EARTH SCIENCE

EXOGENIC PROCESS

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n physical geography, a dune is a hill of loose sand built by wind or the flow of water. Dunes occur in different shapes
and sizes, formed by interaction with the flow of air or water.
 Most kinds of dunes are longer on the windward side where the sand is pushed up the dune and have a shorter "slip
face" in the lee of the wind. The valley or trough between dunes is called a slack.
 A "dune field" is an area covered by extensive sand dunes. Dunes occur, for example, in some deserts and along some
coasts.
 Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the beach. In
most cases, the dunes are important in protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the sea.
 Although the most widely distributed dunes are those associated with coastal regions, the largest complexes of dunes
are found inland in dry regions and associated with ancient lake or sea beds.
 Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soil, and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials through contact
with the Earth's atmosphere, waters, and biological organisms. Weathering occurs in situ (on site), that is, in the same
place, with little or no movement, and thus should not be confused with erosion, which involves the movement of rocks
and minerals by agents such as water, ice, snow, wind, waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in
other locations.
 Two important classifications of weathering processes exist – physical and chemical weathering; each sometimes
involves a biological component.

MECHANICAL OR PHYSICAL WEATHERING - involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with
atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure.

 While physical weathering is accentuated in very cold or very dry environments, chemical reactions are most intense
where the climate is wet and hot. However, both types of weathering occur together, and each tends to accelerate the
other.
 For example, physical abrasion (rubbing together) decreases the size of particles and therefore increases their surface
area, making them more susceptible to rapid chemical reactions.
 The various agents act in concert to convert primary minerals (feldspars and micas) to secondary minerals (clays and
carbonates) and release plant nutrient elements in soluble forms.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING - involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced chemicals also known
as biological weathering in the breakdown of rocks, soils and minerals.[

 Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks, often transforming them when water interacts with minerals to
create various chemical reactions.
 Chemical weathering is a gradual and ongoing process as the mineralogy of the rock adjusts to the near surface
environment. New or secondary minerals develop from the original minerals of the rock.
 In this the processes of oxidation and hydrolysis are most important. Chemical weathering is enhanced by such
geological agents as the presence of water and oxygen, as well as by such biological agents as the acids produced by
microbial and plant-root metabolism.

DISSOLUTION AND CARBONATION

 A pyrite cube has dissolved away from host rock, leaving gold behind
 Limestone core samples at different stages of chemical weathering (due to tropical rain and underground water), from
very high at shallow depths (bottom) to very low at greater depths (top).
 Slightly weathered limestone shows brownish stains, while highly weathered limestone transformed into clay.
Underground limestone from the carbonate West Congolian deposit in Kimpese, Democratic Republic of Congo.
 Rainfall is acidic because atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in the rainwater producing weak carbonic acid.
 In unpolluted environments, the rainfall pH is around 5.6. Acid rain occurs when gases such as sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides are present in the atmosphere.
 These oxides react in the rain water to produce stronger acids and can lower the pH to 4.5 or even 3.0. Sulfur dioxide,
SO2, comes from volcanic eruptions or from fossil fuels, can become sulfuric acid within rainwater, which can cause
solution weathering to the rocks on which it falls.

DISSOLUTION
 Rocks, when in water, reacts with acids in water and dissolve. A clue that this has happened to a rock is the presence of
small holes.

Hydrolysis of silicates and carbonates

 HYDROLYSIS - is a chemical weathering process affecting silicate and carbonate minerals. In such reactions, pure water
ionizes slightly and reacts with silicate minerals. An example reaction:
 Mg2SiO4 + 4 H+ + 4 OH− ⇌ 2 Mg2+ + 4 OH− + H4SiO4olivine (forsterite) + four ionized water molecules ⇌ ions in
solution + silicic acid in solution
 This reaction theoretically results in complete dissolution of the original mineral, if enough water is available to drive the
reaction. In reality, pure water rarely acts as a H+ donor.
 Carbon dioxide, though, dissolves readily in water forming a weak acid and H+ donor.
 Mg2SiO4 + 4 CO2 + 4 H2O ⇌ 2 Mg2+ + 4 HCO3− + H4SiO4.

HYDRATION
 Olivine weathering to iddingsite within a mantle xenolith
 Mineral hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of H+ and OH- ions to the atoms
and molecules of a mineral.
 When rock minerals take up water, the increased volume creates physical stresses within the rock. For example, iron
oxides are converted to iron hydroxides and the hydration of anhydrite forms gypsum.
 HYDRATION - is when minerals in the rock absorb water and expand, creating stress which causes the disintegration of
rocks.

BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
 A number of plants and animals may create chemical weathering through release of acidic compounds, i.e. the effect of
moss growing on roofs is classed as weathering.
 Mineral weathering can also be initiated and/or accelerated by soil microorganisms. Lichens on rocks are thought to
increase chemical weathering rates.
 For example, an experimental study on hornblende granite in New Jersey, USA, demonstrated a 3x – 4x increase in
weathering rate under lichen covered surfaces compared to recently exposed bare rock surfaces.
 Biological weathering of basalt by lichen, La Palma.
 The most common forms of biological weathering are the release of chelating compounds (i.e. organic
acids, siderophores) and of acidifying molecules (i.e. protons, organic acids) by plants so as to break
down aluminium and iron containing compounds in the soils beneath them.
 Decaying remains of dead plants in soil may form organic acids which, when dissolved in water, cause chemical
weathering. Extreme release of chelating compounds can easily affect surrounding rocks and soils, and may lead
to podsolisation of soils.

CAUSES OF BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING

 Man and animals
 Higher plants and roots
 Micro-organisms

EROSION
 In earth science, EROSION - is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that remove soil, rock, or
dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, then transport it away to another location.
 The particulate breakdown of rock or soil into clasticsediment is referred to as physical or mechanical erosion
 this contrasts with chemical erosion, where soil or rock material is removed from an area by its dissolving into a solvent
(typically water), followed by the flow away of that solution.
 Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few millimetres, or for thousands of kilometres.

WIND EROSION
 Wind erodes the Earth's surface by deflation (the removal of loose, fine-grained particles by the turbulent action of the
wind) and by abrasion (the wearing down of surfaces by the grinding action and sandblasting by windborne particles).
 Regions which experience intense and sustained erosion are called deflation zones. Most aeolian deflation zones are
composed of desert pavement, a sheet-like surface of rock fragments that remains after wind and water have removed
the fine particles.
 Almost half of Earth's desert surfaces are stony deflation zones. The rock mantle in desert pavements protects the
underlying material from deflation.

TRANSPORT
 Particles are transported by winds through suspension, saltation (skipping or bouncing) and creeping (rolling or sliding)
along the ground.
 Small particles may be held in the atmosphere in suspension. Upward currents of air support the weight of suspended
particles and hold them indefinitely in the surrounding air. Typical winds near Earth's surface suspend particles less than
0.2 millimeters in diameter and scatter them aloft as dust or haze.
 Saltation is downwind movement of particles in a series of jumps or skips. Saltation normally lifts sand-size particles no
more than one centimeter above the ground and proceeds at one-half to one-third the speed of the wind.
 A saltating grain may hit other grains that jump up to continue the saltation. The grain may also hit larger grains that are
too heavy to hop, but that slowly creep forward as they are pushed by saltating grains. Surface creep accounts for as
much as 25 percent of grain movement in a desert.

GLACIER
 is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight; it forms where the accumulation
of snow exceeds its ablation (melting and sublimation) over many years, often centuries.
 Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating crevasses, seracs, and other
distinguishing features.
 They also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques and moraines. Glaciers form
only on land and are distinct from the much thinner sea ice and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water.

WATER AS AGENT OF EROSION

 Traction may refer to: Forces: Traction (engineering), adhesive friction or force Traction vector, in mechanics, the force
per unit area on a surface
 Rolling or dragging of large grain aided by the push of smaller grain

SALTATION
 At low fluid velocities, loose material rolls downstream, staying in contact with the surface. This is
called creep or reptation.
 Here the forces exerted by the fluid on the particle are only enough to roll the particle around the point of contact with
the surface.
 Once the wind speed reaches a certain critical value, termed the impact or fluid threshold, the drag and lift forces
exerted by the fluid are sufficient to lift some particles from the surface. These particles are accelerated by the fluid, and
pulled downward by gravity, causing them to travel in roughly ballistic trajectories
 If a particle has obtained sufficient speed from the acceleration by the fluid, it can eject, or splash, other particles in
saltation,

SUSPENSION -
Movement of fine
particles like silt and
clay

SOLUTION -
Movement of soluble
minerals (salt)

DEPOSITION - is the
geological process in
which sediments, soil
and rocks are added to
a landform or land
mass. Wind, ice, and
water, as well as
sediment

WEATHERING -
breakdown of earth’s
crust into smaller
pieces.

 Water causes weathering

 Wing causes weathering
 Ice causes weathering

EROSION - the process by which water, ice, wind or gravity moves fragments of rocks and soil.

 The process, known as erosion, is gradually wearing down the surface of the earth
 Erosion is the process by which weathered rock and soil (sediment) are moved from one place to another
 Erosion carves the earth surface creating canyons, gorges, and even beaches.

WIND EROSION - as the wind blows it picks up small particles of sand/sediments and blasts large rocks with the abrasive
particles, cutting and shaping the rock.

 The intensity of wind erosion is determined by: sum(amount), speed, slope, surface
 Wind erosion has greatest impact in deserts, create sand dunes, and removes fertile topsoil

WATER EROSION - when rain falls to the earth it can evaporate, sink into the ground, or flow over the land as runoff. When it
flows over the land, erosion occurs.

 Runoff pickup pieces of rocks and runs downhill cutting tiny grooves called rills into the ground.
 Create most of the changes in the earth’s landscape (runoff, rivers, and streams)
 How much erosion takes place is determined by: sum(amount), speed, slope, surface

ICE EROSION - glaciers wear down the landscapeby picking up and carrying debris that moves across the land along with the
ice. Glaciers can pick up and carry sediment that ranges in size from sand grains to boulders bigger than house.
Moving like a conveyor belt and a bulldozer. A single glacier can move a millions of tons of materials.

 How much erosion takes place is determined by: sum(Glaciers are massive), speed, slope, surface

GRAVITY EROSION - can create slump, creep, landslide, mudslide, and avalanches.

 Plant can cause weathering

 Plant can prevent erosion

DEPOSITION
 Rock particles that are picked up and transported during erosion will ultimately be deposited somewhere else.
 Is a process by which sediments (small particles of rocks) are laid down in new locations.
 Together, erosion and deposition build new landforms. Deltas, canyons, meanders, floodplains.

DELTA
 Where rivers meets the ocean is called the mouth of the river. Soil and dirt carried by these rivers is deposited at the
mouth and new land is formed.
 The new, soil rich land is known as a delta.

CANYONS
 Are large valleys created by a river or stream.
 How long it took to carve a canyon is debated by geologist. Some estimates between 6 and 8 million years.

MEANDERS
 Meandering streams wander side to side as they constantly seek out the lowest elevation. This constant motion creates
a series of S-shaped loops
 Stream velocity varies from one side to the other side of the “S”. resulting in erosion in some places and deposition of
sediments in others.

FLOODPLAINS
 Form along the banks of mid order streams and large rivers
 These are low lying areas along the sides of a river channel that have regular times of heavy waterflow to cause the river
to spill over and flood the land.

WEATHERING
 Is the chemical and physical processes that change the characteristics of rocks on the earth’s surface.
 Occurs when rocks are exposed to the hydrosphere and atmosphere.
 These weathering agents can change the physical and chemical characteristics of rocks.

PHYSICAL WEATHERING
 When rocks are broken into smaller pieces without changing the chemical composition of the rock

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING

 FROST ACTION / ICE WEDGING
- break up of rocks caused by the freezing and thawing (contracting and expansion) of water.
- water seeps into cracks of the rock and as the climate cools and the water freezes and expand breaking the rock apart.

 ABRASION
-the physical wearing of rocks as they rub or bounce against each other.
-this process is most common in windy areas, under glaciers, or in stream channels

 EXFOLIATION
-the peeling away of large sheets of loosened materials at the surface of a rock
-common in slate, shale, and mica.

 WIND
(none)

CHEMICAL WEATHERING
 Occurs when a rock is broken down by chemical action resulting in a change in the composition of a rock
 Main agents of chemical weathering are: oxygen, carbon dioxide, rain water, acid produced by decaying plants and
animals that lead to the formation of soil

TYPES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING

 OXIDATION
-when oxygen interacts chemically with minerals
- ex. When a nail rusts

 HYDRATION / HYDROLYSIS
-when water interacts chemically with minerals
- ex. When hordblende and feldspar join water they eventually form into clay

 CARBONATION
-when carbon dioxide interacts chemically with minerals
- ex. Forms carbonic acid ---> dissolves limestone creating caverns and caves. Karst topography

KARST TOPOGRAPHY
 Occurs in limestone bedrock
 Limestone easily weathers chemically (carbonation) by weak acids in groundwater
 Landforms created: caverns, sinkholes, dissapearing rivers

WEATHERING RATES DEPENDS ON 3 FACTORS

1. Particle size / surface area exposed to the surface
2. Mineral composition
3. Climate

BLOCK DISINTEGRATION
 Caused by successive heating and cooling that causes the expansion and contraction of rocks.

EXFOLIATION
 Is the stripping of the outer layers of rocks due to intense heating

FROST WEATHERING
 Refers to the alternate freezing and thawing of water inside the joints of rocks, causing them to split into smaller
particles or fragments

SOLUTION
 process in which some of the minerals in rocks are directly dissolved in water

MASS WASTING
 Refers to the downslope movement of rock, regolith, and soil because of gravity
 Natural process that occur after weathering

FALL - free-fall movement of detached individual pieces of rock

SLIDES - occur when rock materials remain fairly coherent and move along a well-defined surface

FLOW - when rock materials are saturated with water and move downslope as viscous fluid

SOIL EROSION
 Removal of soil at a greater rate than its replacement by natural agencies
 Wind erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully erosion

WIND EROSION
 when winds carry large amount of fine soil particles and sand away from a region

SHEET EROSION
 removal of thin layers of soil because of surface runoff and rain

RILL EROSION
 removal of soil by the action of concentrated running water

GULLY EROSION
 removal of soil in water channels or drainage lines

ENDOGENIC PROCESS
 Are geological processes that occur beneath the surface of the earth
 It is associated with energy originating in the interior of solid earth
 The ground we live on is moving all the time. The forces within the earth that cause the ground to move are called
endogenic process

These are endogenic processes that are subsequent to the main ones
 Volcanism (volcanic activity)
 Metamorphism
 Earthquake (seismic activity)

EXTERNAL PROCESSES
-weathering
-mass wasting
-erosion

INTERNAL PROCESSES
-volcanism
-diastrophism
-massive crustal arrangement

VOLCANO
 A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash,
and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.
 Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer
in its mantle. Therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging, and
most are found underwater.
 For example, a mid-oceanic ridge, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates
pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together.
 Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's interior plates

VOLCANOES (volcanic features, volcanic eruptions, volcano as a source of energy)

WHAT IS VOLCANO?
 Volcano may be an opening, gap or crack on the Earth’s surface from which hot materials from the interior are ejected.
 It consist of melted rock or magma which are located in a magma chamber.

CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANO

 ACTIVE VOLCANO - recently erupted within the last 10, 000 years.
 DORMANT VOLCANO - has not erupted in a long time but there is a possibility that it can erupt in the future.
 EXTINCT VOLCANO - has not erupted thousand of years ago and there is no possibility of eruption.

FEATURES OF VOLCANO

MAGMA - the molten rock beneath the Earth’s surface.

PARASITIC CONE - a small cone-shaped volcano formed by an accumulation of volcanic debris.
SILL - a flat piece of rock formed when magma hardens in a crack in a volcano.

VENT - an opening in an Earth’s surface through which volcanic materials escape.

FLANK - the side of a volcano.

LAVA - molten rock that erupts from a volcano and solidifies as it cools.

CRATER - mouth of a volcano, it surrounds a volcanic vent.

CONDUIT - an underground passage magma travels through.

SUMMIT - highest point of a volcano (apex).

THROAT - entrance of a volcano.

ASH - fragments of lava rocks that are blasted into the air by volcanic explosions

ASH CLOUD - a cloud of ash formed by volcanic explosions.

VOLCANIC BOMBS - are the Chunks of lava blasted into the air which solidify before reaching the ground

PYROCLASTIC FLOW - are fast moving current of hot gases and rock travelling downhill from a volcano

TEPHRA FALL - refers to the fragmented material that consists of pumice, scoria, lithic materials or combination of the four.

LAHAR - also known as mudflows are flowing mixture of volcanic debris and water

Volcanic eruptions
 Occurs when magma is expelled from a volcanic vent.
 Eruptions can be:
NONE EXPLOSIVE - lava quietly and steadily flows out of a volcano.
EXPLOSIVE - lava violently explodes out of a vent.

TYPES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION

 HAWAIIAN ERUPTION - Lava is thrown into the air in jets from a vent or line of vents at the summit.
 STROMBOLIAN ERUPTION - Smallest type of explosions which consist of intermittent, relatively small explosion from a
single vent.
 VULCANIAN ERUPTION - Is a violent type of eruption which is accompanied by violent gun shot noises and ejects a larger
property of volcanic ash and bombs.
 SURTSEYAN ERUPTION - Is a hydromagmatic eruption where magma or lava interact explosively with water.

TYPES OF VOLCANOES

SHIELD VOLCANO
 Named for their broad, shield like profiles.
 Formed from nonexplosive eruption of lava that can flow a great distance from a vent.
 ex. Mauna Loa in Indonesia

STRATOVOLCANO
 Known also as composite volcano.
 Are built from alternating layers of rock particles and lava.
 Formed from explosive eruption followed by nonexplosive eruption.
 ex. Mayon and Apo

CINDER CONE VOLCANO

 Simplest type of volcano.
 Have a narrow base and steep sides since they result from explosive eruptions.
 Formed from hardened lava (cinder) and other rock particles that are blown into the air.
 ex. Taal

OTHER VOLCANIC SURFACE FEATURES

LAVA DOME
 Are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava.
 Are formed by relatively small masses of lava to viscous to flow in any great distance.

LAVA PLATEAUS - Formed from thick and mostly flattened layer of cooled lava.
CALDERA - A large bowl-shaped depression formed when a volcano collapse

SUPER VOLCANOES - are described to produced the largest eruptions on Earth

SUBMARINE VOLCANO - Is created when magma erupts in the underwater fissures of the earth

Materials from volcanic eruptions

-lava
-volcanic dust and ashes
-volcanic bombs (large rocks)
-volcanic gases

HAZARDS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION

 LAVA FLOW - is a red hot with a very high temperature. That can cause injuries and damage to properties.
 PYROCLASTIC FLOWS - hot, fast-moving mixture of ash, rocks and hot gases, also known as glowing clouds.
 PYROCLASTIC SURGES - contain larger amount of gases and are faster than pyroclastic flows which also contain
poisonous gas.
 TEPHRA FALLS - are solid materials that are thrown out during a volcanic eruptions.
 VOLCANIC GASES - carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide are some of the gases.
 VOLCANIC MUDFLOWS - also called lahar, are violent, fast-moving suspensions of water, ash, rocks and other debris.
 TSUNAMIS - are giant ocean waves created by underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions that result in the
displacement of large volumes of water.

PREDICTING VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

 PHIVOLCS ( Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology )

 Volcanic quakes with rumbling sounds that are frequently observed in the vicinity of the volcano.
 Steam coming from the crater that changes in color from white to gray due to the presence of ash.
 Crater that glows because of the rising magma.
 Ground that swells, tilts and cracks due to magma intrusion.
 Landslide that occur or rocks that fall from the summit.
 Vegetation around the volcano dries up.
 Hot springs, wells and craters near the volcano increase in temperature
 Change in the chemical content of springs and crater lakes within the vicinity of the volcano.
 Drying of springs and wells around the volcano.
 Development of new volcanic field.

METIGATION MEASURES DURING ASH FALL

DURING AN ASH FALL

 Be calm
 Close the windows of your house and car.
 Keep your pets in a place.
 Cover water containers and food to avoid contamination
 If you are outdoors, seek shelter; wear glasses to protect your eyes.
 If you are driving a vehicle, move to the side of the road and stop.
 Scrape the ash that accumulated on the rooftops.

AFTER AN ASHFALL
 Collect the ashes and place them away from water drainage to avoid clogging.
 Use vacuum cleaner in cleaning.
 Use detergents in washing clothes contaminated with ash.
 Shake loose the ashes from plant before watering them.
 Wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly before eating.
 Clean roofs and gutters to prevent corrosion.

VOLCANOES AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY

GEOTHERMAL FIELD
 areas near volcanoes which is usually surrounded by hot springs or boiling mud pools.
 Geothermal Energy use the heat beneath the earth’s surface.
 It is being used in the Philippines to supply power to several islands.

HOW USEFUL ARE VOLCANOES?

SOIL ENRICHMENT
 Volcanic eruptions gives of large amounts of ash which contains different amount of soil nutrients.
 Eruptions also releases iron, magnesium and potassium.
FORMATION OF VOLCANIC LANDFORMS - Eruption can create volcanic islands.
VOLCANIC MINERALS AND STONE
 Volcanic ash and glass can be used as ingredients in making soap, cement, metal polish, woodwork and for roads and
railroads.
 Minerals found in volcanoes are sulfur, zinc, silver, copper, gold and uranium.

GLOBAL COOLING - Eruption gives off volcanic ash and sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere that reflect some of the Sun’s ray
back into space.

EARTHQUAKE

AN EARTHQUAKE
 (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release
of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic waves.
 Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those violent enough to toss
people around and destroy whole cities.
 The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a
period of time.
 Earthquakes are measured using measurements from seismometers.
 The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for
the entire globe.
 The more numerous earthquakes smaller than magnitude 5 reported by national seismological observatories are
measured mostly on the local magnitude scale, also referred to as the Richter magnitude scale.

WHAT ARE SEISMIC WAVES?

 Are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion. They are the energy
that travels throught the earth and is recorded on seismographs
 Type of seismic waves ( P WAVES, S WAVES, SURFACE WAVES)

PRIMARY WAVE ( P WAVE ) SECONDARY WAVE ( S WAVE) SURFACE WAVE

Travels through ground
Fastest waves
Can travel through solid and liquid
Rock particles move in the same
direction as EQ
Travels through ground Travels only on earth’s surface
Medium speed waves Slowest waves
Only travel through solids
Rock particles move perpendicular to
direction of EQ

SEISMOMETERS - used to measure seismic waves

SEISMOGRAPHS - recording device used to produce a permanent record of the motion detected by seismometers

EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE SCALE

THE RICHTER SCALE

- measures energy waves emitted by earthquake
0 - 1.9 --- can be detected only by seismograph
2 - 2.9 --- hanging objects may swing
3 - 3.9 --- comparable to the vibrations of a passing truck
4 - 4.9 --- may break windows, cause small or unstable objects to fall
5 - 5.9 --- furniture moves, chunks of plaster may fall from walls
6 - 6.9 --- damage to well built structures, severe damage to poorly built ones
7 - 7.9 --- building displaced from foundations, cracks in the earth, underground pipes broken
8 - 8.9 --- bridges destroyed, few structure left standing
9 and over --- near total destruction, waves moving through the earth visible with naked eye

SEISMIC INTENSITY SCALE AND ESTIMATED PHYSICAL DAMAGE

SCALE 0 - people feel no quake

SCALE 1 - some people indoors feels slight quake
SCALE 2 - many people indoors feel quake, and suspended objects such as luminaire slighly sway.
SCALE 3 - many people indoors feel quake, and dinnerwares in the cupboard make a slight chatter.
SCALE 4 - sleeping people are awakened and potential falling of unstable objects in the room may be concerned. Some
people feel quake while walking.
SCALE 5 - (lower) furniture moves, and dinnerware and books fall of the shelves. The windows may shatter.
SCALE 5 - (upper) the falling of heavy furniture such as chest of drawers may be observed and vending machines in the street
may fall. Drivers have trouble steering
SCALE 6 - (lower) people have difficulty standing still. The shatteing of wall tiles and windows is observed with many buildings
and doors could be damaged that they may not open.
SCALE 6 - (upper) people are unable to stand up and forced to crawl to move around. The falling of most heavy furniture is
observed, and doors will be thrown into the air.
SCALE 7 - people lose total control of their physical action. Massive cracks appear in the ground, and landslide occur.

 Tsunamis are actually huge, extending from the fault on the sea floor up to the surface, but they don’t stick up more
than a meter or so in the deep ocean. However, when they reach shallow water they must rear up and slow down.
 Destructive waves called “tidal waves”
 Result from “push” of underwater fault or undersea landslide
 In open ocean height is > 1 meter
 In shallow coast water wave can be > 30 meters
 Very destructive

Date Location Deaths Magnitude Comments

May 31, 1970 Peru 66,000 7.9 $530,000,000

damage, great rock

slide, floods.
July 27, 1976 China, Tangshan 255,000 7.5 Estimated death toll as high as 655,000.
(official)
Sept 19, 1985 MexiconMichoacan 9500 (official) 8.0 Estimated death toll as high as 30,000

Old lake bed magnified shock waves by 500

%
2001 Jan 26 India 20,023 7.7 166,836 injured, 600,000 homeless

.
2004 Dec 26 Sumatra 283,106 9.0 Deaths from earthquake and tsunami

DEFORMATION - changes in a objects shape or form due to the application of a force or forces

TENSIONAL STRESS - “pull apart” stress. Thins and stretches crust, associated with rifting.

COMPRESSIONAL STRESS - push together stress, shorten and thickens crust, which squeezes rocks

SHEAR SRESS - slippage of one rock mass past another. In shallow crust, shear is often accommodated by bedding planes.

JOINTS AND FAULTS

FORMATION OF JOINTS
 Joints are brittle fractures which develop either by tensile failure or shear failure
 When this happens, the rock fractures in a plane parallel to the maximum principal stress and perpendicular to the
minimum principal stress ( the direction in which the rock is being stretched
 A large number of joints form after the close of the tectonic cycle and during a slow uplift of the rocks

FAULTS
 A break in the rock layers along which there is no movement is called a fracture.
 Once movement occurs, the fracture is known as fault.

OROGENY - processes that form all of mountain ranges

A. Create broad, linear regions of deformation known as orogenic belts
B. Most belts are associated with plate boundaries

MOUNTAINS - natural landforms that reach high elevations

A. Usually have narrow summits and steep slopes.
B. Rise at least 600 meters above the surrounding land

MOUNTAIN BARRIERS - cause different climates on opposite sides of mountains

A. Moisture carrying winds must rise to get over mountains
B. Air cools as it rises, losing ability to hold water causing rain on the windward side
C. This leaves no moisture for the leeward side creating a desert.

OROGENY
 Mountains are the result of tectonic forces to rock
 Orogeny is a process by which a mountain is build
 Mountain building on continents is associated with intense deformation, folding, and faulting, usually along convergent
plate boundaries.

FOLD MOUNTAINS
 Fold mountains include the andes and himalayan mountains
 Fold mountains occur at convergent plate boundaries

FAULT BLOCK MOUNTAINS

 Mountains along the san andreas fault are examples of fault block mountains

VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS
 There are numerous volcanic mountains along the ring of fire. An example of a dome mountain is mount rushmore.

METAMORPHISM
 is the change of minerals or geologic texture (distinct arrangement of minerals) in pre-existing rocks (protoliths), without
the protolith melting into liquid magma (a solid-state change).
 The change occurs primarily due to heat, pressure, and the introduction of chemically active fluids.
 There are 3 main agents that cause metamorphism.Factors that cause an increase in Temperature, Pressure, and
Chemical changes are the three agents that we are going to study.
 Temperature increases can be caused by layers of sediments being buried deeper and deeper under the surface of the
Earth.
 The three main rock types are igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary.
 The three processes that change one rock to another are crystallization, metamorphism, and erosion and sedimentation.
 Any rock can transform into any other rock by passing through one or more of these processes. This creates the rock cycle.
 Rocks are formed on Earth as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks form when rocks are heated to
the melting point which forms magma.
This changing of rock types is called the
"Rock Cycle". Solid rock can be changed
into a new rock by stresses that cause
an increase in heat and pressure.

PROTOLITH - the parent rock subjected to

metamorphism

ENERGY RESOURCES
 Energy is simply defined as the capacity to do work while resource is the general term referring to any item which is used
for specific purposes. Energy is derived from
nuclear, fossil fuels, geothermal, hydro,
wind, solar, and biomass.
 Renewable resource can be replenished or regenerated on a human time scale.
 Non renewable resource cannot be replenished or regenerated on a human time scale.

ENERGY - is the ability to do work.

 RENEWABLE FORMS CARRIES OF ENERGY NON RENEWABLE FORMS
solar electricity coal
wind hydrogen oil
geothermal Natural gas
Water (hydroelectric and tidal) nuclear
biomass

FOSSIL FUEL
 Fossil Fuels are the most common energy source
 A hydrocarbon deposit, such as petroleum, coal, or natural gas, derived from living matter of a previous geologic time
and used for fuel.
 Over half of the fossil fuels in the world are by the US, China and European Union countries that are considered
consumed “advanced.”
 Different types of fossil fuel are COAL, NATURAL GAS, and OIL.

COAL
 A combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon and hydrocarbons.
 It is the MOST ABUNDANT fossil fuel in the US.
 COAL Formation Takes a LONG Time

MINING COAL 2 METHODS

SURFACE MINING (METHOD 1)

 Least expensive method.
 Used when coal is less than 200 ft below the surface.
 Topsoil layers are removed and then REPLACED after coal layer has been extracted, allowing for the area to be re-
planted or used for other natural sites.
 In the US, it is mandatory that land be returned as closely as possible as was its original state prior to coal removal.
 Surface Mining of Coal Removes Land From Agriculture Production

COAL MINING (METHOD 2) or UNDERGROUND MINING

 Also called Deep Mining, used when deposits are between 200ft and 1,000ft deep.
 Elevators must be used to haul machinery and personnel.
 Expensive process, includes much specialized machinery.
 Risk of cave-ins and suffocation hazards.
 COAL Mining Operations are Hazardous, Especially Deep Mining.

 COAL Must Be Processed to Increase the Heating Value and Allow for Cleaner Burning
 Common impurities are removed :
-rocks
-ash
-sulfur
-dirt
-other unwanted materials

FOUR TYPES OF COAL WE USE FOR FUEL

-peat
-lignite
-sub-bituminous/bituminous
-anthracite

 he US has the world’s largest known coal reserves, over 267 billion tons, enough to last over 200 years at the current
usage rate.
 BURNING COAL = POLLUTION
 Nearly 50% of the nitrogen oxide (Nox) in the atmosphere and 70% of sulfur dioxide are direct result of emissions
released when coal is burned.
 These are directly responsible for crop failures from “acid rain” formation

HUMAN HEALTH ISSUES SURROUND COLA MINING AND ITS USE

 Workers can contract lung diseases, skin diseases and ulcers from coal dust and other impurities mined.
 Burning coal produces huge amounts of smog, also related to illness.

Another Important Fossil Fuel is OIL

OIL
 Oil is derived from Petroleum, the definition of which is : a thick, flammable, yellow-to-black mixture of gaseous, liquid,
and solid hydrocarbons that occurs naturally beneath the earth's surface.
 can be separated into fractions including natural gas, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, fuel and lubricating oils, paraffin wax,
and asphalt and is used as raw material for a wide variety of derivative products.

HOW OIL IS FORMED?

 Tiny sea plants and animals died and were buried on the ocean floor. Over time, they were covered by layers of silt and
sand.
 Over millions of years, the remains were buried deeper and deeper. The enormous heat and pressure turned them into
oil and gas.
 Today, we drill down through layers of sand, silt, and rock to reach the rock formations that contain oil and gas deposits.

WHERE DO WE GET TODAY’S OIL?

 Crude oil is a smelly, yellow-to-black liquid and is usually found in underground areas called reservoirs (crude oil =
petroleum).
 The top 5 OIL-producing nations are Saudi Arabia, USSR, USA, Iran, China.
 58% of the crude oil used for fuel and products in the US is imported from other nations.
 The top 5 oil-producing states are Texas, Alaska, California, Louisiana, and Oklahoma.

WHY OIL IN SUCH IN DEMAND?

 Here’s a partial list of what oil is currently used for:
 Cooling, computers, fertilizer, feedstocks, heating, adhesives, paint, plastics, clothing, building materials, medicine,
trucks, cars, tractors, fencing, tools, rope, diesel, gasoline, solvents, lubricants, laboratory materials, colognes,
detergents, and much, much more

WHY DO WE NEED SO MUCH OIL?

 The world population has been steadily increasing, more people means greater energy demand.
 Several countries are achieving higher levels of development today, more building and transportation means greater
demand for energy.
 Oil is an extremely versatile fuel, it can be transformed into many other products.
 Oil-derived fuels (such a gasoline) burn easily, burn HOT, and the current transportation industry is designed to use it
nearly exclusively.

OIL MUST BE DRILLED FROM DEEP WITHIN THE EARTH

 Drilling “Rigs” are constructed both on land and in the ocean to dig into oil reservoirs and search for new oil deposits.
 Working these rigs can be very hazardous, safety is a major concern since any petroleum found is under pressure and
highly flammable.

DRILLING RIGS
 Land-based rigs are smaller and more numerous than offshore.
 Smaller crews are needed to operate (usually 5–8 workers).
 Fairly easily moved from place to place.
 Offshore rigs are much larger and more expensive to build.
 Larger crews are needed to operate (usually 25-40 workers).
 Extremely hard to move from place to place.

ONCE THE PETROLEUM DEPOSIT IS FOUND, THE “CRUDE” MUST BE PUMPED AND TRANSPORTED
 “Pump jacks” move the crude up from the well into pipelines and storage tanks.
 Other stations pump the oil to larger tanks or waiting barges.
 Crude is taken to refinery for production into fuel.

PETROLEUM MUST FIRST BE REFINED TO DERIVE OIL, GAS, AND OTHER FUELS
 Refineries are tremendously expensive operations.
 Petroleum (crude) is carefully heated to specific temps, and the fumes are collected and cooled back into liquid form
(condensates).
 Gasoline, diesel, kerosene, etc, all are products of various fume-collection and distillation.
 The danger of explosions is constant and extreme.
 A typical refinery can process 500,000gal of petroleum per day.

NATURAL GAS (ANOTHER FOSSIL FUEL)

 Used in homes, businesses, industry, vehicles and power plants.
 Consumption is expected to rise by 50% by 2025.
 Since it is colorless and odorless, a scent is added to it for safety purposes – called a “mercaptan” – giving it a sulfur-
based, rotten-egg type smell that cannot be removed.
 Fossil Fuel, formed similarly oil, found in petroleum.
 Removed from Earth by drilling, the pressure is usually sufficient to allow it flow to the surface.
 Colorless, odorless gas with a simple chemical structure (CH4)
 24% of the world’s energy is derived by burning natural gas.
NATURAL GAS AND OIL ARE BOTH RETRIEVED BY DRILLING
 Both Natural Gas and Oil are often found along smaller faults deep within the Earth.
 Coastal and northern Louisiana is abundant with natural gas reserves.
 Louisiana is one of the top 5 natural gas-producing states in the US.

NATURAL GAS -- DIFFERENT FORMS

 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is an alternative fuel for gas and diesel engines, is stored in tanks similar to acetylene.
 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is used in large-scale industry. Cooled to -260F, it is now being used as a fuel for trucking
and ocean-going vessels.
 CNG and LNG Only accounts for 4% of natural gas consumption worldwide.

HYDROGEN-ENRICHED NATURAL GAS

 A blend of natural gas and hydrogen, usually 12% H and 80% NG.
 Can reduce emissions of Nitrogen Oxides by 30-50% without affecting the performance of regular natural gas engines.
 These 2 fuels come mainly from domestic supplies, lessening the US’s dependency on foreign countries.

NATURAL GAS BY PRODUCT PROPANE

 Fuel that is easily stored in pressurized tanks.
 Used as fuel for cooking, transportation.
 Also a by-product of oil refining.
 Burns cleaner than gasoline or diesel.

FOSSIL FUEL POSE PROBLEMS

 Coal, Oil and Natural Gas products are extremely widespread, and in higher demand each passing day.
 Supplies will eventually be depleted.
 Use of these products are filling landfills, polluting land, rivers, lakes, oceans, and air.
 Oil spills are common, on average, 12 spills over 1000 gallons each occur every day.

DRILLING
 Disrupts Earth’s natural strata
 Threat of producing sinkholes
 Possibility of water contamination

OIL SPILLS
 Destroy environment
 Kills Wildlife
 Expensive to clean-up

OIL SPILLS POSE DANGER

 Environment is damaged, usually coastline wildlife losses are high.
 Most of the oil is never recovered (usually only 10-20%) can be salvaged.
 Oil sinks to seafloor, killing important decomposers, natural balance is interrupted.
 Oil is eventually decomposed by marine organisms, however, it could enter the food chain of ocean wildlife, possible
human contamination threat.

 Most-Publicized US Oil Spill was the Exxon Valdez, March 24, 1989
 Ran a ground in Prince William Sound, Alaska, spilling more than 11 million gallons of crude.

SPILL DON’T JUST OCCURS IN OCEANS

 Land spills can occur from the thousands of land-based rigs, pump-jacks, storage containers, refineries, and transport
vehicles.
 Spills on agricultural-producing land and irrigation sources usually result in costly clean-up and containment procedures.
 Often spills can alter the land’s ability to produce, rendering the soil unusable for decades or longer.
 To report an oil spill, contact the EPA at (800) 424-8802
 Sludge pits, storage tanks, fuel tank leaks, as well as numerous waste products from oil and gas production can
devastate the soil’s ability to grow marketable crops in the US.

PIPELINE RIGHT OF WAYS

 Areas where pipelines are buried cannot be used to grow crops.
 Strips of land are usually of considerable length and blowouts can occur
DRILLING FOR PETROLEUM DEMANDS EXTREME SAFETY MEASURES
 As more workers are needed for increased supplies, an increase in injuries can be expected if safety measures are not
strictly enforced.

Burning Petroleum Products Produces Immense Amounts of Air Pollution

-smog
-human illness
-crop failures
-acid rain
WHAT THREAT DOES ACID RAIN POSE?
 Calcium, a necessary element for soil filtration, is depleted by acid rain.
 The loss of calcium can harm plant growth and result in plant die-offs.
 Heavy metals (such as aluminum) can be absorbed by plants due to calcium depletion, resulting in diminished growth
rates and plant die-offs.
 Aluminum has been linked to Alzheimer’s disease in humans.
 Research also links acid rain to climate changes.

ANOTHER ENERGY SOURCE FROM UNDERGROUND, BUT NOT FROM FOSSILS

 Fossil fuels are NON-renewable, and are found beneath the Earth’s crust.
 Fossil fuels do not burn clean.
 Uranium is also mined from beneath the Earth’s crust, and by controlling a reaction called “fission”, tremendous heat
can be achieved.
 Supplies are limited, but the energy it can create burns much cleaner than fossil fuels.

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY - SHORT REVIEW

 Coal – several types, must be mined, acid rain, transportation expensive.
 Oil – Hazardous retrieval and refining process, most is imported (costly), spills, acid rain.
 Natural Gas – Same problems of production as oil, high transportation costs.
 Nuclear (Uranium) – public acceptance a problem, dangerous waste, plants are expensive to build.

FOSSIL FUELS AND GLOBAL WARMING

 Burning these fuels produce excessive amounts of greenhouse gases (CO2)
 Failing to reduce these emissions may likely cause our global climate to change and if it changes, agriculture will
definitely change.
 The average temp has risen 1.6 deg F since 1880, and at a steep rate since 1960.

 Petron Corp. (PSE: PCOR) is the largest oil refining and marketing company in the Philippines, supplying more than a
third of the country's oil requirements. Petron operates a refinery in Limay, Bataan, with a rated capacity of 180,000
barrels per day (29,000 m3/d).

NUCLEAR POWER
 A nuclear power plant or nuclear power station is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a nuclear reactor.
As is typical in all conventional thermal power stations the heat is used to generate steam which drives a steam
turbine connected to an electric generator which produces electricity.
 Nuclear power stations are usually considered to be base load stations, since fuel is a small part of the cost of
production.
 Their operations and maintenance (O&M) and fuel costs are, along with hydropower stations, at the low end of the
spectrum and make them suitable as base-load power suppliers. The cost of spent fuel management, however, is
somewhat uncertain.

PROS AND CONS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY

PROS (CONTINUED)
 Carbon free source of electricity - no green house gas emitted
 May be able to generate H fuel

CONS
 Generate radioactive waste
 Many steps requires fossil fuel (mining and disposal)
 Expensive

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
 geo means “earth” and thermal means “heat” ( earth heat)
 Geothermal energy is the heat from the earth. Its clean and sustainable. Resources of geothermal energy range from the
shallow ground to hot water and hot rock found a few miles beneath the earth’s surface and down even deeper to the
extremely high temperature of molten rock called magma.
 Geothermal power stations are similar to other steam turbine thermal power stations heat from a fuel source is used to
heat water or another working fluid. The working fluid is used to turn a turbine of generator, thereby producing
electricity.

 The steam rotates a turbine that activates a generator, which produces electricity. Many power plants still use fossil
fuels to boil water for steam. Geothermal power plants, however, use steam produced from reservoirs of hot water
found a couple of miles or more below the Earth's surface.
 This Geothermal power plant in Reykjavik, Iceland, is using their underground reservoirs of steam and hot water to
generate electricity and to heat and cool buildings directly. Geothermal energy has been used for thousands of years in
some countries for cooking and heating.

TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

DRY STEAM PLANTS - use steam directly from a geothermal reservoir to turn generator turbines. The first geothermal power
plant was built in 1904 in Tuscany, Italy, where natural steam erupted from the earth.

FLASH STEAM PLANTS - plants take high-pressure hot water from deep inside the earth and convert it to steam to drive
generator turbines. When the steam cools, it condenses to water and is injected back into the ground
to be used again. Most geothermal power plants are flash steam plants.

BINARY CYCLE POWER PLANT - plants transfer the heat from geothermal hot water to another liquid. The heat causes the
second liquid to turn to steam, which is used to drive a generator turbine.

HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY
 Flowing water creates energy that can be captured and turned into electricity. This is called hydroelectric power or
hydropower. The most common type of hydroelectric power plant uses a dam on a river to store water in a reservoir.
 Gravity causes it to fall through the penstock inside the dam. At the end of the penstock there is a turbine propeller,
which is turned by the moving water. The shaft from the turbine goes up into the generator, which produces the power
A hydroelectric generator converts this mechanical energy into electricity.
 Harnessing Hydroelectric Power. The combination of electrical generators and hydraulic turbines
allows hydropower systems to convert the potential energy of dammed or flowing water into storable electrical output.
 When water from the dam passes through, the turbines spin. This creates electricity. Hydroelectric power is produced as
water passes through a dam, and into a river below. The more water that passes through a dam, the more energy is
produced
 In a pumped storage plant, water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir during off-peak times when
electricity is relatively cheap, using electricity generated from other types of energy sources. When the hydropower
power is needed, it is released back into the lower reservoir through turbines.
 The biggest hydro plant in the United States is located at the Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River in northern
Washington. More than 70 percent of the electricity made in Washington State is produced by hydroelectric facilities.
Hydropower is the cheapest way to generate electricity today.
 Hydropower is fueled by water, so it's a clean fuel source, meaning it won't pollute the air like power plants that burn
fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas. Hydroelectric power is a domestic source of energy, allowing each state to
produce their own energy without being reliant on international fuel sources.

THE POWER OF WIND ENERGY

 is the electrical energy obtained from harnessing the wind.
 Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Wind energy(or wind power) describes the process by which wind is used to
generate electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. A generator can
convert mechanical power into electricity.
 Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used
for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into
electricity to power homes, businesses, schools, and the like.
 Wind turbines operate on a simple principle. The energy in the wind turns two or three propeller-like blades around a
rotor. The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which spins a generator to create electricity.
 A wind farm can also be located offshore. Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in China, the
United States and Germany. For example, the largest wind farm in the world, Gansu Wind Farm in China has a capacity
of over 6,000 MW
 Wind energy doesn't pollute the air like power plants that rely on combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal or natural
gas. Wind turbines don't produce atmospheric emissions that increase health problems like asthma or create acid rain or
greenhouse gases
 Power-technology.com profiles the world's 10 largest wind farms based on installed capacity.
 ALTA WIND ENERGY, US
 SHEPHERD FLAT WIND FARM, US
 ROSCOE WIND FARM, USE
 LONDON ARRAY OFFSHORE WIND FARM, UK
 FANTANELE COGEALAC WIND FARM, ROMANIA
 FOWLER RIDGE WIND FARM, INDIANA, US
 Wind turbines convert around 45% of the wind passing through the blades into electricity (and almost 50% at
peak efficiency) Wind farm capacity factors are lower than coal and base load gas plants, but they use
their energy source more efficiently and can be large-scale suppliers of electricity.
 A modern wind turbine produces electricity 70-85% of the time, but it generates different outputs depending on
the wind speed. Over the course of a year, it will typically generate about 24% of the theoretical maximum output (41%
offshore). This is known as its capacity factor.

 The first all-steel windmill and tower was produced by the United States Wind Engine & Pump Co. The first electricity-
generating wind turbine was invented in 1888 in Cleveland, Ohio by Charles F. Brush.
 Where does wind come from? Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun. During the day
the air above land heats up faster than the air above water such as oceans and lakes, making the air above water cooler
and heavier.

GENERAL DISADVANTAGE OF WIND ENERGY

 The main disadvantage regarding wind power is down to the winds unreliability factor. In many areas, the wind strength
is not enough to support a wind turbine.
 Wind turbines generally produce a lot less electricity than the average fossil fuelled power station, which means that
multiple wind turbines are needed to make an impact

SOLAR ENERGY
 Electromagnetic energy (solar radiation) transmitted by the sun (approximately one billionth of which reaches the earth)
that is the basis of all terrestrial life. It amounts to about 420 trillion kilowatt-hours, and is several thousand times
greater than all the energy used by all the people.
 Solar energy is harnessed by capturing the sun's heat (through solar heaters) or light (through photovoltaic cells). It is
estimated that one square kilometer (about 0.4 square miles) of land area receives some 4000 kilowatts (4 megawatts)
of solar energy every day enough for the requirements of a medium-sized town.
 Is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating,
photovoltaic,
 The energy the Earth receives from the sun, primarily as visible light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. (See
renewable resource.) Note: The term solar energy often refers to processes that use this energy to generate heat or
electricity for human use.
 is created by nuclear fusion that takes place in the sun. It is necessary for life on Earth, and can be harvested for human
uses such
 Energy derived from the sun's radiation. Solar energy is used on Earth in various ways. It is used as a passive source
of energy, for example, in the form of sunlight that comes through a window and heats up a room, or as an active
source, as in the conversion of sunlight to electrical energy in solar cells.

WHAT IS SOLAR ENERGY?

 Energy produced by the sun
 Clean, renewable source of energy
 Harnessed by solar collection methods such as solar cell
 Converted into usable energy such as electricity

BIOMASS
 is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and other organic matter. Burning biomass releases carbon
emissions, around a quarter higher than burning coal, but has been classed as a "renewable" energy source in the legal
frameworks, because plants can be regrown. It has become popular among coal power stations, which switch from coal
to biomass to comply with the law.
 Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, and are specifically
called lignocellulosic biomass. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat,
or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different
methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods.

MEDIA AND INFORMATION LITERACY

Current and Future Trends in Media

Ubiquitous Learning - is the concept of learning in any given place at any given time supported by computing technologies. In
the information and communication world, ubiquitous computing is still considered as a new technology.
Characteristics of Ubiquitous Learning
1. Accessibility - information is always available whenever the learners need to access and use it from anywhere.
2. Context - awareness - environment can adapt with real situations to provide adequate information for the learners.
3. Immediacy - information can be retrieved immediately by the learners.
4. Interactivity - learners can interact with others efficiently and effectively through different forms of media.
5. Permanency - information will remain unless it was removed on purpose.

Massive Open Online Course - is a web- based distance learning program designated for the participation of large numbers
of students that operates for free. It is also provides an affordable and flexible way to learn new skills, advance careers and
deliver quality educational experiences at scale that anyone can enroll in.
Advantages of MOOC’s
1. Active Learning - research shows that students learn more through active learning rather than through listening to
lectures.
2. Collaboration - improves across cultural relationships which leads to collaboration between educators and learners
worldwide.
3. Language- course options are not just restricted based on where the students’ lives. Courses taught in other foreign
countries are provided with subtitles.
4. Monitored- Performance can be monitored easily using the data captures throughout the duration of courses
5. Opportunity- creates the opportunity for sharing ideas and knowledge and helps improving skills by providing easy access
to global resources.
Challenges of MOOC’s
1. Connection - learners with poor internet connection will have problems learning the modules because MOOCs are being
offered online
2. Cheating - lack of personal attention from instructors might lead to an increase in the number of instances of cheating
among students.
3. Interaction - with a large number of students, opportunities to get one-on- one with your professor might be hard unlike in
the traditional environment.
4. Less exposure - technical courses like Engineering needs physical, hands- on and practical exposures. It is quite though to
be delivered through MOOC.
5. Simplified - courses are often simplified and may not match the level of the real courses.

Wearable Technology - are electronics that can be worn on the body, either as an accessory or as part of the material used in
clothing. This type of device has become a common part of the technology world as companies have started to evolve or
alter different devices into sizes small enough to be worn.
 Head-Mounted Displays - worn on the head that deliver information straight to the users’ eyes. It is being used in the
fields of aviation, military, medical and engineering.
 Fitness trackers - worn on the wrists. This use to keep track the number of steps and can monitor the heart rate and
give an accurate data of the calories burned.
 Smart watches - It can connected to the user’s mobile phone, it will notify the user about social media messages,
email and calls.
 Smart Jewelry - are capable of informing the user of any emails, call, or text when they are unable to access their
phone.
 Smart Clothing - it provides features such as monitoring heart rate, breathing, and even stress levels.
 Implantable - this devices implanted under the skin through surgeries so the user will have to carry them wherever
they go.

3D Environment - is a computer simulated realistic setting in which users can virtually explore and deal with a 3D interactive
environment. It is widely used by animators and designers for the film, games, broadcast, web and advertising industries.
Types of 3D environment
 Desktop Virtual Reality refers to computer programs that stimulate a real or imaginary world in 3D format that is
displayed on the screen of the computer.
 Immersive Virtual Reality is the presentation of an artificial environment that replacers user’s surroundings to
convince they are in a fully engaged created environment.
Uses of 3D Environment
1. Advertising
5. Geology and Science
2. Architecture
6. Healthcare
3. Entertainment 7. Manufacturing
4. Gaming 8. Publishing

Impacts of Media and Information

Information Literacy – capability to learn and utilize various types of information and crucial skill in pursuing knowledge. In
involves the ability to identify, find, locate, evaluate, use and clearly communicate information in various formats efficiently
and effectively.
Literate person must possess and sustain certain capabilities
IDENTIFY
LOCATE
EVALUATE & UNDERSTAND
SYNTHESIZE
PRESENT

IMPACT OF MEDIA & INFORMATION TO AN INDIVIDUAL

It is easily noticeable that the impact of obtaining information with the help of media and the use of technology has a huge
advantage for both the personal and professional level.
Educational
- Increases the ability, literacy, knowledge, and skills of every student with the use of different media sources
and transforms teaching techniques into those that enable the teacher to learn along with the students.
- provides every individual with new information and knowledge whether through watching, listening or reading along
with a wide range of benefits and opportunities that can be used to empower themselves in a variety of ways.
Professional
- It is always a huge advantage to be able to promote the company, publicize job openings, acquire job candidates and
verify background information.
IMPACT OF MEDIA & INFORMATION TO SOCIETY
ECONOMIC - Improves and strengthens economy by creating jobs, making information available to everyone and promoting
brands far beyond their borders.
EDUCATION - Different types of media applications and programs including documentaries, movies, short presentations and
etc. are helpful in building knowledge for every student.
POLITICAL - can be utilized as a platform to expose private and public sector corruption. It allows people to voice their
opinions on the current governance and help build unity in public to bring about change.
SOCIAL- includes the capability of every individual to conveniently stay in touch with their family and friends who are far
away or participate in every decision that will shape their lives.

PEOPLE MEDIA
- is the term used for those individuals who widely influence others by reaching out to them through various means.
- May also be defined as the utilization of people who are competent in their particular fields to talk about their skills
and help other learn with first hand experiences on a particular field or topic.
Types and characteristics of People Media
1. Articulated - it is having the ability of being able to express oneself easily and in a clear and effective manner.
2. Charismatic - is having the ability to build a favorable image that can be seen by other people or individuals.
3. Credible - is the capability of convincing people to believe that something will be successful or trustworthy.
4. Flexible - able to utilize and choose from a wide range of technology and perform varying tasks in the proper manner
5. Tech savvy – refers to proficiency in the usage of various technology and devices, particularly computers and smartphone.
6. Updated - is being up to date with the current information, events, and technology.

People as Media
- Provide information to people in a manner that is as quick, accurate, functional and reliable as possible.
1. Citizen Journalism - refers to any type of news gathering and broadcasting of information using websites, blog and social
media that is conducted by individuals who are not journalists or without professional training in journalism.
2. Crowdsourcing - who are involved in crowd sourcing sometimes work a free lances while others do so on a voluntary basis.
It involves the practice of obtaining needed knowledge, ideas, information, opinions, work, or services from a large group of
people form the online community.
3. Opinion Leaders - serve as a leader for a certain group who gives details and information to the people who are less active
in the group. They are actively using media and possess a strong social status.
Monomorphic opinion leaders – influence of information that is provided by an opinion leader is limited and is of
consequence to only one specific topic rather than a broad set of information.
Polymorphic opinion leaders - leader’s opinion influence covers multiple topics and areas. It is more conventional style of
leadership.
4. Social Journalism - journalists that use social media in order to make their content available to more people. Social media
is a very effective and powerful tool for every journalist as well as for ordinary citizens in sharing their own thoughts or
information.

People in Media
- These are the people who operate behind another form of media. They are the media practitioners who, thought
their expert knowledge or firsthand experience of an event, can provide accurate, relevant, and valuable information.

1. Broadcast Journalist - responsibilities of a broadcast journalist include doing research, investigating, sources, developing,
monitoring and presenting news stories and current affairs content across various broadcast channels.
2. Multimedia Journalist - responsibilities of a multimedia journalist is kept informed about current news and events who
gather information, write and broadcast stories.
3. Photo journalist - who captures, edits, and present images that shape an event, incident or people and create or tell story
through their photographs that corresponds with current news features. They also visit several locations to obtain
photographs of events, sceneries, people, incidents, or occurrences for journalists purpose.
4. Print Journalist - research, gather, investigate, develop, and report news stories or events in newspapers, magazines, or
other printed media form to a board audience.
Advantages, Limitations, and Values of People Media
People media is considered as the most essential media. It is considered as facilitator if all media considering its advantages,
limitations and values.
Advantages of People Media
1. It educated people.
2. People get the latest news in a very short time
3. Serves as a good source of entertainment
4. Media leads to difficult culture.
5. Children’s knowledge increases through playing quiz programs, animal programs and so on.
Limitations of People Media
1. Some media contents are not suitable for children.
2. Health problems.
3. It can lead to ruin of reputation.
4. It leads to individualism.
Values of People Media
fair
competition
honesty
respect
decency

Text Information and Media

- is a simple and flexible format of presenting information or conveying ideas whether hand-written, printed or
displayed on-screen
Formal text- based materials
- created and distributed by institutions such as publishing companies, new agencies and go through a process of
editing or evaluation
Informal text-based materials
- comes from personal opinions or views on different issues, and processes
Text as Visual
Typeface or also called font type or font refers to the representation or style of a text in the digital format. Typeface is
usually comprised of alphabets, numbers, punctuation marks, symbols, and other special characters

SELECTION CRITERIA
TEXT can be as short such as a single sentence of phrase, or that can be as lengthy as news articles or investigating reporting.
There are questions that you need to ask with regards to the content of text media and information (consumer)
Who or what institution is sending this message?
• What technique are used to attract andholdattention?
• What is the language used by the writer?
• What views are represented? Are they balanced?
• How might the message be interpretedindifferentways?
• What is omitted, slurred or added in themessage?

As a producer of text media and information, we need to review the media and information design framework:
Target audience
• Author or sender
• Key content
• Purpose
• Form/ style
• Format

Principle in designing text

EMPHASIS
- refers to the importance or value given to a part of the text- based content
APPROPRIATENESS
- Refers to how fitting or suitable the text is used for a specific audience, purpose or event.
PROXIMITY
- Refers to how near or how far are the text elements from each other.
ALIGNMENT
 - Refers to how the text is popsitioned in the page
ORGANIZATION
- Refers to a conscious effort to organize the different text elements in a page.
CONTRAST
- Creates visual interest to text elements. It is achieved when two elements are different from each other.

GENERAL BIOLOGY

THE MOLECULES OF LIFE

 How is the study of biology linked with the study of chemistry?

 What does the building, the human body and the plant have in common?
 Despite the complexity of living systems, chemical substance in the body can be examined.
 This can be done through another branch of science which is the BIOCHEMISTRY
 The living cell is primarily composed of complex system of different compounds and these are grouped into two
categories (ORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY)
 All living organisms are made up of different elements known as the simplest forms of substance
that cannot be simplified into another form.
 There are seven major elements that make up 98-99 percent of the weight of all living systems.
 These elements help in maintaining vital processes inside the body of living organisms.

 CARBON
-makes up 18% of the human body.
- helps in cellular respiration
-main components of organic compounds.
 HYDROGEN
-account for 10% of the mass of the body.
-essential in energy production.
-H+ ion can be used as a proton pump to produce ATP
 OXYGEN
-most abundant element in the body.
-makes up 61-65% of the mass of the body
-used for cellular respiration.
 NITROGEN
- makes up 3% of the mass of the body.
- key elements for proteins, nucleic acids and other organic molecules.

 PHOSPHOROUS
-1.2% to 1.5% of the mass of human body.
-important for bone structure
-primary energy molecule in the body.
-major components of nucleic acids.
 SULFUR
-0.20% to 0.25% of the mass of the body
-important component of amino acids and proteins
-allows cells to use oxygen.
 CALCIUM
-1.5% of human body weight
-gives the skeletal system its rigidity and strength.
-found in bones and teeth
-important for muscle functions.

 Some elements can also be found in little amount in the human body such as Si, Cl, Mn, Co, Cu and Zn.
 96% are the C, O, H, N
 3.5% major elements which are the Ca, P, K, S, Na, Cl, Mg
 0.5% is trace elements such as B, Co, Cu, F, I, Fe, Mn, Mo, Se, Si, Sb, Zn.
 Trace elements are chemical elements present only in minute amounts in the living systems for normal growth

WATER
 No organism can live without water
 Living organisms contain between 45 to 95 percent water.
 The most abundant inorganic compound inside the cell’s protoplasm.

FUNCTIONS IN THE LIVING SYSTEM OF WATER

 Water is a biological solvent
 Water molecules tick to each other and surface.
 Water has high surface tension
 Water has high heat capacity
 Water has high heat of vaporization
 Water has high heat of fusion
 Water is a medium where chemical and physical processes take place.
 Water serves as a moisturizer of surfaces.
 Water is a lubricant.
 Water is good cushion

OTHER INORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN THE BODY

 Acids
 Base
 Salt
 Buffer
 Electrolytes
LIFE’S BIOLOGICAL MOLECULE

 Water is the main inorganic compound in a living body

 CARBON is often called the building block of life
 It is because carbon is the basis form forming the structures of living things and carries out the most life’s functions.
 The carbon-containing molecules are called ORGANIC COMPOUND.
 Sometimes referred to as MACROMOLECULES.
 These molecules are composed of subunits called MONOMER
 Then, monomers linked together will form complex molecules called POLYMERS
 Monomers formed into polymers by means of the process called DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS.
 Polymers, on the other hand, disassembled by means of the process called HYDROLYSIS REACTION.

BIOMOLECULES - MONOMERS (simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, nucleotides)

- POLYMERS (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids)

CARBOHYDRATES
 Composed of the elements C, H and O
 These are organic compounds that serve as the main source of energy in all organisms.
 Serve as the structural components of living cells
 Classified into: MONOSACCHARIDES, DISACCHARIDES, POLYSACCHARIDES

MONOSACCHARIDES
 Known as the simple sugars.
 Identified based on the number of carbon atoms. TRIOSE (3 CARBON ATOMS)
PENTOSE (5 CARBON ATOMS)
HEXOSES (6 CARBON ATOMS)
 Some simple sugars are: FRUCTOSE (fruit sugar/ sweetest sugar in fruits)
GLUCOSE (dextrose/ blood sugar)
GALACTOSE (dextrose/ blood sugar)
 Makes the backbones of RNA and DNA
RIBOSE ( RNA )
DEOXYRIBOSE ( DNA )

DISACCHARIDES
 Known as the complex sugars consist of two molecules of monosaccharides
 Some disaccharides are:
Sucrose (common table sugar) found in sugar cane, sugar beets, carrots
Maltose (malt sugar) found in malted cereals and grains
Lactose (milk sugar)
POLYSACCHARIDES
 Known as the complex sugars consist of two or more molecules of monosaccharides.
 Capable of acting as energy storage or structural molecules as parts of cell structures
 Common examples are: Starch and Glycogen (Storage polysaccharides)
Chitin and Cellulose (Structural polysaccharides)
 STARCH found in potato, cassava, carrots, corn and cereals
 GLYCOGEN is a storage carbohydrate in animals which accumulates in the liver and muscle cells
 CELLULOSE is the structural polysaccharide found in plant cell walls which function for supports and
protection for plants.
 CHITIN is found in the outer coverings of crustaceans and insects which function for protection and support.

PROTEINS
 Composed of the elements C, H, O, N and S.
 These are the most abundant organic compounds in living organisms that are responsible for 15% of the body’s dry
weight.
 Building block is the AMINO ACIDS.
 Different combinations of the 20 amino acids are responsible for the variety of proteins in living
Organisms
 And your body is capable of producing about 12 amino acids to form proteins.
 However, there are amino acids that are not present in our body known as the ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS.
 Found or obtained by our body from animal and plant sources.9
 Balanced diet is important in providing our body with adequate amount of 20 amino acids.
 These amino acids are used by our body for growth and maintenance.
 Simple mammalian may contain 10 000 different kinds of proteins

IMPORTANCE OF PROTEIN IN OUR BODY

 STRUCTURAL PROTEINS - Protein form the parts of cells and tissues such as the keratin and collagen.
 ENZYMATIC PROTEINS - Enzymes catalyze or speed up chemical reactions without being chemically changed.
 TRANSPORT PROTEINS - Example is the hemoglobin in RBC.
 DEFENSE PROTEINS
ANTIBODIES - are produced by a specific type of WBC
called B lymphocytes in response to the presence of
a foreign substance in the body called Antigen.
 REGULATORY OR SIGNAL PROTEINS
HORMONES - are signal proteins that regulate body functions
 CONTRACTILE PROTEINS - Found in the muscle cells to allow movement and cause muscle contraction.

LIPIDS
 Composed of the elements C, H and O
 These are organic substances that include fats and fatlike substances such phospholipid, wax and steroid.

FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
 Prevents water loss from skin surface.
 Makes the structures of the cell membranes.
 Insulating material to prevent heat loss and protection against extreme cold.
 Source of storage of energy

TWO TYPES OF FATTY ACID

 SATURATED FATTY ACIDS - Solid at room temperature. Mostly found in animals. Examples are margarine and butter.
 UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS - Liquid at room temperature. Mostly found in plants.
Examples are vegetable and corn oil.

OTHER TYPES OF LIPID

 PHOSPOLIPIDS - Are important components of cell membranes.
 WAXES - Are lipids which are important components of many
organisms.
- Found as the cuticle covering surface of leaves and
stem of plants and protective covering on the skin and
fur of some animals.
 STEROIDS - Are lipids with a carbon skeleton of four fused rings.
 TRIGLYCERIDES - Known as the blood fats. Circulate in the bloodstream along with the
cholesterol.
 SPHINGOLIPIDS - Found in the brain, lungs and nerve tissues. Serve as surfactants that help reduce tension on the lungs.

NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Organic compounds that function for the storage of genetic information, which is transmitted from one
generation to the next in all living organisms.
 It is the physical carrier of inheritance that is passed from parents to offspring
 Function for protein synthesis.
 Building block is nucleotide.

NUCLEOTIDE
 Made up of five-carbon sugar, phosphate group and nitrogen base
 Nitrogenous base are guanine, adenine, cytosine, thymine and uracil.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DNA AND RNA

DNA RNA
Pentose sugar deoxyribose ribose
Base composition Adenine (A) Adenine (A)
Guanine (G) Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C) Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T) Thymine (T)
Number of strands Double stranded Single stranded
(forms a double helix)

 The structure of DNA is a double-stranded helix molecule which is first described by James
Watson and Francis Crick.

TAXONOMY

Why classify?
-Biologists want to better understand organisms so they organize them.
-One tool that they use to do this is classification—the grouping of objects or information based on similarities.
-Taxonomy is the branch of biology that groups and names organisms based on studies of their different characteristics.

Keeping track of species

 The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) developed the first widely accepted system of biological classification.
 He classified all the organisms he knew into two groups: plants and animals.
 1 million species named, up to 15 million more.
 taxonomy is not new; cultures have been naming plants and animals around them for 1000’s of years.
 It’s practical to have names.

largest wild felid (cat) in the United States? PUMA CONCOLOR

Who devised a system for classification?

-Carolus Linneaus (1707 -1778) a swedish naturalist.
-Devised a two part naming system known as binomial nomenclature.

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
 Standard two-part system for naming things
 In this system, the first word identifies the genus of the organism.
 A genus (genera-plural) consists of a group of similar species.
 The second word, which sometimes describes a characteristic of the organism, is called the specific epithet.

SCIENTIFIC AND COMMON NAMES

 Scientific names should be italicized in print and underlined when handwritten.
 The first letter of the genus name is uppercase, but the first letter of the specific epithet is lowercase.

May tell you where it was first discovered:

Didelphis virginiana “2 wombs from Virginia”
Sylvilagus floridanus “wood-hare of Florida”
Or who discovered it:
Lepus townsendii “hare” discovered by “Townsend”

How Living Things Are Classified?

 A group of organisms is called a taxon (plural, taxa).
 Organisms are ranked in taxa that range from having very broad characteristics to very specific ones.
 The broader a taxon, the more general its characteristics, and the more species it contains.

TAXONOMY HIERARCY
1. KINGDOM
2. PHYLUM
3. CLASS
4. ORDER
5. FAMILY
6. GENUS
7. SPECIES

Taxonomic rankings
 The smallest taxon is species. Organisms that look alike and successfully interbreed belong to the same species.
 The next largest taxon is a genus—a group of similar species that have similar features and are closely related.

Phylogenetic Classification: Models

 The evolutionary history of a species is called its phylogeny.
 A classification system that shows the evolutionary history of species is a phylogenetic classification and reveals the
evolutionary relationships of species.

SIX KINGDOM SYSTEMS

KINGDOM ARCHAEBACTERIA
 Unicellular, Prokaryote
 Either autotroph or heterotroph
 Cell walls made of peptidoglycan
 Reproduces by binary fission
 Lives in Harsh environments: salty lakes, hot springs, anaerobic environments
 AKA–Kingdom Moneran

KINGDOM EUBACTERIA
 Unicellular, prokaryote
 Either autotroph or heterotroph
 Cell walls made of peptidoglycan
 Reproduces by binary fission
 Includes common bacteria: tooth decay, yogurt production, food poisoning
 AKA–Kingdom Moneran

KINGDOM PROTISTA
 Unicellular or multicellular
 Eukaryotic
 Cell walls made of varying materials
 Autotroph or heterotroph
 About 50,000 species
 Reproduces-asexually
 Example includes: amoeba and euglena

KINGDOM FUNGI
 Unicellular or multicellular
 Eukaryotic
 Heterotrophic
 Cells walls made of chitin.
 Reproduces - asexually
 100,000 species
 Including: toadstools, mushrooms, puffballs, rusts or smut

KINGDOM PLANTAE
 Multicellular, eukaryotic, autotrophic
 Can reproduce both ways.
 Cell walls made of cellulose.
 All but a few are land dwellers. 350,000 species
 Including:mosses, ferns, conifers, flower plants

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
 Multicellular
 Eukaryotic
 Heterotrophic
 No cell walls
 Reproduces sexually by meiosis
 All animals have some type of symmetry

Taxonomy and Classification

• Biologists want to better understand organisms so they organize them.
• One tool that they use to do this is classification—the grouping of objects or information based on similarities.
• Taxonomy is the branch of biology that groups and names organisms based on studies of their different
characteristics.
• Biologists who study taxonomy are called taxonomists.

Keeping track of species

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
- Greek philosopher
- Developed the first widely accepted system of biological classification.
- He classified all the organisms he knew into two groups: plants and animals.
• >1 million species named, up to 15 million more.
• Taxonomy is not new; cultures have been naming plants and animals around them for 1000’s of years.
• It’s practical to have names.

Puma Concolor
- the largest wild felid (cat) in the United States
Carolus Linneaus (1707 -1778)
- a swedish naturalist.
- Devised a two part naming system known as binomial nomenclature.
Binomial Nomenclature
• Standard two-part system for naming things.
• In this system, the first word identifies the genus of the organism.
• A genus (genera-plural) consists of a group of similar species.
• The second word, which sometimes describes a characteristic of the organism, is called the specific epithet.
Scientific and common names
 Scientific names should be italicized in print and underlined when handwritten.
 The first letter of the genus name is uppercase, but the first letter of the specific epithet is lowercase.
Passer domesticus
May tell you where it was first discovered:
– Didelphis virginiana “2 wombs from Virginia”
– Sylvilagus floridanus “wood-hare of Florida”
Or who discovered it:
– Lepus townsendii “hare” discovered by “Townsend”

How Living Things Are Classified

 - A group of organisms is called a taxon (plural, taxa).
- Organisms are ranked in taxa that range from having very broad characteristics to very specific ones.
- The broader a taxon, the more general its characteristics, and the more species it contains.

Taxonomic Hierarchy
Mnemonic
Kingdom kings
Phylum play
Class cards
Order on
Family fine
Genus green
Specific epithet (species) sofas

Taxonomic rankings
 The smallest taxon is species. Organisms that look alike and successfully interbreed belong to the same species.
 The next largest taxon is a genus—a group of similar species that have similar features and are closely related.
 Compare the appearance of a lynx, Lynx rufus, a bobcat, Lynx canadensis, and a mountain lion, Panthera concolor.
Taxonomic hierarchy
Kingdom (Animalia)
Phylum (Chordata)
Class (Mammalia)
Order (Carnivora)
Family (Canidae)
Genus (Canis)
Specific epithet (species) (familiaris)
Scientific name: Canis familiaris

Phylogenetic Classification: Models

Phylogeny - evolutionary history of a species
• A classification system that shows the evolutionary history of species is a phylogenetic classification and reveals the
evolutionary relationships of species.

Six Kingdom System

Kingdom Archaebacteria
• Unicellular, Prokaryote
• Either autotroph or heterotroph
• Cell walls made of peptidoglycan
• Reproduces by binary fission
• Lives in Harsh environments: salty lakes, hot springs, anaerobic environments
• AKA–Kingdom Moneran
Kingdom Eubacteria
• Unicellular, prokaryote
• Either autotroph or heterotroph
• Cell walls made of peptidoglycan
• Reproduces by binary fission
• Includes common bacteria: tooth decay, yogurt production, food poisoning
• AKA–Kingdom Moneran
Kingdom Fungi
• Unicellular or multicellular
• Eukaryotic
• Heterotrophic
• Cells walls made of chitin.
• Reproduces - asexually
• 100,000 species
• Including: toadstools, mushrooms, puffballs, rusts or smut
Kingdom Plantae
• Multicellular
• Eukaryotic
• Autotrophic
• Can reproduce both ways.
• Cell walls made of cellulose.
• All but a few are land dwellers. 350,000 species
• Including:mosses, ferns, conifers, flower plants
•
Kingdom Animalia
• Multicellular
 • Eukaryotic
• Heterotrophic
• No cell walls
• Reproduces sexually by meiosis.
• All animals have some type of symmetry
When Linnaeus developed his system of classification, there were only two kingdoms, Plants and Animals. But the use of the
microscope led to the discovery of new organisms and the identification of differences in cells.
The Six Kingdoms:
Plants, Animals, Protists, Fungi, Archaebacteria, Eubacteria.
How are organism placed into their kingdoms?
Cell type, complex or simple
Their ability to make food
The number of cells in their body
Plants
 You are probably quite familiar with the members of this kingdom as it contains all the plants that you have come to
know - flowering plants, mosses, and ferns.
 Plants are all multicellular and consist of complex cells.
 In addition plants are autotrophs, organisms that make their own food.
 With over 250,000 species, the plant kingdom is the second largest kingdom. Plant species range from the tiny green
mosses to giant trees.
 Without plants, life on Earth would not exist! Plants feed almost all the heterotrophs (organisms that eat other
organisms) on Earth. Wow!

Animals
 The animal kingdom is the largest kingdom with over 1 million known species.
 All animals consist of many complex cells. They are also heterotrophs.
 Members of the animal kingdom are found in the most diverse environments in the world.
Protists
 Slime molds and algae are protists.
 Most protists are unicellular. You may be wondering why those protists are not classified in the Archaebacteria or
Eubacteria kingdoms.
 It is because, unlike bacteria, protists are complex cells.
Fungi
 Mushrooms, mold and mildew are all examples of organisms in the kingdom fungi.
 Most fungi are multicellular and consists of many complex cells.
 Fungi are organisms that biologists once confused with plants, however, unlike plants, fungi cannot make their own
food. Most obtain their food from parts of plants that are decaying in the soil.
 Some fungi taste great and others can kill you!
Archaebacteria
 In 1983, scientists tool samples from a spot deep in the Pacific Ocean where hot gases and molten rock boiled into
the ocean form the Earth’s interior. To their surprise they discovered unicellular (one cell) organisms in the samples.
These organisms are today classified in the kingdom, Archaebacteria
 Archaebacteria are found in extreme environments such as hot boiling water and thermal vents under conditions
with no oxygen or highly acid environments
 Finding Archaebacteria: The hot springs of Yellowstone National Park, USA, were among the first places
Archaebacteria were discovered. The biologists pictured above are immersing microscope slides in the boiling pool
onto which some archaebacteria might be captured for study.
Eubacteria
 Like archaebacteria, eubacteria are complex and single celled.
 Most bacteria are in the EUBACTERIA kingdom. They are the kinds found everywhere and are the ones people are
most familiar with.
 Eubacteria are classified in their own kingdom because their chemical makeup is different.
 Most eubacteria are helpful. Some produce vitamins and foods like yogurt. (above left) However, these eubacteria,
Streptococci pictured above right, can give you strep throat!
Kingdom Archaebacteria and Kingdom Eubacteria
Kingdom Archaebacteria
• Archaea comes from Ancient Greek, meaning ancient things—believed to be in existence for around 3.5 BILLION
years
• Autotrophs, or producers
• Some use carbon fixation, a process that converts gaseous carbon dioxide to solid carbon compounds
• Live in extremely adverse conditions, like highly acidic environments without oxygen, such as thermal vents on the
ocean floor
Cellular Characteristics
• Archaebacteria have NO peptidoglycan in their cell walls
• The cell wall is made up of glycoproteins and polysaccharides.
• The cell wall envelopes have a high resistance to antibiotics due to difference in cell wall composition.
• They have a very different lipid bilayer making up the cell membranes
• 16S rRNA and 18S rRNA sequences were totally different in archea from other bacteria

Kingdom Eubacteria
 • Most common bacteria
• Can also live in extreme conditions
• Some also use carbon fixation
• Reproduce asexually with binary fission
• Nearly 5000 species discovered to date!
• Some can be pathogenic, like Clostridium tetani, which causes tetanus or Yersinia pestis, which causes the Bubonic
plague
• Some are “good bacteria,” like lactobacillus, which helps the formation of curd and is good for human health
Cellular Characteristics
• Eubacteria DO have peptidoglycan in their cell walls
• Cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane
• Peptidoglycan cell wall surrounded by another layer called the outer membrane
• Outer membrane is protected by yet another layer called the capsule
• Many have specialized internal membranes, like cyanobacteria which contain chlorophyll
Similarities
• Live in extreme environments like intestinal tracts or thermal vents on the ocean floor
• Both are prokaryotic organisms —they lack a nucleus and internal organelles such as mitochondria
• A bacterium's DNA floats freely within the cytoplasm
that is contained by its cell wall
• Both reproduce using binary fission
• Unicellular organisms
• Both can be beneficial; “good bacteria”
Binary fission
Differences
• There are NO pathogenic
archaebacteria—only eubacteria can be pathogenic
•
• Only eubacteria have peptidoglycan in their cell walls
• Genetically different due
to archaebacteria’s
ribosomal RNA sequence
Physical Traits of Bacteria
• Can be spherical, spiral or
rod-like
• Can have flagella (tails)

KINGDOM PROTISTA
• The Junk drawer or catchall kingdom
• Mostly unicellular (some multicellular), eukaryotic, either autotrophic or
heterotrophic microscopic organisms.
• Approximately 65,000 species
• Can live freely (zooplankton or phytoplankton) or as parasites in mostly aquatic habitats
• Can reproduce both ways
– asexually - binary fission or multiple fission
– sexually – conjugation

What is a protist?
• Although there are no typical protists, some resemble animals in the way they get food.
• The animal-like protists are called protozoa (singular, protozoan).
• Unlike animals, though, all protozoans are unicellular.
Diversity of Protozoans
• Many protozoans are grouped according to the way they move.
• Some protozoans use cilia or flagella to move. Others move and feed by sending out cytoplasm-containing extensions
of their plasma membrane.
• These extensions are called pseudopodia
Three main groups of Protists: Animal-like, Plant-like, and Fungus-like
What is a protist?
• Other protists are plantlike autotrophs, using photosynthesis to make their food.
• Plantlike protists are called algae (singular, alga).
• Unlike plants, algae do not have organs such as roots, stems, and leaves.
• Still other protists are more like fungi because they decompose dead organisms.
• However, unlike fungi, fungus-like protists are able to move at some point in their life and do not have chitin in their
cell walls.
• Some protists cause diseases, such as malaria and sleeping sickness, that result in millions of human deaths
throughout the world every year.
• Unicellular algae produce much of the oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere and are the basis of aquatic food chains.
• Slime molds and water molds decompose a significant amount of organic material, making the nutrients available to
living organisms.
 • Although a diverse group, all protozoans are unicellular heterotrophs that feed on other organisms or dead organic
matter.
Animal-like Protists
Phylum Sarcodina
– Pseudopods
– Most common-Amoeba
– moves w/false feet
– live on other protists
– Entameba histolytica causes amebic dysentery
– Two other types
• foraminifera - CaCO3
• radiolarians - SiO2
Amoeboids
– Amoebas have no cell wall and form pseudopodia to move and feed. Amoebas form pseudopodia around
their food.
– Because they live in water they have to use their contractile vacuole to pump water in or out
– Most amoebas commonly reproduce by asexual reproduction, in which a single parent produces one or
more identical offspring by dividing into two cells

 Foraminiferans, which are abundant on the sea floor, have hard shells made of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ).
 Radiolarians have shells made of silica (SiO2)
 In addition, radiolarians are an important part of marine plankton—an assortment of microscopic organisms that
float in the ocean’s photic zone and form the base of marine food chains.

• Phylum Cilophora
– Ciliates
– About 8,000 species
– move w/cilia
– Genus Paramecium most common
– uses trichocysts for defense
– Multinucleated
Parts of the Paramecium
• Pellicle-outer cover of cell
• Trichocysts-harpoon like structure used for defense
• Macronucleus-Metabolic rate / development
• Micronucleus-genetic information
• Gullet-mouth opens into it
• Food Vacuole-Storage
• Anal pore-release of waste
• Contractile Vacuole-pumps out excess water
Vector - an organism that can carry a parasite, and is responsible for infecting other organisms (host) with that
parasite.
• Phylum Zoomastigina
– zooflagellates
– move w/flagella
– transported by blood sucking insects.
– Genus Trypansoma
• African Sleeping Sickness-African trypansomiasis transmitted by the tsetse fly.
• Increasing fever, lethargy, mental deterioration, coma
• Only found in Africa
– Chagas Disease – Trypansoma cruzi transmitted by the kissing bug.Causes fever and heart damage.
– Leshmanaiasis – Leishemania donovani transmitted by sand flies. Causes blood disease, disfiguring skin sores
& can be fatal.
– Giardiasis – Giardia lamblia transmitted by infected animals into water. Causes severe diarrhea & intestinal
cramps.
• Phylum Sporazoa
– sporazoans
– parasites
– Genus Plasmodium
• toxoplasmosis
• feces of rodents, birds, & cats
• Malaria
• Anopheles female mosquito
• treated w/quinine
What are algae?
 • Photosynthesizing protists are called algae.
• All algae contain up to four kinds of chlorophyll as well as other photosynthetic pigments.
• These pigments produce a variety of colors in algae, including purple, rusty-red, olive-brown, yellow, and golden-
brown, and are a way of classifying algae into groups.
Diversity of Algae
• The photosynthesizing unicellular protists, known as phytoplankton are so numerous that they are one of the major
producers of nutrients and oxygen in aquatic ecosystems in the world.
• Through photosynthesis, algae produce much of the oxygen used on Earth.
• Algae are classified into six phyla.
• Three of these phyla—the euglenoids, diatoms, and dinoflagellates—include only unicellular species.
• In the other three phyla, which are the green, red, and brown algae, most species are multicellular.
Plant-like Protists
• Phylum Chlorophyta
– green algae
– mostly aquatic
– Ex: Ulva, Volvox
• Phylum Phaeophyta
– brown algae
– Ex. Sargassum,Giant Kelp
– mostly marine
– all multicellular
• Phylum Rhodophyta
– red algae “seaweeds”
– mostly marine
– Ex. Corallina, Irish Moss
Green Algae
• The green algae are the most diverse algae, with more than 7000 species.
• The major pigment in green algae is chlorophyll, but some species also have yellow pigments that give them a
yellow-green color.
• Most species of green algae live in freshwater, but some live in the oceans, in moist soil, on tree trunks, in snow,
and even in the fur of sloths.
Types of Green Algae
• Green algae can be unicellular, colonial, or multicellular in organization.
• Chlamydomonas is a unicellular and flagellated green alga.
• Spirogyra is a multicellular species that forms slender filaments.
• Volvox is a green alga that can form a colony, a group of cells that lives together in close association.
Green Algae
• Green algae can reproduce both asexually and sexually.
• Spirogyra can reproduce asexually through fragmentation.
• During fragmentation, an individual breaks up into pieces and each piece grows into a new individual.
Brown Algae
• Almost all of these species live in salt water along rocky coasts in cool areas of the world.
• Brown algae contain chlorophyll as well as a yellowish-brown carotenoid called fucoxanthin, which gives them their
brown color.
• Many species of brown algae have air bladders that keep their bodies floating near the surface, where light is
available.
• The largest and most complex of brown algae are kelp.

Red Algae
• Red algae, members of the phylum Rhodophyta, are mostly multicellular marine seaweeds.
• The body of a seaweed, as well as that of some plants and other organisms, is called a thallus and lacks roots, stems,
or leaves.
• Red algae use structures called holdfasts to attach to rocks.
• In addition to chlorophyll, red algae also contain photosynthetic pigments called phycobilins.
• These pigments absorb green, violet, and blue light—the only part of the light spectrum that penetrates water below
depths of 100 m. Therefore, the red algae can live in deep water where most other seaweeds cannot thrive.

Plant-like Protists
• Phylum Dinoflagellata
– dinoflagellates
– unicellular
– bioluminescence
– causes red tides
Phylum Bacillariophyta & Chrysophyta
– Diatoms or golden algae
– fresh/salt water
– silicon dioxide
– Phylum Euglenophyta
– euglenoids
– fresh water
 – some animal-like characteristics
– photosynthetic can change to heterotrophic
– Genus Euglena
Dinoflagellates: The spinning algae
• Dinoflagellates members of the phylum Dinoflagellata, have cell walls that are composed of thick cellulose plates.
• Dinoflagellates contain chlorophyll, carotenoids, and red pigments.
• They have two flagella located in grooves at right angles to each other.
• The cell spins slowly as the flagella beat.
Dinoflagellates
• A few species of dinoflagellates live in freshwater, but most are marine and, like diatoms, are a major component of
phytoplankton.
• Many species live symbiotically with jellyfishes, mollusks, and corals.
• Some free-living species are bioluminescent, which means that they emit light.
• Another toxic species, Gonyaulax catanella, produces an extremely strong nerve toxin that can be lethal. In the
summer, these organisms may become so numerous that the ocean takes on a reddish color. This population
explosion is called a red tide.
• The toxins produced during a red tide may make humans ill.

Golden Brown Algae and Dinoflagellates

• Diatoms contain chlorophyll as well as other pigments called carotenoids that usually give them a golden-yellow
color.
Diatoms
• The food that diatoms make is stored as oils rather than starch.
• When diatoms die, their shells sink to the ocean floor.
• These oils give fishes that feed on diatoms an oily taste.
• They also give diatoms buoyancy so that they float near the surface where light is available.
• The deposits of diatom shells—some of which are millions of years old—are dredged or mined, processed, and used
as abrasives in tooth and metal polishes, or added to paint to give the sparkle that makes pavement lines more
visible at night.

Euglenoids
• Unicellular, aquatic protist that have both plant and animal-like characteristics.
• NO cell wall
• When light is available, uses it chloroplast with chlorophyll to photosynthesize and make its own food.
• When no light is available, the euglena will eat like a heterotroph.
• Move by using their flagella.
• Most common type is Euglena gracilis
Parts of the Euglena
• Contractile vacuole – used to pump out excess water
• Eyespot – used to find light for photosynthesis
• Pellicle- outer covering
• Chloroplast – used for photosynthesis
• Flagellum – used for movement

What are fungus-like protists?

• There are three phyla of fungus-like protists.
• Two of these phyla consist of slime molds.
• Slime molds have characteristics of both protozoans and fungi and are classified by the way they reproduce.
• Water molds and downy mildews make up the third phylum of fungus-like protists.
• Some disease-causing species damage vital crops.
Fungus-like Protists
• Slime Molds - 2 life cycles, mobile feeding & stationary reproduction
• Phylum Acarsiomycota
– slime molds
• Phylum Myxomycota
– plasomodial slime mold
• Water molds - reproduces both ways
• Phylum Oomycota
– pathogenic to plants
– potato blight, downey mildew
• Phylum Chytridiomycota
– primarily aquatic
– Saprophytes and parasites
Slime Molds
• Many slime molds are beautifully colored, ranging from brilliant yellow or orange to rich blue, violet, and jet black.
• They live in cool, moist, shady places where they grow on damp, organic matter, such as rotting leaves or decaying
tree stumps and logs.
• There are two major types of slime molds—plasmodial slime molds and cellular slime molds.
• Slime molds are animal-like during much of their life cycle, moving about and engulfing food in a way similar to that
of amoebas.
 • However, like fungi, slime molds make spores to reproduce.
• Unlike plasmodial slime molds, cellular slime molds spend part of their life cycle as an independent amoeboid cell
that feeds, grows, and divides by cell division.
Plasmodial slime molds
• Plasmodial slime molds get their name from the fact that they form a plasmodium a mass of cytoplasm that contains
many diploid nuclei but no cell walls or membranes. This slimy, multinucleate mass, is the feeding stage of the
organism.
• The plasmodium creeps like an amoeba over the surfaces of decaying logs or leaves.
• Some quicker plasmodiums move at the rate of about 2.5 centimeters per hour, engulfing microscopic organisms and
digesting them in food vacuoles.
• A plasmodium may reach more than a meter in diameter and contain thousands of nuclei.
Water Molds and Downy Mildews
• Most members of this large and diverse group of funguslike protists live in water or moist places.
• Some feed on dead organisms and others are plant parasites.
• Most water molds appear as fuzzy, white growths on decaying matter.
• A downy mildew called Phytophthora infestans affected the lives of the people destroying their major food crop of
potatoes.
What caused the Potato Famine of 1845-1849?
Phytophthora infestans
Potato Blight
Kingdom Fungi or Mycetae
Mycology - the study of fungi
• Eukaryotic, mostly multicellular, heterotrophic, non-photosynthetic with cell walls made of chitin.
• Very important to the recycling of organic material in the environment.
• Reproduce both ways- asexually by
– Fragmentation
– budding
– haploid spores

Fungal Characteristics
• Many species grow best in moist environments at warm temperatures between 20°C and 30°C.
• Although there are a few unicellular types of fungi, such as yeasts, most fungi are multicellular.
• The basic structural units of multicellular fungi are their threadlike filaments called hyphae (singular, hypha), which
develop from fungal spores.
Fungal Characteristics
• Unlike plants, which have cell walls made of cellulose, the cell walls of most fungi contain a complex carbohydrate
called chitin.
• Chitin gives the fungal cell walls both strength and flexibility.
Adaptations in Fungi
• Fungi can be harmful.
• Some cause food to spoil. Some cause diseases, and some are poisonous
• Many fungi, along with some bacteria and protists, are decomposers.
• They break down complex organic substances into raw materials that other living organisms need.
How Fungi obtain food
• Fungi are heterotrophs, and they use a process called extracellular digestion to obtain nutrients.
• A fungus may be a saprophyte, a mutualist, or a parasite depending on its food source.
• Saprophytes are decomposers and feed on waste or dead organic material.
• Mutualists live in a symbiotic relationship with another organism, such as an alga.
• Parasites absorb nutrients from the living cells of their hosts.
Fungal Reproduction
• Depending on the species and on environmental conditions, a fungus may reproduce asexually or sexually.
• Fungi reproduce asexually by fragmentation, budding, or producing spores.
• The unicellular fungi called yeasts often reproduce by a process called budding—a form of asexual reproduction in
which mitosis occurs and a new individual pinches off from the parent, matures, and eventually separates from the
parent.
• Most fungi produce spores.
Phylum Zygomycota
• Zygomycetes
– common bread mold -- Rhizopus stolonifer
-- reproduce asexually or sexually by producing spores.
• Some hyphae called stolons grow horizontally along the surface of the bread, rapidly producing a mycelium.
• Some other hyphae form rhizoids that penetrate the food and anchor the mycelium in the bread.
• When zygomycetes reproduce sexually, they produce zygospores which are thick-walled spores that can withstand
unfavorable conditions.
Phylum Basidomycota
• Club fungi
– Mushrooms, puffballs, stinkhorns, bird’s nest fungi, and bracket fungi are all basidiomycetes.
Phylum Basidiomycota
• A basidiomycete, such as a mushroom, has a complex reproductive cycle.
 • What you call a mushroom is a reproductive structure of the fungus. Most of the fungus is underground and not
visible.

Phylum Ascomycota
• sac fungi
– traditional baker’s & brewers yeast
– Saccharomyces cerevisiae
– yeast, morels, truffles, red bread mold.
– Ringworm, blackspot, tomato blight, cucumber scab
• The ascomycetes are also called sac fungi. Both names refer to tiny saclike structures, each called an ascus, in which
the sexual spores of the fungi develop.
• Sac fungi are familiar to farmers and gardeners because they cause plant diseases such as apple scab and ergot of
rye.
Phylum Ascomycota
• Morels and truffles are two edible members of this phylum.
• Perhaps the most economically important ascomycetes are the yeasts.
• Because yeasts produce alcohol, they are used to make wine and beer.
• Other yeasts are used in baking because they produce carbon dioxide, the gas that causes bread dough to rise and
take on a light, airy texture.
Phylum Deuteromycota
• There are about 25,000 species of fungi classified as deuteromycetes, which have no known sexual stage in their life
cycle.
• Although the deuteromycetes may only be able to reproduce asexually, another possibility is that their sexual phase
has not yet been observed by mycologists, biologists who study fungi.
• If you’ve ever had strep throat, pneumonia, or other kinds of bacterial infection, your doctor may have prescribed
penicillin—an antibiotic produced from a deuteromycete that is commonly seen growing on fruit.
• Other deuteromycetes are used in the making of foods, such as soy sauce and some kinds of blue-veined cheese.
Phylum Deuteromycotes
• Still some deuteromycetes are used commercially to produce substances such as citric acid, which gives jams, jellies,
soft drinks, and fruit-flavored candies a tart taste.
Symbiotic Fungal Relationships
• Mycorrhizae-symbiotic association between a fungus and plant roots.
– 90% of plants have
– used by landscapers
– basidiomycetes, zygomycetes
• Lichens-symbiotic association between a fungus and a photosynthetic partner.
– 3 types
– ascomycetes
Fungal Diseases
• Ringworm, athletes foot, & jock itch
• yeast infections - Candida albicans
• Wheat rust, cucumber scab, tomato blight, blackspot on roses
• Poisonous mushrooms that may cause death if consumed, or breathe the spores.
Helpful Fungi
• Penicillium - makes penicillin
• Yeast to make bread and alcohol
• Cephalosporium- makes antibiotics
• Edible mushrooms like white button, portobella & shiitake
• Delicacies like truffles and morels.

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN PHILOSOPHY

THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT

Over the course of time, various thinkers have given people theories and explanations on the true nature of humans which
led them to a conclusion that there is something in them that transcends beyond their mortality. They say that there is an
"inner self" in every human that gives him/her that sense of discernment: one that gives him/her the power of will and
intellect. This had led them to conclude that a person is an embodied spirit-a being possessed with a soul.

THE NOTION OF THE SOUL

Pre-socratic thought

HERACLITUS
-father of universal change, believed in the existence of the soul as an infinite part of a human being. He believed that the
soul is associated with fire, and there is something in store for the soul the moment it leaves the body.

PYTHAGOREANS
-the philosophers who believed that numbers are the first principle, contending that a human being is a composite of body
and soul.
-soul existed before the body until such time when the soul committed sins, and it was jailed inside the body as a
PUNISHMENT.
-transmigration
-immortality of the soul

SOCRATIC DUALISM

SOCRATES
-believed that human nature is determined by one's soul.
-views the soul as the center of moral life.
-knowledge paves the way for the perfection of the soul and enables a person to achieve the highest form of happiness.
-believed that knowledge is the main string of all virtues
-SELF MASTERY mastery of reason over the sensible nature of a person
-notion of a DAIMONION a divine voice inside one's being that is claimed to be guiding his/her actions.

PLATO’S DUALISM
-also believed in the idea that a person is his/her soul.
-As the body dies, the soul survives: hence, for Plato, the soul goes through a cycle of reincarnation or transmigration.
-anchored on the relationship between reincarnation and the means of obtaining knowledge through recognition of forms.

FOUR ARGUMENTS FOR DUALISM, AS PROVIDED IN THE DIALOGUE PHAEDO.

1. LIFE AND DEATH (the cyclical argument) - This is the cycle of transmigration or reincarnation of the soul. When the body
dies, it paves the way for another body which means that if life leads to death,
then death must lead to life.

2. KNOWING IS REMINISCING (the recollection argument) - This banks on the idea that all knowledge is a form of
remembrance or reminiscing on the part of the soul. According to Plato, since the
soul has preexisted over the body, it becomes a witness to everything; hence, the
process of knowledge is recollecting on what had always been there in the soul.

3. INCORRUPTIBILITY OF THE SOUL (the affinity argument) - The third argument attempts to prove that the soul, arguing that
it is capable to know immutable and eternal realities, must be immortal.

4. THE ARGUMENT FROM OPPOSITE - Plato believed that the body and soul are not only different from each other, but they
are also opposites and irreconcilable. Claiming that the soul is the essence of a
person, Plato even considered the body as the tomb of the soul, and contended
that one does not experience the true meaning of life as he/she is stuck in the
body.

ARISTOTLE’S VIEW ON THE SOUL

-The soul is part of the body that animates it.
-The soul does not survive death. Hence, he dismisses the concept of Transmigration.
-EMBODIED SOUL

ST. THOMAS AQUINAS AND THE NATURE OF THE SOUL

-St. Thomas Aquinas identified three divisions of the soul: the vegetative, the sensitive, and the intellectual or rational soul
-THE VEGETATIVE SOUL is dependent upon matter
(food, home, etc.) to survive.
-THE SENSITIVE SOUL is inherent to all animals, and is used for sensation and locomotion.
-THE RATIONAL OR INTELLECTUAL SOUL - is specific and exclusive only to a human. Such soul is responsible for thinking and
reasoning. According to Aquinas, humans possess all three kinds of soul.

THE HUMAN MIND: The Linked Between the Body and the Soul

Faculties of the Human Mind

MENTAL FACULTY OF PERCEPTION - Perception is the faculty of apprehension by the senses. This is sometimes called “one’s
point of view”. The mental faculty of perception may be pertinently
considered to be relative.

MENTAL FACULTY OF REASONING - This enables a person to form conclusions and render judgements based from the facts
and premises. But one’s sense of reasoning is largely dependent on
the amount of knowledge he/ she has gained all throughout his/
her lifetime.
-remember: Being reasonable is more often than not mistaken to being logical. But in a
real sense, logic is simply a means to reason out but is not reason
itself. There are times when one’s reason are illogical if they are
anchored on fallacies. However, logical contentions make up sound
reasoning, and in this way, reasoning itself could be a means to
seek truth.

MENTAL FACULTY OF IMAGINATION - Also known as the ability to visualize, this refers to the forming of images in the mind.
When a person is forming an idea in his/ her mind, he/ she is
creating an image corresponding to such particular idea as to how
it is in reality.
- The power of imagination is considered one of the most valued miracles of the human
being.
- Imagination enables a person to experience an entirely different world inside the
mind. One can create all the things that he/ she wants where the
only limitation is imagination itself.

MENTAL FACULTY OF THE WILL - Also known as Willpower. This is defined by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche as
an internally motivated action.
- It is the inner drive in a person that enables him/ her to do anything.
- Strong Willpower = capable of accomplishing his/ her dreams in life.

MENTAL FACULTY OF MEMORY -Memory is one’s ability to retain, revive, recall, and recognize information.
-It is said to be a two- way process- retaining and recalling information- which means
memory stores information inside the mind, and pulls them back as the need arises.

3 TYPES OF MEMORY IN HUMAN MIND

1. Sensory Memory- enables a person to recall perceptions. Memory is being used by another faculty in forming images of
things that one sees in reality.
2. Short- Term Memory- gives a person the ability to remember information without practice for a short period of time.
3. Long- term Memory- this is the most useful of all types of memory as this is the one that undergoes training, practice and
mastery.

GENERAL PHYSICS
Maqueda, John Lorence
Mendoza, Zandara
12 - sirius