations of human behaviour. It provides specific rules which allow
people to act appropriately in almost every (and often in completely new) situation
(Kluckhohn and Kelly, 1983: 234).

The elements of culture history includes: -

 evolution

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  invention

 diffusion

Culture as a system

We have stated that culture enables people to attach meaning to human actions, that
culture is learned and transmitted in symbolic way, that besides common there are also
differentiated meanings within every culture, that culture is kind of guide for human
situational behaviour providing people with sets of rules. I would like to add, that culture
defined in such a wide way is also very often treated in systemic terms. In my opinion, the
systemic feature of culture has been up to now approved by majority of anthropologists as
one of the most important characteristics of culture. Culture is an integral composed of partly
autonomous, partly coordinated institutions. It is integrated on a series of principles such as
the community of blood through procreation; the contiguity in space related to cooperation;
the specialization in activities; and last but not least, the use of power in political
organization. Each culture owes its completeness and self-sufficiency to the fact that it
satisfies the whole range of basic, instrumental and integrative needs" (Malinowski, 1964: 36,
40). There are two interesting things for us: first, that culture is treated as a tool, instrumental
apparatus (let us say, problems solving instrument) which is used by people in the process of
satisfaction of their different needs (we will discuss that problem in a moment); and second,
that culture "is a system of objects, activities, and attitudes" and "it is integral in which the
various elements are interdependent" (Malinowski, 1964: 150). Thus culture is a systemic,
integrated whole. The systemic approach (Malinowski, as we will see, was only one of its
many followers) seems to be the most popular in anthropology, sociology, and so on. At the
first glance, the conviction that culture is a system and a tool helping people to solve their
problems bears a strong structural and functional similarity to human language. One should
however remember that the relation between culture and language is of the same kind as the
relation between a whole and its part. According to the systemic approach the major
subsystems of culture usually are: language, society, technology and ideology (there are, of
course, also more elaborated divisions of culture not necessarily connected to the concept of
system.

The Relationship between Language and Culture

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 Language and culture are intertwined. A particular language usually points out to a

specific group of people. When you interact with another language, it means that you are also

interacting with the culture that speaks the language. You cannot understand one’s culture

without accessing its language directly. When you learn a new language, it not only involves

learning its alphabet, the word arrangement and the rules of grammar, but also learning about

the specific society’s customs and behaviour. When learning or teaching a language, it is

important that the culture where the language belongs be referenced, because language is

very much ingrained in the culture.

Cultural identity can be marked by language, although language can be used to refer

to other processes and developments, like when intentions are explained in the language by a

specific speaker. A specific language refers to a particular cultural group. Values, basic

assumptions, behavioral conventions, beliefs and attitudes shared by an ethnic group make up

what we call culture. This set of attributes influences the behaviour of the individual

members of the group and their interpretations of the meanings of the behaviour displayed by

each member. The set of attributes of a culture is expressed through language. Language is

also used to point to objects that are unique to a particular culture.

Society

The term society is derived from a Latin word socius. The term directly means
association, togetherness, gregariousness, or simply group life. The concept of society refers
to a relatively large grouping or collectivity of people who share more or less common
and distinct culture, occupying a certain geographical locality, with the feeling of
identity or belongingness, having all the necessary social arrangements or
insinuations to sustain itself. We may add a more revealing definition of society as
defined by Calhoun et al (1994): "A society is an autonomous grouping of people
who inhabit a common territory, have a common culture (shared set of values,
beliefs, customs and so forth) and are linked to one another through routinized

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social interactions and interdependent statuses and roles." Society also may mean a
certain population group, or a community.

Basic Features of a Society

First, a society is usually a relatively large grouping of people in terms of size.

In a very important sense, thus, society may be regarded as the largest and the most
complex social group that sociologists study. Second, as the above definition shows, the
most important thing about a society is that its members share common and distinct
culture. This sets it apart from the other population groups. Third, a society also
has a definite, limited space or territory. The populations that make up a given society are
thus locatable in a definite geographical area. The people consider that area as their
own. Fourth, the people who make up a society have the feeling of identity and
belongingness. There is also the feeling of oneness. Such identity felling emanates
from the routinized pattern of social interaction that exists among the people and
the various groups that make up the society (Henslin and Nelson, 1995; Giddens, 1996;
Calhoun et al., 1994). Fifth, members of a society are considered to have a common
origin and common historical experience. They feel that they have also common
destiny. Sixth, members of a society may also speak a common mother tongue or a major
language that may serve as a national heritage. Seventh, a society is autonomous and
independent in the sense that it has all the necessary social institutions and organizational
arrangements to sustain the system. However, a society is not an island, in the sense
that societies are interdependent. There has always been inter– societal relations.
People interact socially, economically and politically. It is important to note that the
above features of a society are by no means exhaustive and they may not apply to
all societies. The level of a society’s economic and technological development, the type
of economic or livelihood system a society is engaged in, etc may create some
variations among societies in terms of these basic features.

Values

Values refer to principles or standards that are peculiar to an individual or a group. It

is a behaviour that has become standardized and is used in evaluating the individual or group
generally. Values refer to standardized preferences of an individual or group over a period of
time. In every society some ideas or beliefs and objects are considered more important than
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others. What is considered more than the other is of value? For example, in Nigeria, most
male Ibos prefer trading to secondary and tertiary education. Thus after completing their
primary school education they prefer to take to trading. Trading is a value in the society. It is
a way of working to make money, which is a status symbol in the society. There is a personal
value; a personal value refers to individual attachment of importance to a particular thing
more than others; e.g the use or rejection of the use of fertilizer on the farm by a farmer is a
personal value. There are shared values in the society; the shared values refer to a
collectivity of individual values that has become a pattern of behaviour for the group. These
shared values are also known as social values or consensus values or societal values or
collective conscience or the value system of a society.

Individuals come to acquire social values through socialization, which is a continuous

process from childhood to old age. Conformity to social values helps the society to develop
because it reduces tension, uncertainty in behaviour and chaos. However, complete adherence
to social values may lead to adverse conservatism and undermine societal development. Thus,
some elements of non-conformity become necessary for every society so that society can be
prompted to change and develop. The characteristics of values are:

Characteristics of Values
 Values are socially constructed -Members of the society through social interaction
and interrelationship create values. Values are not biologically determined or
inherited. Members of the society over a given period of time create and recreate their
social values. For example, eating habits or being attached to particular types of food
is socially constructed through social interaction and from experience of previous
encounters.
 Values are shared -Members of the society commonly accept social values. That is to
say individuals come to accept them as their personal values. They share it with other
members of the society. If values were not shared there could be chaos in the society.
It is the shared values that provide focus or locus of authority for individuals to
concentrate on and obey.
 Values are integrated into patterns - Values have a system of network, which links
them with one another to make a complex whole. The linkage creates patterns of
behaviour or pattern for behaviour among members of the society. The value for
education must be linked to the value for wealth and the statuses that are available and

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 highly rated in the society. When there is a discrepancy or disharmony in the value
system there will be chaos or social problems.
 Values are learned-Individuals are not born with values. Values are not biologically
inherited. They are acquired through learning or what we call socialization and re-
socialization. We as individuals came to value tertiary education because we learnt it
from other members of the society.
 Values are abstracted from the objects in the society-The ranking of the objects
available in the society enables values in the society to be abstracted from them. For
example, the technological development of the society determines the number of
objects available and the values to be attached to them. A society that is computerized
would lend high premium on education but one where technology is elementary may
not. e.g Fulani cattle herder in the bush has fewer things to value than an urbanite who
values a quality house, car, and household electronics.
 Values are satisfying-Individuals derive personal gratification in values. That is to say
they obtain certain amount of personal satisfaction from a valued object in meeting
their social needs before they stick to that particular value.
 Values are ranked in a hierarchical order - Personal and social values are competitive.
Personal values are often conflicted with one another and individuals have to rank
them. Social values also clash and societies have to re-arrange them hierarchically. A
student who has no enough money to buy books/handouts and also engage in campus
social life may forgo social life for books/handouts. A society may also choose
between conspicuous consumption and saving for development. In Nigeria, the rich
buy very expensive cars (a car that costs about N35m to N55m) where they could
have used the money to set up a factory that could have offered employment
opportunities to many other citizens. The society may also chose between financing
education or military hardware.
 Values differ-Values differ among individuals and they vary from society to society.
Even within a given society there are normative values and sub-cultural values.
Normative values are the dominant values held by the majority members of the
society or by the most powerful group and others just have to conform. Sub-cultural
values are those held by a tiny minority in the society oftentimes the less powerful
members of the society. The sub-cultural values are usually considered as those of the
non-conformist group; for example: armed robbery gang.

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 Values are usually charged with very high emotions (ethnocentrism); otherwise they
will be ranked very low and may not survive as a value. The emotions could be at individual
or societal level. The intensity of the emotion for a particular value may vary from individual
to individual or from society to society or from time to time. But the most important thing
about the emotions is that they must be strong enough to make a people ready to die to
uphold that value. Individuals or the group must be ready to sacrifice everything in order to
protect the said value. Ethnocentrism (or ethnocentric behaviour) refers the attitude or
belief in the superiority of one’s ethnic and cultural values over those of others. The person
who is ethnocentric judges and evaluates the values of other persons or ethnic group as being
inferior even though those values may be positive. For example, preference for pounded yam
or fermented cassava over corn floor may not have any rational backing (Extracted from
Prof A.E Idyorough’s Soc 111 Lecture Note).

Norms

Norms refer to standardized rules and regulations that govern behaviour of group
members in particular situations over a period of time. They are standards for behaviour that
have been set over a period of time. Deviation from such normative behaviour is frowned at
and negatively sanctioned whereas conformity is positively rewarded. Patterns for behaviour
are slightly different from patterns of behaviour because:

Normatively their frequency is higher;

Social attitude towards the behaviour is clearly recognizable;

There is the impact of agencies of authority to exercise some appropriate sanctions for
conformity or against deviations.

Types of Norms

Norms are divided into three:

 Folkways,
 mores, and
 laws (or legal norms).

Folkways are traditional customs and way of life of a people and the way they go
about doing things. Folkways may be taken for granted and may not have sanctions. For
example, greeting is a folkway of behaving. It carries no sanction when violated. Also taking

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alcohol before attending a lecture is an inappropriate behavior but it carries no sanction.
Fornication or premarital sex is inappropriate behaviour. Children drinking alcohol is
inappropriate behaviour. A husband having sex with his wife in his office is inappropriate
but does not carry sanction.

Mores refer to standard customs or habitual practices of a people that are accepted and
followed. Mores are not written but have sanctions that are imposed on offenders. Mores are
considered very necessary for the welfare of the society. For example, cheating on a marital
partner by having sex outside marriage.

Laws are legal norms that have been coded and have formal sanctions against
offenders. For example, the Criminal Law of Southern Nigeria and the Penal Code of
Northern Nigeria

MODULE TWO
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

Social organization refers to the interdependence of parts in groups. These groups

may vary in size and nature from workers to the factories. Many sociologists prefer to use the
term social system to refer to the society as such rather than social organization. The term is
used in sociological studies and researches today to stress the importance of arrangement of
parts in which the parts of society are related to each other and how each is related to the
whole society. Organization makes possible the complex activities in which the members of a
complex society participate. A small body of organized police can control a very large crowd.
A small number of men constituting themselves as a government can rule a country.
Sometimes the word organization is used to refer to the associational groups. It includes
corporations, armies, schools, banks and prisons. The society consists of many such
organizations. A state is frequently called a political organization. A school may represent an
educational organization and so on. They are all social organizations. According to Ogburn
and Nimkoff entire society represents a wider organization; a social organization. But society
is also quite generally an organized group of interacting individuals. Charon (1986:110)
contends that social organization refers to patterns of social interaction. Within
organization, expectations become more fixed. Actors agree on important matters affecting
interaction and control themselves so that cooperation can occur. The patterns that
characterize social interaction (i.e., organization) have developed over time. Generally

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speaking, the longer the patterns exist, the more expectations become fixed. At some point
certain organizations eventually come to wield great power within society.

The smallest level of social organization, the dyads, will be discussed first. We will
then proceed to subsequently larger forms of organization. After dyads are discussed, we will
explore small groups. Formal organization follows groups, then communities, nation states
and finally world-system. Much attention will be paid to groups and formal organization.
Bureaucracy is an especially salient issue for nearly everyone worldwide. The larger levels of
organization (i.e., the world system) will be dealt with towards the end of the topic.

Dyad

The dyad is the smallest level of organization that exists. Dyads consist of two people.

 Interaction is very personal and intimate.

 require continuing active participation and commitment of both members
 People make up rules during the interaction.
 are the most unstable of social groups

A unique feature of dyads is that each individual in the dyad has total veto power over
any aspect of the relationship (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:84).

Groups

 A Group Consists of People who interact and Form Social Patterns - A group is at
least one person larger than a dyad. It has three or more people. Groups are different
from dyads in that they depend less on the individual actor for continuity.

 Increases in Size Equals Loss of Freedom - As the group grows in numbers, the
individual freedom of any particular member is de-emphasized. Furthermore, as the
group grows in size, more emphasis is put on the well-being of the group.
 Interaction Reaffirms Social Patterns - Groups depend on interaction to affirm and
reaffirm social patterns. The strength of patterns in the group depends on the history
of the interaction. Usually, the longer the group exists, the stronger the bonds become.
 Groups Contribute to Larger Organization - Social organization at the "formal level"
is sufficiently large that continuous interaction among all actors is impossible. Even in

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 large organizations interaction between individuals still occurs in small groups. The
interaction of small groups within the frame work of larger organizations reaffirms the
social patterns of the larger social organizations.
 Groups Define Reality for the Individual - The group's definition of reality is a pattern
that the individual assumes. The individual forms expectations about the world
through group involvement. One learns within the group what the important issues are
and the guide lines (the rules) that the group expects you to live by.

Primary Groups

There are two broad categories of groups. There are primary groups and secondary
groups. Primary groups generally form around family and close friends. Individuals receive
most early or primary socialization in primary groups. Primary groups are most responsible
for determining who you are. Primary groups are where close people form emotional ties.
Socialization that occurs in primary groups is responsible for most later interaction and
socialization (see Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:71).

Characteristics of Primary Group

a. Primary groups involve face to face interaction.

b. The interaction is unspecialized. It exists to fulfill a wide range of personal needs.
c. Bonds that form within the primary group are relatively permanent.
d. Primary groups are small.
e. They are intimate. The primary group is characterized by a sense of "we." There is an
emotional commitment to the whole rather than to the individual or to the specific
goals of an individual member. The well-being of the group itself is, in a sense, the
goal (Like the family).

Secondary Groups
Characteristics of Secondary Groups

a. Secondary groups are more impersonal.

b. They are more specialized (i.e., goal oriented).
c. They are more temporary.
d. They are usually larger.

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 e. They require less of an emotional commitment.
f. They are informal.

Example: Part-time waiters in a college dining hall.

Reference Groups

Reference groups represent the standards people use to evaluate themselves and
others. They can include the family, members of a church, people in the neighborhood,
teachers, classmates, or co-workers (see Henslin, 1999:153).

In-Group versus Out-Group

The in-groups are the groups which an individual feels loyalty toward. They provide a
sense of identification or belonging. The out group is the group that where individual feels
antagonism toward (Henslin, 1999:152).

Cliques, Networks, and Networking

a. Cliques

People don't usually communicate with all members of large groups. Cliques are
small factions of close associates that operate within larger groups (Henslin, 1999:154).

Social Networks

The links between an individual and his or her cliques, family, close friends and other
acquaintances make up an individual's social network (Henslin, 1999:154).

Networking

Sociologists refer to the conscious use or cultivation of networks as networking.

Networking refers to using social networks to establish a circle of friends usually for career
advancement (Henslin, 1999:155).

MODULE THREE
SOCIAL INTERACTION

Levels of Interaction

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Interpersonal

When you are around other people, you are interacting. Imagine that anything you do
with others is interacting. Regardless of whether you are saying to them, working together on
a project, sitting in a meeting room, or having a conversation, you are practicing interpersonal
interactions. Interpersonal interactions also include things like relating to one another and
exchanging feelings, and they can be both verbal and nonverbal. So, let's break down the
concept better by looking at both verbal and nonverbal interpersonal interactions and the
skills involved in those interactions.

Interpersonal interaction is a communication process that involves the exchange of

information, feelings and meaning by means of verbal and non-verbal messages, between two
or more persons. So it includes inter alia gesture, where you smile and giggle and the person
likes you more. It includes non-verbal where you listen and the person likes you more. It
includes verbal where you put on your sweetest voice and say random things and the person
likes you more. But does it mean that if you have interpersonal interaction with a girl
that she’ll like you more? No. Not unless you’re exactly her type, or at least handsome
enough. It is the process by which people exchange information, feelings, and meaning
through verbal and non-verbal messages: it is face-to-face communication.

Interpersonal communication is not just about what is actually said - the language
used - but how it is said and the non-verbal messages sent through tone of voice, facial
expressions, gestures and body language. When two or more people are in the same place and
are aware of each other's presence, then communication is taking place, no matter how subtle
or unintentional. Without speech, an observer may be using cues of posture, facial
expression, and dress to form an impression of the other's role, emotional state, personality
and/or intentions. Although no communication may be intended, people receive messages
through such forms of non-verbal behaviour.

Elements of Interpersonal Communication

Much research has been done to try to break down interpersonal communication into
a number of elements in order that it can be more easily understood. Commonly these
elements include:

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The Communicators

For any communication to occur there must be at least two people involved. It is easy
to think about communication involving a sender and a receiver of a message. However, the
problem with this way of seeing a relationship is that it presents communication as a one-way
process where one person sends the message and the other receives it. While one person is
talking and another is listening, for example.

In fact communications are almost always complex, two-way processes, with people sending
and receiving messages to and from each other simultaneously. In other words,
communication is an interactive process. While one person is talking the other is listening -
but while listening they are also sending feedback in the form of smiles, head nods etc.

The Message

Message not only means the speech used or information conveyed, but also the non-
verbal messages exchanged such as facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures and body
language. Non-verbal behaviour can convey additional information about the spoken
message. In particular, it can reveal more about emotional attitudes which may underlie the
content of speech.

Noise

Noise has a special meaning in communication theory. It refers to anything that

distorts the message, so that what is received is different from what is intended by the
speaker. Whilst physical 'noise' (for example, background sounds or a low-flying jet plane)
can interfere with communication, other factors are considered to be ‘noise’. The use
of complicated jargon, inappropriate body language, inattention, disinterest, and cultural
differences can be considered 'noise' in the context of interpersonal communication. In other
words, any distortions or inconsistencies that occur during an attempt to communicate can be
seen as noise.

Feedback

Feedback consists of messages the receiver returns, which allows the sender to know
how accurately the message has been received, as well as the receiver's reaction. The receiver

15
may also respond to the unintentional message as well as the intentional message. Types of
feedback range from direct verbal statements, for example "Say that again, I don't
understand", to subtle facial expressions or changes in posture that might indicate to the
sender that the receiver feels uncomfortable with the message. Feedback allows the sender to
regulate, adapt or repeat the message in order to improve communication.

Context

All communication is influenced by the context in which it takes place. However,

apart from looking at the situational context of where the interaction takes place, for example
in a room, office, or perhaps outdoors, the social context also needs to be considered, for
example the roles, responsibilities and relative status of the participants. The emotional
climate and participants' expectations of the interaction will also affect the communication.

Channel

The channel refers to the physical means by which the message is transferred from
one person to another. In a face-to-face context the channels which are used are speech and
vision, however during a telephone conversation the channel is limited to speech alone.
When you have the opportunity to observe some interpersonal communication, make a
mental note of the behaviors used, both verbal and non-verbal.

Observe and think about the following factors:

 Who are the communicators?

 What message(s) were exchanged?
 What (if any) noise distorts the message?
 How is feedback given?
 What is the context of the communication?

You probably do this all the time, subconsciously, but when you actively observe
interpersonal communication you can more fully appreciate its mechanics.

By observing others - making a conscious effort to understand how communication

occurs - you will think about how you communicate and be more aware of the

16
messages you send. This provides a perfect opportunity for you to develop your interpersonal
communication skills.

Uses of Interpersonal Communication

Most of us engage in some form of interpersonal communication on a regular basis,

often many times a day, how well we communicate with others is a measure of our
interpersonal skills.

Interpersonal communication is a key life skill and can be used to:

 Give and collect information.

 Influence the attitudes and behaviour of others.
 Form contacts and maintain relationships.
 Make sense of the world and our experiences in it.
 Express personal needs and understand the needs of others.
 Give and receive emotional support.
 Make decisions and solve problems.
 Anticipate and predict behaviour.
 Regulate power.

How well do you communicate with others?

MODULE FOUR
LANGUAGE, SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Language and Social Context

Society and culture influence the words that we speak, and the words that we speak

influence society and culture. We arrive at meaning through conversational interaction, which

follows many social norms and rules. To help conversations function meaningfully, we have

learned social norms and internalized them to such an extent that we do not often consciously

enact them. Instead, we rely on routines and roles (as determined by social forces) to help us

proceed with verbal interaction, which also helps determine how a conversation will unfold.

17
Our various social roles influence meaning and how we speak. For example, a person may

say, “As a longtime member of this community…” or “As a second year student of this part

time program…” Such statements cue others into the personal and social context from which

we are speaking, which helps them better interpret our meaning .One social norm that

structures our communication is turn taking. People need to feel like they are contributing

something to an interaction, so turn taking is a central part of how conversations play out

(Crystal, 2005). Although we sometimes talk at the same time as others or interrupt them,

there are numerous verbal and nonverbal cues, almost like a dance, that are exchanged

between speakers that let people know when their turn will begin or end. Conversations do

not always neatly progress from beginning to end with shared understanding along the way.

There is a back and forth that is often verbally managed through rephrasing (Crystal, 2005)

We also have certain units of speech that facilitate turn taking. Adjacency pairs are

related communication structures that come one after the other (adjacent to each other) in an

interaction (Crystal, 2005). For example, questions are followed by answers, greetings are

followed by responses, compliments are followed by a thank you, and informative comments

are followed by an acknowledgment. These are the skeletal components that make up our

verbal interactions, and they are largely social in that they facilitate our interactions. When

these sequences don’t work out, confusion, miscommunication, or frustration may result, as

you can see in the following sequences: Some conversational elements are highly scripted or

ritualized, especially the beginning and end of an exchange and topic changes (Crystal,

2005).

Conversations often begin with a standard greeting and then proceed to “safe”

exchanges about things in the immediate field of experience of the communicators (a

comment on the weather or noting something going on in the scene). At this point, once the

ice is broken, people can move on to other more content-specific exchanges. Once

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conversing, before we can initiate a topic change, it is a social norm that we let the current

topic being discussed play itself out or continue until the person who introduced the topic

seems satisfied. We then usually try to find a relevant tie-in or segue that acknowledges the

previous topic, in turn acknowledging the speaker, before actually moving on. Changing the

topic without following such social conventions might indicate to the other person that you

were not listening or are simply rude. Ending a conversation is similarly complex. I’m sure

we’ve all been in a situation where we are “trapped” in a conversation that we need or want

to get out of. Just walking away or ending a conversation without engaging in socially

acceptable “leave-taking behaviours” would be considered a breach of social norms. Topic

changes are often places where people can leave a conversation, but it is still routine for us to

give a special reason for leaving, often in an apologetic tone (whether we mean it or not).

Generally, conversations come to an end through the cooperation of both people, as

they offer and recognize typical signals that a topic area has been satisfactorily covered or

that one or both people need to leave. It is customary for people to say they have to leave

before they actually do and for that statement to be dismissed or ignored by the other person

until additional leave-taking behaviors are enacted. When such cooperation is lacking, an

awkward silence or abrupt ending can result. Silence is not viewed the same way in other

cultures, which leads us to our discussion of cultural context.

Language and Cultural Context

Culture is not solely determined by a person’s native language or nationality. It’s true

that languages vary by country and region and that the language we speak influences our

realities, but even people who speak the same language experience cultural differences

because of their various intersecting cultural identities and personal experiences. We have a

tendency to view our language as a whole more favorably than other languages. Although

people may make persuasive arguments regarding which languages are more pleasing to the

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ear or difficult or easy to learn than others, no one language enables speakers to communicate

more effectively than another (McCornack, 2007).

From birth we are socialized into our various cultural identities. As with the social

context, this acculturation process is a combination of explicit and implicit lessons. A child in

Colombia, which is considered a more collectivist country in which people value group

membership and cohesion over individualism, may not be explicitly told, “You are a member

of a collectivistic culture, so you should care more about the family and community than

yourself.” This cultural value would be transmitted through daily actions and through

language use. Just as babies acquire knowledge of language practices at an astonishing rate in

their first two years of life, so do they acquire cultural knowledge and values that are

embedded in those language practices. At nine months old, it is possible to distinguish babies

based on their language. Even at this early stage of development, when most babies are

babbling and just learning to recognize but not wholly reproduce verbal interaction patterns, a

Nigerian baby would sound different from an american baby, even though neither would

actually be using words from their native languages (Crystal, 2005).

The actual language we speak plays an important role in shaping our reality.

Comparing languages, we can see differences in how we are able to talk about the world. In

English, we have the words grandfather and grandmother, but no single word that

distinguishes between a maternal grandfather and a paternal grandfather. But in Swedish,

there’s a specific word for each grandparent: morfar is mother’s father, farfar is father’s

father, farmor is father’s mother, and mormor is mother’s mother (Crystal, 2005). In this

example, we can see that the words available to us, based on the language we speak,

influence how we talk about the world due to differences in and limitations of vocabulary.

The notion that language shapes our view of reality and our cultural patterns is best

represented by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Although some scholars argue that our reality is

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determined by our language, we will take a more qualified view and presume that language

plays a central role in influencing our realities but doesn’t determine them (Martin &

Nakayama, 2010). At a more informative level, the words we use to give positive

reinforcement are culturally relative. In the United States and England, parents commonly

positively and negatively reinforce their child’s behaviour by saying, “Good girl” or “Good

boy.” There is no equivalent for such a phrase in other European languages, so the usage in

only these two countries has been traced back to the puritan influence on beliefs about good

and bad behaviour (Wierzbicka, 2004).

Accents and Dialects

Accents are distinct styles of pronunciation (Lustig & Koester, 2006). There can be

multiple accents within one dialect. This distinction can be noticed within a culture. Dialects

and accents can vary by region, class, or ancestry, and they influence the impressions that we

make of others. Research shows that people tend to think more positively about others who

speak with a dialect similar to their own and think more negatively about people who speak

differently. Of course, many people think they speak normally and perceive others to have an

accent or dialect. Although dialects include the use of different words and phrases, it’s the

tone of voice that often creates the strongest impression.

Gender, language and culture

Gender also affects how we use language, but not to the extent that most people think.

Although there is a widespread belief that men are more likely to communicate in a clear and

straightforward way and women are more likely to communicate in an emotional and indirect

way, a meta-analysis of research findings from more than two hundred studies found only

small differences in the personal disclosures of men and women (Dindia & Allen, 1992). Men

and women’s levels of disclosure are even more similar when engaging in cross-gender

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communication, meaning men and woman are more similar when speaking to each other than

when men speak to men or women speak to women. This could be due to the internalized

pressure to speak about the other gender in socially sanctioned ways, in essence reinforcing

the stereotypes when speaking to the same gender but challenging them in cross-gender

encounters. Researchers also dispelled the belief that men interrupt more than women do,

findings show that men and women interrupt each other with similar frequency in cross-

gender encounters (Dindia, 1987). These findings, which state that men and women

communicate more similarly during cross-gender encounters and then communicate in more

stereotypical ways in same-gender encounters, can be explained with communication

accommodation theory.

Communication Accommodation and Code-Switching

Communication accommodation theory is a theory that explores why and how people

modify their communication to fit situational, social, cultural, and relational contexts (Giles,

Taylor, & Bourhis, 1973). Within communication accommodation, conversational partners

may use convergence, meaning a person makes his or her communication more like another

person’s. People who are accommodating in their communication style are seen as more

competent, which illustrates the benefits of communicative flexibility. In order to be flexible,

of course, people have to be aware of and monitor their own and others’ communication

patterns. Conversely, conversational partners may use divergence, meaning a person uses

communication to emphasize the differences between his or her conversational partner and

his or herself.

Convergence and divergence can take place within the same conversation and may be used

by one or both conversational partners. Convergence functions to make others feel at ease, to

increase understanding, and to enhance social bonds. Divergence may be used to intentionally

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make another person feel unwelcome or perhaps to highlight a personal, group, or cultural

identity. For example, African American women use certain verbal communication patterns

when communicating with other African American women as a way to highlight their racial

identity and create group solidarity. In situations where multiple races interact, the women

usually don’t use those same patterns, instead accommodating the language patterns of the

larger group. While communication accommodation might involve anything from adjusting

how fast or slow you talk to how long you speak during each turn, code-switching refers to

changes in accent, dialect, or language (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). There are many reasons

why people code-switch. Regarding accents, some people hire vocal coaches or speech-

language pathologists to help them alter their accent. If a Southern person thinks their accent

is leading others to form unfavorable impressions, they can consciously change their accent

with much practice and effort. Once their ability to speak without their Southern accent is

honed, they may be able to switch very quickly between their native accent when speaking

with friends and family and their modified accent when speaking in professional settings.

Additionally, people who work or live in multilingual settings may code-switch many

times throughout the day, or even within a single conversation. Increasing outsourcing and

globalization have produced heightened pressures for code-switching. As our interactions

continue to occur in more multinational contexts, the expectations for code-switching and

accommodation are sure to increase. It is important for us to consider the intersection of

culture and power and think critically about the ways in which expectations for code-

switching may be based on cultural biases.

Language and Cultural Bias

Cultural bias is a skewed way of viewing or talking about a group that is typically

negative. Bias has a way of creeping into our daily language use, often under our awareness.

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Culturally biased language can make reference to one or more cultural identities, including

race, gender, age, sexual orientation, and ability. There are other sociocultural identities that

can be the subject of biased language, but we will focus our discussion on these five. Much

biased language is based on stereotypes and myths that influence the words we use. Bias is

both intentional and unintentional, but we have to be accountable for what we say even if we

didn’t “intend” a particular meaning—remember, meaning is generated; it doesn’t exist inside

our thoughts or words. We will discuss specific ways in which cultural bias manifests in our

language and ways to become more aware of bias. Our goal is not to eliminate all cultural

bias from verbal communication or to never offend anyone, intentionally or otherwise.

Instead, we will continue to use guidelines for ethical communication that we have already

discussed and strive to increase our competence. The following discussion also focuses on

bias rather than preferred terminology or outright discriminatory language, which will be

addressed more under the topic “Culture and Communication”.

 Race - People sometimes use euphemisms for race that illustrate bias because the

terms are usually implicitly compared to the dominant group (Publication Manual of

the American Psychological Association, 2010). For example, referring to a person as

“urban” or a neighborhood as “inner city” can be an accurate descriptor, but when

such words are used as a substitute for racial identity, they illustrate cultural biases

that equate certain races with cities and poverty. Using adjectives like articulate or

well-dressed in statements like “My black coworker is articulate” reinforces negative

stereotypes even though these words are typically viewed as positive.

 Gender - Language has a tendency to exaggerate perceived and stereotypical

differences between men and women. The use of the term opposite sex presumes that

men and women are opposites, like positive and negative poles of a magnet, which is

obviously not true or men and women wouldn’t be able to have successful

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 interactions or relationships. A term like other gender doesn’t presume opposites and

acknowledges that male and female identities and communication are more influenced

by gender, which is the social and cultural meanings and norms associated with males

and females, than sex, which is the physiology and genetic makeup of a male and

female. One key to avoiding gendered bias in language is to avoid the generic use of

he when referring to something relevant to males and females. Instead, you can

informally use a gender-neutral pronoun like they or their or you can use his or her

(Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 2010). When giving

a series of examples, you can alternate usage of masculine and feminine pronouns,

switching with each example. We have lasting gendered associations with certain

occupations that have tended to be male or female dominated, which erase the

presence of both genders. Other words reflect the general masculine bias present in

English. The following word pairs show the gender-biased term followed by an

unbiased term: waitress/server, chairman / chair or chairperson, mankind/people,

cameraman / camera operator, mailman / postal worker, sportsmanship / fair play.

Common language practices also tend to infantilize women but not men, when, for

example, women are referred to as chicks, girls, or babes. Since there is no linguistic

equivalent that indicates the marital status of men before their name, using Ms.

instead of Miss or Mrs. helps reduce bias.

 Age - Language that includes age bias can be directed toward older or younger

people. Descriptions of younger people often presume recklessness or inexperience,

while those of older people presume frailty or disconnection. The term elderly

generally refers to people over sixty-five, but it has connotations of weakness, which

isn’t accurate because there are plenty of people over sixty-five who are stronger and

more athletic than people in their twenties and thirties. Even though it’s generic, older

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 people doesn’t really have negative implications. More specific words that describe

groups of older people include grandmothers/grandfathers (even though they can be

fairly young too), retirees, or people over sixty-five (Publication Manual of the

American Psychological Association, 2010). Referring to people over the age of

eighteen as boys or girls isn’t typically viewed as appropriate.

 Sexual Orientation - Discussions of sexual and affectional orientation range from

everyday conversations to contentious political and personal debates. The negative

stereotypes that have been associated with homosexuality, including deviance, mental

illness, and criminal behaviour, continue to influence our language use (American

Psychological Association, 2012). Terminology related to gay, lesbian, and bisexual

(GLB) people can be confusing, so let’s spend some time raise our awareness about

preferred labels. First, sexual orientation is the term preferred to sexual preference.

You may also see affectional orientation included with sexual orientation because it

acknowledges that GLB relationships, like heterosexual relationships, are about

intimacy and closeness (affection) that is not just sexually based. Most people also

prefer the labels gay, lesbian, or bisexual to homosexual, which is clinical and doesn’t

so much refer to an identity as a sex act. Don’t presume you can identify a person’s

sexual orientation by looking at them or talking to them. Don’t assume that GLB

people will “come out” to you. Given that many GLB people have faced and continue

to face regular discrimination, they may be cautious about disclosing their identities.

However, using gender neutral terminology like partner and avoiding other biased

language mentioned previously may create a climate in which a GLB person feels

comfortable disclosing his or her sexual orientation identity. Conversely, the casual

use of phrases like that’s gay to mean “that’s stupid” may create an environment in

which GLB people do not feel comfortable. Even though people don’t often use the

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 phrase to actually refer to sexual orientation, campaigns like

“ThinkB4YouSpeak.com” try to educate people about the power that language has

and how we should all be more conscious of the words we use.

 Ability - People with disabilities make up a diverse group that has increasingly come

to be viewed as a cultural/social identity group. People without disabilities are often

referred to as able-bodied. As with sexual orientation, comparing people with

disabilities to “normal” people implies that there is an agreed-on definition of what

“normal” is and that people with disabilities are “abnormal.” Disability is also

preferred to the word handicap. Just because someone is disabled doesn’t mean he or

she is also handicapped. The environment around them rather than their disability

often handicaps people with disabilities (Publication Manual of the American

Psychological Association, 2010). Ignoring the environment as the source of a

handicap and placing it on the person fits into a pattern of reducing people with

disabilities to their disability—for example, calling someone a paraplegic instead of a

person with paraplegia. Language used in conjunction with disabilities also tends to

portray people as victims of their disability and paint pictures of their lives as gloomy,

dreadful, or painful. Such descriptors are often generalizations or completely

inaccurate.

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