3115 Week01 2

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Geotechnical Engineering Practice
Dr Erwin Oh
Griffith School of Engineering
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Overview
Overview of the course
Course Profiles
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What have we learnt in 2102ENG Soil

Mechanics?
What are the topics?
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OBJECTIVES
Understand Origin of Soils / Importance of
Geology
Review Soil Mechanics Concepts
Understand Soil Constituents

Understand Effective Stress Concepts
Understand Seepage and Permeability
Understand Consolidation
Understand Shear Strength of Soil
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OBJECTIVES
Geology

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Definition of geology
Engineering geology
Structures of earth interior
Introduction to plate tectonics
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Definition of Geology
The Science of Earth

Materials making up the earth
Processes act on these materials
Products formed
The history of the planet including life
forms since origin
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Engineering Geology is the applied geology in

engineering
Engineering geology includes study of the geological
factors that influence the following goals:
Supply demands: water, metals, energy, etc.

Avoiding geologic hazards: landslides, floods,
earthquakes, and volcanoes.
Location, Design and Construction of: foundations,
dams, nuclear power plants, tunnels, etc.
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Subdivisions of Earth
Air
Atmosphere
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Water
Hydrosphere
Land
Solid
Earth
Atmosphere
It is the gaseous envelope surrounding the

planet.
Hydrosphere
water in: seas, oceans, lakes, ground water
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The Solid Earth

The solid earth lies beneath the atmosphere
and ocean.
About 71% of the earths surface is covered
with water
Continent (land) is about 29%.
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Divisions of Earth Interior

Crust
Upper Mantle
Lower Mantle
Mantle
Outer Core
Core
Inner Core
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CRUST
Ocean
Oceanic Crust
Continental
Crust
Continental crust & Oceanic crust

Cold and solid
Continental crust is much thicker than the Oceanic
crust
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The Crust
Continental crust & Oceanic crust
Cold and solid
Continental crust is less dense and
much thicker than the Oceanic
crust
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The Mantle
Upper and Lower Mantle

Upper Mantle:
Uppermost part--solid and rigid
Uppermost part+Crust=Lithosphere
Lower part= asthenosphere
Hot and weak zone -- capable of gradual flow
Lower Mantle:
High temperature and high pressure
Of relatively high strength
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Trends within earths interior

Density of materials increases with
depth below surface
Pressure on materials increases with
depth below surface
Temperature of materials increases
with depth below surface
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Plate Tectonics Theory

Lithosphere is broken into plates
Plates move relative to one another above
asthenosphere
Many important geologic processes, e.g.
volcanic activity, mountain building, earthquake
activity, new crust formation operate, primarily
at plate boundaries
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Major Earths Tectonic Plates

Eurasian
Plate
North American
Plate
Pacific
African
Plate
Plate
Indo-Australian
Plate
South
American
Nazca
Plate
Plate
Antarctica Plate
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Types of Plate Boundaries

Ocean Ridge
Plate
Asthenosphere
Plate
Divergent
Boundary
Trench
Plate
Plate
Asthenosphere
Convergent
Subducting Plate
Plate
Asthenosphere
Boundary
Plate
Trnasform
Boundary
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Prominent Features of Ocean Floors

Ocean Ridge
Plate
Plate
Asthenosphere
Trench
Plate
Asthenosphere
Ocean Ridges
Formed at divergent
boundaries
Mountains on the ocean
floor
Trenches
Plate
Subducting Plate
Formed at subduction
zones
Long, narrow, deep basins on
the ocean floor
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Movement of plates generates:
Earthquakes
Volcanic activity
Formation of mountains
Formation of new crust
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OBJECTIVES
Geology
Understand Soil Constituents/Properties

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I. Soil Constituents
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1. Soil Formations and Deposits
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1.1 Rock Cycles
Soils
The final products

due to weathering are
soils
(Das, 1998)
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1.2 Bowens Reaction Series
The reaction series are similar to the weathering stability

series.
More stable
Higher weathering resistance
(Das, 1998)
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Question
What is the main mineral of the sand
particles in general?
Quartz
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1.3 Weathering
1.3.1 Physical processes of weathering
Unloading
e.g. uplift, erosion, or change in fluid
pressure.
Thermal expansion and contraction
Alternate wetting and drying
Crystal growth, including frost action
Organic activity
e.g. the growth of plant roots.
Chelation
Involves the complexing and removal

of metal ions .
Cation exchange
is important to the formation of clay
minerals
Oxidation and reduction.
Carbonation
is the combination of carbonate ions
such as the reaction with CO2
1.3.3 Factors affect weathering
Many factors can affect the weathering
1.3.2 Chemical Process of weathering
process such as climate, topography,
features of parent rocks, biological
Hydrolysis
reactions, and others.
is the reaction with water
will not continue in the static water.
Climate determines the amount of water
and the temperature.
involves solubility of silica and alumina
(Mitchell, 1993)
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1.4 Transportation of Weathering Products

1.4.1 Residual soilsto remain at the original place
In many areas, the top layer of
rock is decomposed into residual
soils due to the warm climate
and abundant rainfall .
Engineering
properties
of
residual soils are different with
those of transported soils
The knowledge of "classical"
geotechnical
engineering
is
mostly based on behavior of
transported
soils.
The
understanding of residual soils is
insufficient in general.
1.4.2 Transported soilsto be moved and deposited to other

places.
The particle sizes of transported
soils
are
selected
by
the
transportation agents such as
streams, wind, etc.
Inter-stratification of silts and
clays.
The transported soils can be
categorize based on the mode of
transportation and deposition (six
types).
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1.4.2 Transported Soils (Cont.)

(1) Glacial soils: formed by transportation and deposition
of glaciers.
(2) Alluvial soils: transported by running water and
deposited along streams.
(3) Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in quiet lakes.
(4) Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas.
(5) Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by the wind.
(6) Colluvial soils: formed by movement of soil from its
original place by gravity, such as during landslide.
(from Das, 1998)
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2. Soils in Australia
Geological Map of Australia
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Major Geology Formations in Australia
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Australia's geology can be divided into several main sections; the Archaean cratonic
shields, Proterozoic fold belts and sedimentary basins, Phanerozoic sedimentary
basins, and Phanerozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks.
Australia as a separate continent began to form after the breakup of Gondwana in the
Permian, with the separation of the continental landmass from the African continent and
Indian subcontinent. Antarctica rifted from Australia in the Jurassic.
The current Australian continental mass is composed of a thick subcontinental
lithosphere, up to 150 km thick, and up to 70 km of continental crust composed primarily
of Archaean, Proterozoic and some Palaeozoic granites and gneisses. A thin veneer of
mainly Phanerozoic sedimentary basins cover much of the Australian landmass. These
in turn are currently undergoing erosion by a combination of aeolian and fluvial
processes, forming extensive sand dune systems, deep and prolonged development of
laterite and saprolite profiles, and development of playa lakes, salt lakes and ephemeral
drainage
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Major Geological Formations in Queensland, Australia
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3. Phase Relations
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3.1 Three Phases in Soils

S : Solid
Soil particle
W: Liquid
A: Air
Water (electrolytes)
Air
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3.2 Three Volumetric Ratios
(1) Void ratio e (given in decimal, 0.65)
Volume of voids (Vv )

Volume of solids (Vs )
(2) Porosity n (given in percent 100%, 65%)
Vse
e
Vs (1 e) 1 e
Volume of voids (Vv )

Total volume of soil sample (Vt )
(3) Degree of Saturation S (given in percent 100%, 65%)
Total volume of voids contains water (Vw )

100%
Total volume of voids (Vv )
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3.2.1 Engineering Applications (e)

Typical values
Engineering applications:
Simple cubic (SC), e = 0.91,
Cubic-tetrahedral (CT), e = 0.65,
Contract
Dilate
Volume change tendency

Strength
i
Link: the strength of

rock joint
Shear strength n tan( i)
(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)
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3.2.1 Engineering Implications (e)(Cont.)

Hydraulic
conductivity
Which packing (SC
or CT) has higher
hydraulic
conductivity?
SC
e = 0.91
CT
e = 0.65
The fluid (water) can flow more easily through the

soil with higher hydraulic conductivity
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3.2.1 Engineering Applications (e)(Cont.)

Filter
SC
e = 0.91
Clogging
The finer particle cannot pass

through the void
CT
e = 0.65
Critical state soil mechanics
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3.2.2 Engineering Applications (S)

Completely dry soil S = 0 %
Completely saturated soil S = 100%
Unsaturated soil (partially saturated soil)
0% < S <
100%
Total volume of voids contains water (Vw )
S
100%
Total volume of voids (Vv )
Demonstration:
Effects of capillary forces
Engineering implications:
Slope stability
Underground excavation
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3.2.2 Engineering Applications (S) (Cont.)

80 % of landslides are due to
erosion and loss in suction.
The slope stability is significantly
affected by the surface water.
(Au, 2001)
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3.3 Density and Unit Weight

Mass is a measure of a
body's inertia, or its "quantity
of matter". Mass is not
changed at different places.
Weight is force, the force of
gravity acting on a body. The
value is different at various
places (Newton's second law
F = ma) (Giancoli, 1998)
The unit weight is frequently
used than the density is (e.g.
in calculating the overburden
pressure).
Mass
Volume
Weight
Mass g
Unit weight ,
Volume
Volume
Density ,
g : accelerati on due to gravity

g 9 .8 m
sec 2
Water , 9 .8 kN 3
m
Gs
s
g
s
s
w w g w
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3.4 Weight Relationships

(1) Water Content w (100%)
w
Mass of water ( M w )
100%
Mass of soil solids ( M s )
For some organic soils w>100%,

up to 500 %
For quick clays, w>100%
(2) Density of water (slightly

varied with temperatures)
w 1g / cm3 1000 kg / m3 1Mg / m3
(3) Density of soil

a. Dry density
Mass of soil solids(M s )

b. Total, Wet, or Moist density

(0%<S<100%, Unsaturated)
Mass of soil sample( M s M w )

c. Saturated density (S=100%, Va =0)
sat
Mass of soil solids water(M s M w )

d. Submerged density (Buoyant density)
' sat w
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3.4 Weight Relationships (Cont.)

Submerged unit weight:
Consider the buoyant
force acting on the soil
solids:
' sat w
Ws Vs w Ws (Vt Vw ) w
(S 100%)
Vt
Vt
Archimedes principle:
Ws Vt w Ww
Vt
Ws Ww Vt w
Vt
sat w
The buoyant force on a body

immersed in a fluid is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by
that object.
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3.4.1 Engineering Applications (w)

For fine-grained soils, water
plays a critical role to their
engineering
properties
(discussed in the next topic).
For example: The quick clay
usually has a water content w
greater than 100 % and a card
house structure. It will behave
like a viscous fluid after it is fully
disturbed.
Clay
particle
Water
(Mitchell, 1993)
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3.5 Other Relationships

(1) Specific gravity
Gs
Proof:
s s
w w
(2)
w S e w s
S e w Gs
S e w Gs
S e
Vw Vv Vw

Vv Vs Vs
Ms
Vs Vw
M w s M w
w Gs
Vs
M s w M s M w
Vw
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3.6 Typical Values of Specific Gravity
(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

(Goodman, 1989)
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3.7 Solution of Phase Problems

Remember the following simple rules (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981):
1. Remember the basic definitions of w, e, s, S, etc.
2. Draw a phase diagram.
3. Assume either Vs=1 or Vt=1, if not given.
4. Often use wSe=ws, Se = wGs
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4. Standards
Specific Gravity (Gs) Measurement
Standards
Australian Standard AS 1289 3.5.1-1995. Method of testing

soils for engineering purposes: Soil classification tests
Determination of the soil particle density of a soil Standard
method
ASTM D854-92 Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity

of Soils
ASTM C127-88 (Reapproved 1993) Test Methods for
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate.
BS 1377: Part 2:1990
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References
Main References:
Das, B.M. (1998). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 4th edition, PWS Publishing
Company. (Chapter 2)
Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice
Hall. (Chapter 2)
Goodman, R.E. (1989). Introduction to Rock Mechanics, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons.
Head, K. H. (1992). Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 1: Soil Classification and
Compaction Test, 2nd edition, John Wiley and Sons.
Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V. (1979). Soil Mechanics, SI Version, John Wiley & Sons.
Mitchell, J.K. (1993). Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons.
Giancoli, D.C. (1998). Physics, 5th edition, Prentice Hall.
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II. Soil Properties
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Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Soil Texture
Grain Size and Grain Size Distribution
Particle Shape
Atterberg Limits
Sieve Analysis
Hydrometer Analysis
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1. Soil Texture
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1.1 Soil Texture

The texture of a soil is its appearance or feel
and it depends on the relative sizes and shapes of
the particles as well as the range or distribution of
those sizes.
Coarse-grained soils:
Fine-grained soils:
Gravel
Silt
Sand
Clay
0.075 mm (USCS)
Sieve analysis
Hydrometer analysis
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1.2 Characteristics
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
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2. Grain Size and Grain Size

Distribution
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2.1 Grain Size
USCS
4.75
0.075
USCS: Unified Soil Classification
Unit: mm
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Note:
Clay-size particles
For example:
A small quartz particle may have the similar size of clay minerals.
Clay minerals
For example:
Kaolinite, Illite, etc.
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2.2 Grain Size Distribution

Sieve size
(Das, 1998)
(Head, 1992)
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2.2 Grain Size Distribution (Cont.)

Experiment
Coarse-grained soils:
Gravel
Sand
Fine-grained soils:
Silt
Clay
0.075 mm (USCS)
(Head, 1992)
Sieve analysis
Hydrometer analysis
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Effective size D10: 0.02 mm

D30:
D60:
Log scale
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Describe the shape
Criteria
Example: well graded
D10 0.02 mm (effective size)

D30 0.6 mm
D 60 9 mm
(for gravels)
1 C c 3 and C u 6
Coefficient of uniformity
Cu
(for sands)
D 60
9
450
D10 0.02
Coefficient of curvature
Cc
Well graded soil

1 C c 3 and C u 4
(D 30 ) 2
(0.6) 2
2
(D10 )(D 60 ) (0.02)(9)
Question
What is the Cu for a
soil with only one
grain size?
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Answer
Question
What is the Cu for a soil with only one grain size?
Finer
Coefficient of uniformity
Cu
D60
1
D10
D
Grain size distribution
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Engineering applications
It will help us feel the soil texture (what the soil is) and it will
also be used for the soil classification (next topic).
It can be used to define the grading specification of
drainage filter (clogging).
It can be a criterion for selecting fill materials of

embankments and earth dams, road sub-base materials,
and concrete aggregates.
It can be used to estimate the results of grouting and
chemical injection, and dynamic compaction.
Effective Size, D10, can be correlated with the hydraulic
conductivity (describing the permeability of soils). (Hazens
Equation).(Note: controlled by small particles)
The grain size distribution is more important to coarse-grained soils.
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3. Particle Shape
Coarsegrained
soils
Rounded
Subangular
Important for granular soils

Angular soil particle higher friction
Round soil particle lower friction
Note that clay particles are sheet-like.
Subrounded
Angular
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4. Atterberg Limits and Indices
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4.1 Atterberg Limits

The presence of water in fine-grained soils can significantly affect
associated engineering behavior, so we need a reference index to
clarify the effects. (The reason will be discussed later in the topic of clay
minerals)
In percentage
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4.1 Atterberg Limits (Cont.)

Fluid soil-water
mixture
Liquid State
Increasing water content
Liquid Limit, LL
Plastic State
Plastic Limit, PL
Semisolid State
Shrinkage Limit, SL
Solid State
Dry Soil
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4.2 Liquid Limit-LL

Casagrande Method
Cone Penetrometer
Method
Professor Casagrande
standardized the test and
developed the liquid limit
device.
This method is developed by the

Transport and Road Research
Laboratory, UK.
Multipoint test
One-point test
Multipoint test
One-point test
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4.2 Liquid Limit-LL (Cont.)

Dynamic shear test
Particle sizes and water
Shear strength is about 1.7 ~2.0

kPa.
Passing No.40 Sieve (0.425

mm).
Pore water suction is about 6.0

kPa.
Using deionized water.
(review by Head, 1992; Mitchell, 1993).
The type and amount of

cations can significantly affect
the measured results.
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4.2.1 Casagrande Method

Device
N=25 blows
Closing distance =
12.7mm (0.5 in)
The water content, in percentage, required to close a

distance of 0.5 in (12.7mm) along the bottom of the
groove after 25 blows is defined as the liquid limit
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4.2.1 Casagrande Method (Cont.)

Multipoint Method
w1 w2
(choose a positive value)
Flow index, I F
log N 2 / N1
Das, 1998
w I F log N cont.
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4.2.1 Casagrande Method (Cont.)

One-point Method
Assume a constant slope of the
flow curve.
The slope is a statistical result of
767 liquid limit tests.
tan
N
LL wn
25
N number of blows
wn corresponding moisture content
tan 0.121
Limitations:
The is an empirical coefficient,
so it is not always 0.121.
Good results can be obtained only
for the blow number around 20 to
30.
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4.2.2 Cone Penetrometer Method

Device
This method is developed

by the Transport and Road
Research Laboratory.
(Head, 1992)
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4.2.2 Cone Penetrometer Method (Cont.)
Penetration of cone
(mm)
Multipoint Method
20 mm
LL
Water content w%
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4.2.2 Cone Penetrometer Method (Cont.)

One-point Method (an empirical relation)
(Review by Head, 1992)
Example: Penetration depth 15 mm, w 40%,
Factor 1.094, LL 40 1.094 44
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4.2.3 Comparison
A good correlation
between the two
methods can be
observed as the
LL is less than
100.
Littleton and Farmilo, 1977 (from Head, 1992)
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4.3 Plastic Limit-PL
The plastic limit PL is defined as the water content at which

a soil thread with 3.2 mm diameter just crumbles.
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4.4 Shrinkage Limit-SL

Definition of shrinkage
limit:
The water content at
which the soil volume
ceases to change is
defined as the shrinkage
limit.
SL
(Das, 1998)
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4.4 Shrinkage Limit-SL (Cont.)

Soil volume: Vi
Soil mass: M1
Soil volume: Vf
Soil mass: M2
(Das, 1998)
SL w i (%) w (%)
M M2
V Vf
(100) i
1
M2
M2
( w )(100)
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4.4 Shrinkage Limit-SL (Cont.)

Although the shrinkage limit was a popular classification test during
the 1920s, it is subject to considerable uncertainty and thus is no
longer commonly conducted.
One of the biggest problems with the shrinkage limit test is that the
amount of shrinkage depends not only on the grain size but also on
the initial fabric of the soil. The standard procedure is to start with
the water content near the liquid limit. However, especially with
sandy and silty clays, this often results in a shrinkage limit greater
than the plastic limit, which is meaningless. Casagrande suggests
that the initial water content be slightly greater than the PL, if
possible, but admittedly it is difficult to avoid entrapping air bubbles.
(from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
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4.5 Typical Values of Atterberg Limits
(Mitchell, 1993)
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4.6 Indices
Plasticity index PI
For describing the range
of water content over
which a soil was plastic
PI = LL PL
Liquid State
C
Liquid Limit, LL
PI
Plastic State
Semisolid State
Plastic Limit, PL
Shrinkage Limit, SL
Liquidity index LI
For scaling the natural
water content of a soil
sample to the Limits.
w PL w PL
LI
PI
LL PL
w is the water content
LI <0 (A), brittle fracture if sheared
0<LI<1 (B), plastic solid if sheared
LI >1 (C), viscous liquid if sheared
Solid State
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4.6 Indices (Cont.)

Sensitivity St (for clays)
Strength (undisturbed )
Strength (disturbed)
Unconfined shear strength
Clay
particle
w > LL
Water
St
(Holtz and Kavocs, 1981)
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4.6 Indices (Cont.)

Activity A
(Skempton, 1953)
PI
% clay fraction ( weight )
clay fraction : 0.002 mm
A
Normal clays: 0.75<A<1.25

Inactive clays: A<0.75
Active clays: A> 1.25
High activity:
large volume change when
wetted
Large shrinkage when dried
Mitchell, 1993
Very reactive (chemically)
Purpose
Both the type and amount of clay
in soils will affect the Atterberg
limits. This index is aimed to
separate them.
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4.7 Engineering Applications

Soil classification
(the next topic)
The Atterberg limit enable
clay soils to be classified.
The Atterberg limits are usually correlated with some

engineering properties such as the permeability, compressibility,
shear strength, and others.
In general, clays with high plasticity have lower permeability, and
they are difficult to be compacted.
The values of SL can be used as a criterion to assess and prevent
the excessive cracking of clay liners in the reservoir embankment or
canal.
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5. The Sieve Analysis

The representative particle size of residual soils
The particles of residual soils are susceptible to severe breakdown
during sieve analysis, so the measured grain size distribution is
sensitive to the test procedures (Irfan, 1996).
Wet analysis
For clean sands and gravels dry sieve analysis can be used.
If soils contain silts and clays, the wet sieving is usually used to
preserve the fine content.
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6. The Hydrometer Analysis

Assumption
Stokes law
v
( s w )D
18
Sphere particle
Platy particle (clay particle) as D

0.005mm
Single particle
Many particles in the suspension
(No interference
between particles)
Known specific
gravity of
particles
Terminal velocity
(Compiled from Lambe, 1991)
Reality
Average results of all the

minerals in the particles,
including the adsorbed water
films.
Note: the adsorbed water films
also can increase the resistance
during particle settling.
Brownian motion as D 0.0002
mm
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END Part 1
Next Lecture
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OBJECTIVES

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Groundwater
Zw
U = porewater pressure = wZw
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Stresses in Soil Masses

P
X
Area = A
= P/A
Soil Unit
Assume the soil is fully saturated, all voids are

filled with water.
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Effective Stress
From the standpoint of the soil skeleton, the water
carries some of the load. This has the effect of lowering
the stress level for the soil.
Therefore, we may define
effective stress = total stress minus pore pressure
= - u
where,
= effective stress
= total stress
u = pore pressure
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Effective Stress
= - u
The effective stress is the force carried by the soil
skeleton divided by the total area of the surface.
The effective stress controls certain aspects of soil
behavior, notably, compression & strength.
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Effective Stress Calculations

z = iHi - u
where,
H = layer thickness
sat = saturated unit weight
U = pore pressure = w Zw
When you encounter a groundwater table, you must use
effective stress principles; i.e., subtract the pore
pressure from the total stress.
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OBJECTIVES

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Compressibility & Settlement

Settlement requirements often control the design
of foundations
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Increase in Vertical Effective Stress

Due
to a Placement of a fill
zf z 0 fill H fill
Due
to an external load
zf z 0 z induced
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Consolidation
z0
z
c
z0
z0
z
zf
z0
Vv = eVs
Before
Vs
Voids
Solids
e
Vv = (e - e)Vs
Voids
Vs
Solids
zf
After
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Before Loading
0
Point, P
u0
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Immediately After
Loading
0 +
u0+u
Point, P
51
3115ENG
Shortly after Loading

No settlement
0 +
Long after Loading

Settlement Complete
0 +
u0+u
u0
3115ENG
Reduction in pore space by expulsion of air

only
Air
Water
Water
Solid
Solid
Before Compaction
Air
After Compaction
52
3115ENG
Settlement
Distortion Settlement (Immediate)

Consolidation (Time Dependent)
Secondary Compression
time
Settlement
3115ENG
Laboratory Consolidation Test
53
3115ENG
Consolidation Test
3115ENG
Test Results
54
3115ENG
Test Results
Idealized Data
3115ENG
Compression Index and

Recompression Index
Cc
ea eb
(log z ) b (log z ) a
Cr
ec ed
(log z ) d (log z ) c
55
3115ENG
Compression Ratio and

Recompression Ratio
Cc
Cc
( z ) a ( z ) b
1 e0 (log z ) b (log z ) a
Cr
( z ) d ( z ) c
Cr
1 e0 (log z ) d (log z ) c
3115ENG
Normally and
Over-Consolidated Soils
zo c
.. Normally consolidated
zo c
.. Over consolidated
zo c
.. Under consolidated
56
3115ENG
Over-Consolidation Margin & Overconsolidation Ratio
m c zc
OCR
c
zo
.. Over-consolidation
Margin
.. Over consolidation ratio
3115ENG
Typical Range of OC Margins
57
3115ENG
Compressibility of Sand and

Gravels
3115ENG
Settlement Predictions
N.C. Clays
zf
Cc
H log
1 e0
z0
58
3115ENG
O.C. Clays
zf
Cr
H log
1 e0
z0
3115ENG
O.C. Clays
C
zf
Cr
H log c c H log
1 e0
z 0 1 e0
c
59
3115ENG
Soil Properties and Parameters
1. Undrained modulus, E u (kN/m 2 );

Undrained Poisson's ratio , u
2. Drained modulus (kN/m 2 ) , E ;
Drained Poisson's ratio ,
3115ENG
1. From ( e, v ) relation :
(a) Compression index, C c
(b) Coefficient of volume decrease, m v (m 2 / kN)
(c) Constrained modulus, D
1
(kN/m 2 )
mv
(d ) Maximum past pressure, p max (kN/m 2 )
60
3115ENG
2 From settlement - squarte root time plot or

settlement log time plot , Coefficient of
consolidation, c v (m 2 / year)
From settlement - log time plot : Coefficient
of secondary consolidation, C
3. From, c v , m v , and w determine, permeability, k
3115ENG
OBJECTIVES

61
3115ENG
A piezometer is a device, which measures

the pressure head of the water at any point
where it is installed
uA = w H1
w = 9.8kN/m3
H1 = 2.5 m
uA = 9.8 X 2.5 = 24.5 kN/m2
3115ENG
Pore water pressure at A,

uA = w H1
If w = 9.8kN/m3
H1 = 2.5 m
Then ,
uA = 9.8X 2.5 = 24.5 kN/m2
62
3115ENG
Consider two points A & B in a layer of soil

uA = w HA
uB = w HB
uA-uB = w ( HA HB )
Del (uAB) = W H
3115ENG
Pore water pressure at A, uA = w HA

Pore water pressure at B, uB = w HB
The difference in pore water
pressure between A & B
= w ( HA HB )
The excess pore
pressure between A & B
= W H
63
3115ENG
The excess pore pressure causes a

hydraulic gradient between A & B
The hydraulic gradient, i is given by
h
L
This hydraulic gradient causes the water to flow
from the point of higher excess pressure head to
the point of lower pressure head. Thus the water
flow from A to B.
3115ENG
Permeability is defined as the property of a

porous material to permit the passage or
seepage of fluid such as water through the
soil.
For Darcys Flow
v ki
k is called the permeability of the soil and it

has the same unit as the velocity of flow.
64
3115ENG
e
k Ds2 w
C
1 e)
k is the coefficient of permeability
Ds- some effective particle diameter
w - unit weight of water
- viscosity of water
e - voids ratio
C shape factor
3115ENG
Some materials are more porous than the

others.
In soils, the permeability of Gravel and
sand are high as the porous space is large.
However when the particles are very fine
and in the case of clay the permeability is
low
65
3115ENG
3115ENG
h
Water Table
Ground Surface
Clay Layer:
20 m
( Special Gravity G = 2.7

Voids Ratio = 0.7 )
15 m
Gravel Layer
(Under Artesian Pressure)
Piezometer to measure
pore water pressure
66
3115ENG
h
Water Table
Ground Surface
Clay Layer:
20 m
( Special Gravity G = 2.7

Voids Ratio = 0.7 )
S
15 m
L=20m
A
h
Gravel Layer
(Under Artesian Pressure)
Piezometer to measure
pore water pressure
3115ENG
h
h
L=20m
67
3115ENG
Horizontal flow in a layered soil
qin
qout
3115ENG
Horizontal flow in Layered soils
v k hi
1
v1H1 v2 H 2 ...........vn H n
H
1
v khi k1iH1 k2iH 2 ........kniH n
H
kh
qi
qout
1
k1H1 k2 H 2 .............kn H n
H
68
3115ENG
The outflow is the same as the inflow.

Total flow is the sum of the flow through
each layer.
Hydraulic gradient is the same through
every layer
3115ENG
Vertical Flow
v kv
h
k1i1 k 2i2 ...... k nin
H
h H1i1 H 2i2 ...............H nin

kv
qin
H
H
H1 H 2
....... n
k1 k 2
kn
qout
69
3115ENG
The total head lost is the sum of the head

lost in each layer.
The velocity of flow is the same through
each layer
3115ENG
Similar tests can be carried out in the field

as well in drill holes by installing
piezometers.
Well point pumping methods are also used
in field permeability measurements.
70
3115ENG
Measurements of correct permeability are

often difficult and some time these values
can be back calculated from other field
measurements.
Permeability values are needed in
consolidation and settlement calculations
as well as in seepage analysis.
3115ENG
Constant
Head
Permeability
test
71
3115ENG
Constant head permeability test

Measure the flow Q (m3) over a time t (sec)
The rate of flow, q = Q/t m3/s
Area of flow = A
Velocity of flow = v = q/A m/s
v=ki
3115ENG
Q
h
k
At
L
h
L
h is the excess pressure head (m) and L is

the sample height.
Therefore
Units:
Q: m3 ; A: m2 ;
L:m;
Q L
k
At h
t : seconds (s)
h :m
72
3115ENG
Falling
Head
Permeability
Tests
3115ENG
Falling head permeability test

Governing equation
adh Akidt
adh Ak
(- dh)
h
dt
L
dh k A

dt
h L a
73
3115ENG
Integrating
k A
ln h
t C
L a
(- dh)
Substituting boundary
conditions
k A
ln h1 t1 C
L a
k A
ln h2 t 2 C
L a
3115ENG
From the last two equations

h k A
ln 1 t 2 t1
h2 L a
h1 at time t1 must be known.
h2 at time t2 must be known.
A area of cross section of sample must
be known.
L - sample height must be known.
A - cross sectional area of the capillary tube
through which head drops must be known.
74
3115ENG
Pumping test in the field
3115ENG
Pumping test in the field
Figure illustrates a field pumping test in an unconfined

aquifer.
The radius of influence of the test well is R. The radius
of the test well is rw.
In the observation wells at horizontal distances r1 and
r2, the heads of water are h1 and h2.
At a variable distance r from the centre of the well, the
head of water is h.
The head of water to the water table is H from the base
of the well.
The well is fully penetrating.
75
3115ENG
Slope i
h
h1
h2
Soil sample
1-D Seepage
3115ENG
Slope i
h
h1
h2
Soil sample
l
Hydraulic Gradient :
h h1 h2
l
l
76
3115ENG
Slope i
h1
h2
Soil sample
l
Hydraulic Gradient :
h h1 h2
l
l
Coeffient of permeability : k
Discharge Velocity :
h h
v k i k 1 2
l
3115ENG
Slope i
h1
Soil sample
h2
Discharge Velocity :
Area of Sample :
Rate of flow :
h h
v k i k 1 2
l
A
h h
q vA kA 1 2
l
77
3115ENG
1-D Seepage
Slope i
h1
Soil sample
l
Rate of flow :
Time :
Quantity of flow :
h2
d 2h
0
2
dx
h h
q vA kA 1 2
l
t
h h
QqtkA t 1 2
l
3115ENG
The flow of water in the sample enclosed in the

tube can also be solved by using onedimensional Laplace equation as
1-D Seepage
d 2h
0
2
dx
Integrating the differential equation we

have
dh
a
dx
78
3115ENG
Integrating for the second time gives
h ax b
Now the constants of integration a & b can be found
with the substitution of the boundary conditions.
when x = 0, h = h1 and
when x = L, h =h2
Then we have b = h1
and
h h
a 1 2
L
h h
h 1 2 x h1
L
3115ENG
Slope i
h
h1
Soil sample
h2
1-D Seepage
79
3115ENG
h
h=ndh
Reservoir
Screen
Screen
900
Line of equal pressure
n d number of equipotential drops 4

n f number of flow channels 4
3115ENG
These problems with simple geometry can

be solved with Laplace two-dimensional
equation, given as
h h
2 0
2
x
z
2
80
3115ENG
3115ENG
81
3115ENG
3115ENG
Sketching of flow lines and equi-potential

lines
The figure above shows five potential drops
and three flow tubes.
The details of how the equi-potentials and
flow tubes are sketched are illustrated in
the next figure.
82
3115ENG
3115ENG
83
3115ENG
3115ENG
OBJECTIVES

84
3115ENG
Slope Failure in Soils
Failure due to inadequate

strength at shear interface
3115ENG
Shear Failure in Soils
85
3115ENG
Bearing Capacity Failure
3115ENG
Transcosna Grain Elevator Canada

(Oct. 18, 1913)
West side of foundation sank 24-ft
86
3115ENG
Shear Strength of Soils

Soil derives its shear strength from two
sources:
Cohesion between particles (stress independent
component)
Cementation between sand grains
Electrostatic attraction between clay particles
Frictional resistance between particles (stress

dependent component)
3115ENG
Shear Strength of Soils; Cohesion

Dry sand with no cementation
Dry sand with some cementation
Soft clay
Stiff clay
87
3115ENG
Shear Strength of Soils; Internal

Friction
3115ENG
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
Shear
Strength,
S
C
Normal Stress, =
88
3115ENG
Shear Strength is controlled by

Effective Stress, '
Slope Surface
Potential Failure
Surface
3115ENG
s c tan
c cohesion
angle of internal friction
89
3115ENG
Typical Values
3115ENG
Effect of Pore Water on Shear Strength

Pore water pressure
Total Stress, versus Effective Stress,
u
Shear Strength in terms of effective stress
s c tan
90
3115ENG
Apparent Cohesion
Moist beach sand has apparent cohesion
Negative pore water pressures
u
s c tan
3115ENG
Measuring Shear Strength

Laboratory
Direct shear test
Unconfined compression test
Triaxial compression test
Field
Vane shear test
91
3115ENG
Direct Shear Test
3115ENG
Direct Shear Test
92
3115ENG
Direct Shear Test
3115ENG
Direct Shear
Test Device
93
3115ENG
Direct Shear Test Device
3115ENG
Shear stress
Direct Shear Test Data
94
3115ENG
Direct Shear Test Data

Volume change
3115ENG
Peak vs. Ultimate Strength
95
3115ENG
Drained versus Undrained

Conditions .
Before loading
After loading
3115ENG
Drained versus Undrained

Conditions .
Before loading
After loading
96
3115ENG
3115ENG
97
3115ENG
Soil Shear Strength under Drained

and Undrained Conditions .
Drained conditions occur when rate at which
loads are applied are slow compared to rates
at which soil material can drain
Sands drain fast; therefore under most loading
conditions drained conditions exist in sands
Exceptions: pile driving, earthquake loading in
fine sands
3115ENG
Soil Shear Strength under Drained

and Undrained Conditions .
In clays, drainage does not occur quickly;
therefore excess pore water pressure does not
dissipate quickly
Therefore, in clays the short-term shear strength
may correspond to undrained conditions
Even in clays, long-term shear strength is
estimated assuming drained conditions
98
3115ENG
Shear Strength in terms of Total

Stress
Shear Strength in terms of effective stress
u at hydrostatic value
s c tan
Shear strength in terms of total stress
s c tan
3115ENG
Long-term Stability
Slope Surface
Potential Failure
Surface
99
3115ENG
Short-term Stability
Slope Surface
Potential Failure
Surface
3115ENG
Shear Strength in terms of Total Stress;

= 0 condition
Shear strength in terms of total stress
s c tan
For cohesive soils under saturated conditions,
= 0.
su c
100
3115ENG
Shear
Strength,
S
=0
C
Normal Stress,
3115ENG
Mohrs Circles
1
3=0
Direct Shear
Uniaxial
Compression
101
3115ENG
Mohrs Circles
Max. shear
plane
Horiz. plane
3=0
Uniaxial
Compression
3115ENG
Mohrs Circles
1
3=0
Uniaxial
Compression
102
3115ENG
Unconfined Compression Test

For clay soils
Cylindrical Test specimen
No confining stress
(i.e. 3 = 0)
Axial stress = 1
3 = 0
3115ENG
103
3115ENG
Unconfined Compression Test Data
l
l0
A0
1
P
Ac
Ac
qu Unconfined Compression Strength

Su Undrained Shear Strngth
qu
2
3115ENG
Unconfined Compression Test
104
3115ENG
Triaxial Compression Test

Unconfined compression test is
used when = 0 assumption is
valid
Triaxial compression is a more
generalized version
Sample is first compressed
isotropically and then sheared
by axial loading
3115ENG

1
Load applied in 2 stages

confining pressure, 3
dev. stress, = 1 - 3
105
3115ENG
3115ENG
106
3115ENG
Triaxial Compression Test for

Undisturbed Soils
c tan
3115ENG
Drainage during Triaxial

Compression Test
107
3115ENG
Triaxial Compression Tests

Unconsolidated Undrained (UU-Test); Also
called Undrained Test
Consolidated Undrained Test (CU- Test)
Consolidated Drained (CD-Test); Also
called Drained Test
3115ENG
Consolidated Undrained Triaxial Test

for Undisturbed Soils
108
3115ENG
END
Next Lecture
109
3115ENG
4101ENG
Geotechnical Engineering Practice
3115ENG
Geotechnical Engineering
Site Investigation
Bearing Capacity
Settlement
Earth Pressure
Instrumentation
Slope Stability
Deep Foundation
3115ENG
Objectives of Geotechnical Investigation

Develop a model to understand ground conditions,
material types, their incumbent properties and likely
effects on our engineering design and construction (eg.
material
availability,
meeting
specifications
requirements, need any improvements, estimating cost,
constructability, traffic ability etc.) .
To identify geological, geotechnical and environmental
hazards in order to minimise risks to the department
(eg.
soft compressible soils, rockfalls, landslides,
ground subsidence etc.)
To avoid potential or premature failures (eg. pavement
failures, bridge and embankment settlements etc.)
3115ENG
Objectives of Geotechnical Investigation

(Contd.)
To avoid potential construction delays (eg. difficult
grounds, excavation difficulties etc.)
To identify potential unsuitable and unforeseen
ground conditions (eg. expansive and poor
subgrades, and weak foundations etc.)
To predict potential geotechnical problems during
construction (eg. unrippable rocks, collapsing
grounds, excavation difficulties etc.)
3115ENG
Why are geotechnical investigations

important and vital?
(some examples)
3115ENG
Rockfall Marburg Range - Warrego Highway
3115ENG
Rockfalls Cunningham Gap - Cunningham Highway
Approx. 4.30pm
3115ENG
Rockfalls Cunningham Gap - Cunningham Highway
Approx. 4.00pm
Approx. 4.00pm
3115ENG
Woombye Montville Road
3115ENG
Gully Cut
Springbrook Road
3115ENG
Eumundi Bypass - Bench Failure - Construction
3115ENG
Undermining of Footing Riverside Expressway

Footing Riverside Expressway
3115ENG
Undermining of Footing Riverside Expressway
3115ENG
The Context for Geotechnical

Exploration
What you know.
Planned site development
Proposed structure information
Surface and subsurface data
What you want to know

Geotechnical Design Recommendations
Preliminary
Final
3115ENG
Investigation Initiation
Design or Construction Engineer sees
need for geotechnical investigation
Request
Decision made on who will carry out

investigation
Investigation In-house
Investigation by Consultant
Final report prepared
3115ENG
Geomechanical Considerations for Roadworks

Cut
EXCAVATION
materials
methods
selective extraction
quantities
bulking and compaction
BATTERS
stability
erosion
drainage
PAVEMENT DESIGN
materials
depth
subgrade treatment
drainage
stabilisation
Bridge
FOUNDATIONS
selection of type
design
ABUTMENTS
stability
settlement of
approach
embankment
scour
Embankment
FOUNDATIONS
stability
consolidation
drainage treatment and
foundation improvement
USE OF MATERIALS
stability
erosion
protection
drainage
PAVEMENT DESIGN
materials
depth
drainage
stabilisation
3115ENG
Investigation Scope
The extent of investigation depends on:

Nature of project eg. urban investigations
normally require more detail due to expense
of resumptions, higher standards of facility
etc;
Level of investigation (preliminary or detailed)
Time limitations eg. investigations during
construction must be performed quickly;
Geological complexity of area.
3115ENG
Geotechnical Investigation Steps

The steps involved in geotechnical investigation are:
Establishing the aim of the investigation
Collection of available information, air photos and
construction experience in the area
Inspection of the site
Eng. Geological mapping (incl. defect survey)
Geophysical investigations (Seismic refraction)
Soundings (Panda and bridge probes, piezocone)
Field
Borehole and insitu tests
Work
Test pits
Assessment of core and samples
Laboratory Testing
Analysis and interpretation
Reporting
3115ENG
Geotechnical Investigation Procedures

Investigations are carried out in accordance with AS17261993 Geotechnical Site Investigations.
As a rule of thumb, up to 1% -2% of project costs should
be spent on thorough geotechnical investigation.
3115ENG
What is Site Characterization?

One working definition:
The process by which a [geo-professional] identifies and
describes both the surface and the subsurface materials
and conditions at a project site relative to an established
design objective.
Or:
A project site so described.
10
3115ENG
Why Do It?
Subsurface material
properties cannot be
specified; they must be
deduced through
exploration.
Charles Dowding (1979)
3115ENG
Some Common Objectives

Identify & describe pertinent surface conditions
Determine location and thickness of soil and rock
strata (subsurface soil profile)
Determine location of groundwater table
Recover samples for laboratory testing
Conduct lab and/or field testing
Identify special problems and concerns
11
3115ENG
Geotechnical Project Sequence
Site Research
Field Reconnaissance
Field Exploration
Laboratory Investigations
Geotechnical Interpretations, Analysis
Report of Exploration
3115ENG
Non-Intrusive Exploration
12
3115ENG
Site Research
(Published Information)
Development Plans
Construction Plans
Site Location Maps
Topographic Maps
Aerial Photographs
Geologic Maps
Soil Survey Maps
3115ENG
Aerial Photo Interpretation
13
3115ENG
Aerial Photo Interpretation
Ground subsidence & sinkholes

in a limestone terrain
3115ENG
Terrain Map with Terrain Units
14
3115ENG
Geologic Maps
http://www.ga.gov.au/resources/maps/mapsofaustralia.jsp
3115ENG
Field Reconnaissance
Observation of Surface Conditions
Accessibility
Traffic Control
Surface Drainage
Geologic Features
Vegetation
Slopes
Water
15
3115ENG
Geophysical Methods
Electrical Resistivity
Surveys
Geophysical Logging
3115ENG
Example: Non-Intrusive Exploration

Given: Prospective client calls with a problem
She owns a lot at Merrimac
Wants to build a wood frame house
Lot has a cliff around three sides of it, 80 Meters
drop to the water
Reqd: Can she build her house within 50 Meters of
the edge of the cliff, as she plans to do?
16
3115ENG
Example
3115ENG
Example
17
3115ENG
Intrusive (Field) Exploration
3115ENG
Preliminaries: How Many Borings & How

Deep?
No hard-and-fast rule exists for
determining the number of borings or
the depth to which borings are to be
advanced.
Reference: Braja M. Das, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering,
6th Edition
18
3115ENG
Preliminaries:
How Many Borings?
Conventional Wisdom
The number (density) of borings will increase:
As soil variability increases
As the loads increase
For more critical/significant structures
Rules of Thumb (TxDOT):

Soft Soils - Space 100 m to 200 m
As soils become harder, spacing may be
increased up to 500 m
3115ENG
How Many Borings?
19
3115ENG
How Deep?
3115ENG
A Good Reference
AS 1726
20
3115ENG
Preliminaries:
How Deep (Bridges)?
Boring depth is governed by various factors, including:
Foundation type
Foundation load
Lowering of grade line at underpass?
Channel relocation, widening, dredging?
Scour?
Rules of Thumb
Generally speaking, 50 m 80 m is reasonable
Local experience is helpful
Look at nearby structures if available
If no experience or other info available, plan for long first
hole, then adjust.
3115ENG
Preliminaries:
How Deep (Retaining Walls)?
Boring depth is governed by various factors, including:
Wall type (Fill vs. Cut)
Lowering of grade line at wall?
Scour?
Rules of Thumb:
Fill Walls:
Depth = Wall Height +/ Soil Nailed Walls:Depth = Through Nailed Area,
plus 20 m
Drilled Shaft Walls:
Depth = Through Exposed Wall
Height, plus 150% of Wall
Height
21
3115ENG
Preliminaries:
How Many Borings & How Deep?
The final engineering can be

no better than the data upon
which it is based.
Reference: George F. Sowers, Introductory Soil Mechanics and
Foundations: Geotechnical Engineering, 4th Edition
3115ENG
Dial Before You Dig

http://www.1100.com.au/default.aspx
22
3115ENG
Look Up and Live!

Safety Awareness
Regular Emphasis
Be a Good Example
3115ENG
Types of Drilling Equipment
23
3115ENG
Truck-Mounted Drill Rig

Typical Equipment
Used for
Geotechnical
Drilling
Truck Mounted Drill
Rig & Support Truck
(Water Tank)
3115ENG
Field Drilling and Sampling

Air or Mud Rotary
Drilling
24
3115ENG
Angle Drilling
Assess geologic
features (dip, strike,
joints, etc.)
Foundation testing for
bridge abutments.
3115ENG
Confined Access/ Interior Drilling

Limited Access Drill
Rigs are small in size,
but have the torque of
many full size truck rigs.
Capability, boring depths,
size, etc. vary
Esp. useful for remedial
sampling
25
3115ENG
Offshore Drilling/ Barge Rig

Exploration for
abutments,
bridges,
docks, etc.
3115ENG
Congested Busy Sites

Reliable underground utility
locate is critical
Traffic control is a must
Large percentage of effort
is in the planning
Special ordinances/
regulations may apply
26
3115ENG
Soil & Rock

Drilling & Sampling
3115ENG
Drilling vs. Sampling

Think in terms of
a continuum
Many methods to
advance an
exploratory shaft
You get what you
pay for
Drilling
Sampling
Effort
LOW
HIGH
Cost
LOW
HIGH
Time
LOW
HIGH
Data
LOW
HIGH
Quality
LOW
HIGH
CONTINUOUS/
UNDISTURBED
INTERMITTENT
UNDISTURBED
INTERMITTENT
DISTURBED
CUTTINGS W/
PENETRATION
TEST
CUTTINGS AT
DEPTH
CUTTINGS
NOTHING
Samples
27
3115ENG
Drilling vs. Sampling

Drilling Just a hole no sample
Disturbed Sampling
Estimating the nature of the formation from
the cuttings is like identifying the cow from the
hamburgers. G.F. Sowers
Undisturbed Sampling
Retrieve a continuous core
Applicable to both soil and rock
3115ENG
Drilling:
Rotary Bit
Bit at the end of drill rod rotated
and advanced
Soil/rock cuttings removed by
circulating drilling fluid
Common drilling fluid; bentonite
in water with slurry density of
1000 kg/m3
Air may be used as drilling fluid
28
3115ENG
Drilling:
Continuous Flight Auger
3115ENG
Drilling & Sampling
Hollow Stem Auger

Casing with outer spiral
Inner rod with plug/or pilot
assembly
For sampling, remove pilot
assembly and insert sampler
Typically 1.5 m sections, keyed,
box & pin connections
Maximum depth 18 45 m
29
3115ENG
Drilling & Sampling
Hollow Stem Auger
3115ENG
Drilling & Sampling
Rock Coring
Double-tube core
barrel
is typical
Diamond or tungstencarbide tooth bit
Size of core samples
varies (NX, NQ, HQ, etc.)
30
3115ENG
Drilling & Sampling
Rock Core Quality

Core recovery percentage
Rock Quality Designation
(RQD)
Defines the fraction of solid core
recovered greater than 10 cm in
length
Calculated as the ratio of the
sum of length of core fragments
greater than 10 cm to the total
drilled footage per run,
expressed as a percentage
3115ENG
Drilling & Sampling
Shelby Tube Sampler

Suitable for SOIL
Thin-wall Steel Tubes
3.0" OD, 2.875" ID, 30.0" long, 7.2
lbs
31
3115ENG
Ground Water
3115ENG
Groundwater Monitoring
Groundwater level must
be determined during
geotechnical exploration
Measure at time of
drilling and later (24 hrs,
1 week, etc.)
Can be accomplished by
leaving selected soil
borings open
Or, install a piezometer
32
3115ENG
Ground Water
Piezometers
Monitor Wells &
Sampling
Permeability Tests
3115ENG
Site Investigation In-situ Test

Bearing Capacity
Settlement
Earth Pressure
Instrumentation
Slope Stability
Deep Foundation
33
3115ENG
In-situ Testing
When it is difficult to obtain undisturbed
samples
Cohesionless soils, Sensitive clays
In-situ Test Methods
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
Vane Shear Test (VST)
3115ENG

63.5 kg (140 lb ) Hammer
76 cm (30in) free fall
Drive sampler over 45 cm
Record no. of blows per each 15 cm (6
inch) penetration
SPT blow count=blows for 2nd 15 cm (6
inch) penetration + blows for 3rd 15 cm (6
inch) penetration
34
3115ENG
Standard Split
Spoon Sampler
3115ENG
35
3115ENG
Types of SPT Hammers
3115ENG
SPT: Automatic
Trip Hammer
36
3115ENG
SPT Correction Factors

N 60
EmCBCSCR N
0.60
hammer efficiency (Em)

bore hole diameter (CB)
sampler correction (CS)
rod length (CR)
3115ENG
SPT Overburden Correction

( N1 ) 60 N 60
2000 lb / ft 2
z
( N1 ) 60 N 60
100 kPa
z
(Customary)
(SI)
37
3115ENG
Use of SPT Data

To Determine Relative Density, Dr
To determine
To determine C
3115ENG

Originally Developed in Netherlands 1930s
Further developments in 1950s
Dutch Cone
Types of CPT devices
mechanical cone
electric cone
piezocone
38
3115ENG
Mechanical
Cone
3115ENG
Electrical Cone
39
3115ENG
Cone Penetrometer
3115ENG
40
3115ENG
CPT Truck
3115ENG
Crawler Type CPT Truck
41
3115ENG
CPT Truck;
Interior
3115ENG

Measures:
Cone Resistance, qc
Sleeve Resistance, fsc
Typical CPT results
42
3115ENG
Typical CPT
Data
3115ENG
Use of
CPT Data
43
3115ENG
CPT Versus SPT

CPT: Advantages over SPT
provides much better resolution, reliability
versatility; pore water pressure, dynamic soil
properties
CPT: Disadvantages
Does not give a sample
Will not work with soil with gravel
Need to mobilize a special rig
3115ENG
Vane Shear Test
Originally developed by Swedish Engineer,

John Olsson in 1920s
Specially suited for soft, sensitive clays
Quick test, used to determine undrained
shear strength
44
3115ENG
Vane Shear Test
Drill test hole

Insert vane
Rotate head
Measure torque
Relate
resistance to soil
shear strength
3115ENG
Vane Shear Test

Relationship between Su and applied Torque:
Su
6T f
7d 3
Relationship between Su and applied Torque

(after correction factor):
Su
6T f
7d 3
45
3115ENG
Pressuremeter
3115ENG
Pressuremeter Test
46
3115ENG
Flat Plate Dilatometer
3115ENG
Flat Plate
Dilatometer
47
3115ENG
Comparison of In-Situ
Test Methods
Simplicity & ruggedness

Ease of Testing
Resolution
Basis for Interpretation
Types of Soils
Equipment Availability
Potential for Future Development
3115ENG
Comparison of In-Situ
Test Methods
48
3115ENG
Reliability & Validity of Field

Penetration Test Data
Do you KNOW
you have reliable
results?
Do you KNOW
you have ANY
results?
Correlations with
other test
methods
3115ENG
Ex-Situ (Laboratory) Tests

ex-situ -- out of its
original place
Laboratory testing is
the most common
method for measuring
soil and rock properties
Numerous examples...
Moisture content
Unit weight
Sieve analysis
Atterberg limits
Compaction
Hydraulic conductivity
Consolidation
Direct shear
Triaxial shear
Unconfined compression
49
3115ENG
3115ENG
50
3115ENG
Data Presentation
3115ENG
Data Presentation
Scope of Information
Log of Boring
Soil Test Boring
Records
Test Pit Records
Data Included
Field
Laboratory
Software Based
Programs
51
3115ENG
Log of Boring
Required Information
Drilling & Sampling Depths & Methods

Field Test Data
Drilling Notes
Soil appearance, stratification
A complete record
Pass/Fail
If its not written down, it didnt happen...
3115ENG
Data Presentation
Cross Sections
Source is soil
boring logs
Yields a 2D or 3D
rendering of the
subsurface
Interpolation
Extrapolation
Guesswork
Helps visualise the

subsurface
52
3115ENG
Uncertainty vs. Risk

More often than not, you develop your exploration not to
find out the subsurface conditions of the site, but to
validate and refine your assumptions of what you believe
are the likely subsurface conditions at the site.
The exploration becomes an exercise
in reducing uncertainty / risk.
Much, you do not know.
3115ENG
Economics
53
3115ENG
Balancing Cost & Risk

The [scope of a subsurface exploration] for any
particular site is a difficult problem which is
closely linked with the relative cost of the
investigation and the project for which it is
undertaken.
VNS Murthy: Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices of Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
3115ENG
Site Investigation
Bearing Capacity
Settlement
Earth Pressure
Instrumentation
Slope Stability
Deep Foundation
54
3115ENG
Bearing Capacity
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
Footing
55
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
Footing
3115ENG
Typical
Buried
Footing
Shallow Foundations
B
Q
D
Equivalent
Surface
Footing
qs = D
Shallow Foundations have D/B < 1
56
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
Methods of analysis
Lower bound approach
failure stress state in equilibrium
failure load less than or equal to true collapse
Upper bound approach

failure mechanism assumed
failure load greater than or equal to true collapse
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
Footing
qf
Surcharge q s
57
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
Footing
qf
Surcharge q s
Frictionless
Discontinuity
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
Footing
qf
Surcharge q s
H
Soil at state
of Active
Failure with
v > h
Frictionless
Discontinuity
58
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
Footing
qf
Surcharge q s
H
Soil at state
of Active
Failure with
v > h
Frictionless
Discontinuity
1 N 3 2 c N
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
Footing
qf
Surcharge q s
H
Soil at state
of Active
Failure with
v > h
1 N 3 2 c N
Frictionless
Discontinuity
Soil at state
of Passive
Failure with
h > v
59
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
Footing
qf
Surcharge q s
H
Soil at state
of Active
Failure with
v > h
1 N 3 2 c N
3115ENG
Frictionless
Discontinuity
Soil at state
of Passive
Failure with
h > v
1 c cot
3 c cot
Shallow Foundations
v = 1
h = 1
h = 3
v = 3
60
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
v = 1
h = 1
h = 3
v = 3
v qs z
v qf z
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
v = 1
h = 1
h = 3
v = 3
v qs z
v qf z
N
q f z c cot
h c cot
h c cot
q s z c cot
61
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
v = 1
h = 1
h = 3
v = 3
v qs z
v qf z
N
h
q f z c cot
h c cot
h c cot
q s z c cot
1
(q f z c cot ) c cot h N (q s z c cot ) c cot
N
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
(
0
h active
dz
) passive dz
62
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
h active
dz
1
N
3115ENG
) passive dz
H2
H2
q
H
c
H
N
q
H
cot
c cot H
f
2
2
Shallow Foundations
h active
dz
1
N
) passive dz
H2
H2
q
H
c
H
N
q
H
c cot H
cot
s
f
2
2
q f q s N 2
H 2
N 1 c cot N 2 1
2
63
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
q f q s N 2
H 2
N 1 c cot N 2 1
2
This solution will give a lower bound to the true solution

because of the simplified stress distribution assumed in the soil
Similar terms occur in all bearing capacity expressions. They
are functions of the friction angle and
the surcharge applied to the soil surface
the self weight of the soil
cohesion
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
A general bearing capacity equation can be written
qf qs Nq
B
N c Nc
2
The terms Nq, N and Nc are known as the bearing capacity

factors
Values can be determined from charts
64
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
40
Nq
Nc
30
(degrees)
20
10
60
50
40
30
Nq and Nc
20
10
20
40
N
60
80
BEARINGCAPACITYFACTORS [After Terzaghi and Peck (1948)]
3115ENG
Shallow Foundations
Qf
q= Df
Df
Mechanism analysed by Terzaghi
65
3115ENG
Effect of Foundation Shape
Continuous strip footing
qf qs Nq
B
N c Nc
2
Square footing
q f q s N q 0.4 B N 1.3 c N c
Circular footing
q f q s N q 0.6 B N 1.3 c N c
3115ENG
Effective Stress Analysis
Effective stress analysis is needed to assess the long term

foundation capacity.
Total and effective stresses are identical if the soil is dry. The
analysis is identical to that described above except that the
parameters used in the equations are c, , dry rather than cu,
u, sat.
If the water table is more than a depth of 1.5 B (the footing
width) below the base of the footing the water can be assumed
to have no effect.
If the soil below the base of the footing is saturated, the analysis
must account for the water pressures.
66
3115ENG
If the soil below the base of the footing is saturated, the analysis
must account for the water pressures.
Q=q fB
qs = D
u=u
The effective bearing capacity
qf = qf - uo
The effective surcharge
qs = qs - uo
The effective (submerged) unit weight
3115ENG
= sat - w
These effective quantities are required because Mohr

Coulomb failure criterion must be expressed in terms of
effective stress
N
1 c cot
3 c cot
The total vertical stress, pore pressure and effective

vertical stress at any depth z beneath the footing are
v qf z
u uo w z
v v u q f z
67
3115ENG
v = 1
h = 1
h = 3
v = 3
v q s z
v q f z
N
h
q f z c cot
h c cot
h c cot
q s z c cot
1
(q f z c cot ) c cot h N (q s z c cot ) c cot
N
3115ENG
The simple analysis leads to

q f q s N 2
H 2
N 1 c cot N 2 1
2
This is similar to the previous expression except that now all

terms involve effective quantities.
As before a general expression can be written with the form
B
q f q s N q
N c N c
2
The Bearing Capacity Factors are identical to those from
Total Stress Analysis
Note that the Total Bearing Capacity qf = qf + uo
68
3115ENG
Analysis has so far considered
soil strength parameters

rate of loading (drained or undrained)
groundwater conditions (dry or saturated)
foundation shape (strip footing, square or circle)
Other important factors include
3115ENG
soil compressibility
embedment (D/B > 1)
inclined loading
eccentric loading
non-homogeneous soil
In practice the Terzaghi factors are still widely used.

The bearing capacity equation assumes that the effects of c', ,
and ' can be superimposed.
This is not correct as there is an interaction between the three
effects because of the plastic nature of the soil response.
69
3115ENG
The formulae give the ultimate bearing capacity

Significant deformations and large settlements may occur before
general bearing failure occurs
Local failure (yield) will occur at some depth beneath the footing
at a load less than the ultimate collapse load
The zone of plastic (yielding) soil will then spread as the load is
increased. Only when the failure zone extends to the surface will
a failure mechanism exist.
A minimum load factor of 3 against ultimate failure is usually
adopted to keep settlements within acceptable bounds, and to
avoid problems with local failure.
Total Stress Analysis u = 0
3115ENG
qf
N c cu + q s
q ult = cNc
Nc
le or
Circ
re
squa
D
uous
Contin
6
5.14
5
Nc (for rectangle)
2
D/B
= (0.84+0.16 B ) Nc (square)
L
L= Length of footing
ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY OF CLAY ( = 0 only) (After A.W. Skempton)
q f = cNc + D
70
3115ENG
Bottom heave into excavations
B
D
heave
3115ENG
Bottom heave into excavations

D
For = 0, and constant undrained strength cu

The bearing capacity (pressure)
The driving pressure causing failure
and the Factor of Safety
=
=
cu Nc
D
Bearing capacity
c N
u c
Stress cau sin g failure
D
71
3115ENG
End Part 1
3115ENG
Site Investigation
Bearing Capacity
Settlement
Earth Pressure
Instrumentation
Slope Stability
Deep Foundation
72
3115ENG
Objective:
Grasp the knowledge of soil deformation
Settlement
3115ENG
Va
Vw
Solid
Water
Vs
Air
Soil is generally a three phase material

Contains solid particles and voids
Voids can contain liquid and gas phases
Phase
Volume
Mass
Weight
Air
Va
Water
Vw
Mw
Ww
Solid
Vs
Ms
Ws
73
3115ENG
Units
Length
Mass
Density
Weight
Stress
Unit weight
metres
tonnes (1 tonne = 103 kg)
t/m3
kilonewtons (kN)
kilopascals (kPa) 1 kPa= 1 kN/m2
kN/m3
Density of water, w = 1 t/m3
Stress/Strength to 0.1 kPa
Accuracy
3115ENG
Settlement of a single layer

x
S
H
zz
S
H
e
1 e
(1)
thus
S
e H
1 e
74
3115ENG
Soil profile divided into a number of sub-layers

sub-layer 1
sub-layer 2
sub-layer n
3115ENG
Soil profile divided into a number of sub-layers

Thus
For sub layer i
Si
ei H i
1 ei
(2)
so that
Total Settlement
1 S i
1 [
ei H i
]
1 ei
75
3115ENG
Example of Settlement Calculation

Gravel
2m
W.T.
5m
4m
4m
Clay
Layered soil deposit
3115ENG
Gravel
2m
5m
4m
Stress increase
at A=100 KPa
4m
Stress increase
at B= 60 KPa
Clay
Layered soil deposit
76
3115ENG
Properties
Gravel
Relatively incompressible
dry
18 kN / m3 ; sat
22 kN / m3
Clay
e0 = 0.8
Gs = 2.7
Cc = 0.20; Cr = 0.05
3115ENG

Distribution of Volume
Voids
Distribution of Weight
Ww
Vv = e Vs = 0.8 m3
Ws Vs w G s
26.46 kN
Vs=1 m3
Skeletal
material
sat
Ww Ws
Vv Vs
sat
( G s e) w
1 e
19.06 kN / m 3
or
w Vv
7.84 kN
7.84 26.46
kN / m 3
0.8 1
19.06 kN / m 3
77
3115ENG
The next step is to calculate the initial and final effective stress at
the centre of each sub-layer
Initial State at A
zz = 2 18 + 3 22 + 2 19.06 = 140.12 kPa
Total stress
Pore water pressure
uw = 5 9.8 kPa = 49 kPa
(3a)
zz = zz - uw = 140.12 - 49 = 91.12 kPa
Effective stress
Notice the initial effective stress is less than pc =120 kPa thus the
clay is initially over-consolidated.
3115ENG
Final State at A
Total stress
zz = 100 + 2 22 + 3 22 + 2 19.06 = 248.12 kPa
Pore water pressure

Effective stress
uw = 7 9.8 kPa = 68.6 kPa
(3b)
zz = zz - uw = 248.12 - 68.6 = 179.52 kPa
Notice that the final effective stress exceeds the initial preconsolidation
stress and thus the clay moves from being initially over-consolidated to
finally normally consolidated.
78
3115ENG
Settlement of the first sub-layer

The soil in the first sub layer moves from being over-consolidated
to normally consolidated and so the calculation of the change in voids
ratio must be made in two stages.
e
Slope Cr
Slope Cc
log
3115ENG

Soil over-consolidated ( < pc (initial))
Stage 1
e1 = - Cr log10(pc (initial)/I)
Soil normally consolidated ( = pc)
Stage 2
(3c)
e2 = - Cc log10(F/pc (initial))
e
Slope Cr
e1
Slope Cc
e2
pc
log
79
3115ENG
Now
S
3115ENG
He
1 e
H ( e1 e2 )
1 e
4
120 . 00
179 . 52
[ 0 . 05 log 10 (
) 0 . 2 log 10 (
)]
1.8
91 .12
120 . 00
0 . 0911 m
(3d)
Settlement of the second sub-layer is calculated in

similar fashion to the settlement of the first sub-layer
e
Slope Cc
log
The settlement is then the sum of the settlements of
each of the sub-layers
80
3115ENG
Calculation of Settlement
To calculate the settlement it is necessary to find the initial and

final effective stress.
The initial stress can be calculated from a knowledge of the
overburden (the weight of the overlying soil).
The initial and final pore pressures can be determined from the
positions of the water table.
In order to find the final total stress it is necessary to find the
increase in total stress due to the applied loads.
Under many circumstances this can be adequately
approximated using the theory of elasticity.
3115ENG
Embankment loading on a layered soil
Embankment
x
Soil layer 1
Soil layer 2
Rock
81
3115ENG
Embankment loading on a layered soil
If the embankment is wide compared to the depth of the soil layer

then the restraining effect of adjacent columns of soil prevents
horizontal movement. Thus there is vertical strain but no
horizontal strain
Before loading
After loading
3115ENG
Measurement of soil properties

The oedometer apparatus
Load
Displacement
measuring device
Cell
Loading cap
wate
r
Soil sample
Porous disks
82
3115ENG
Relation between axial and volume strain
z (1 zz )
x
x(1 xx )
(a) Before Deformation
(b) After Deformation
Volume strain v
V
V0
(a)
V = Vo = x y z
(b)
V x(1 xx ) y(1 yy ) z(1 zz )
(1)
(2a)
3115ENG
Relation between axial and volume strain

V V0
V0
(2b)
v
v
xyz x(1 xx ) y(1 yy ) z(1 zz )

xyz
(2c)
Neglecting second and higher order terms
v xx yy zz
(2d)
For confined compression this becomes
v zz
(2e)
83
3115ENG
Relation between volume strain and voids ratio
Voids
Vse0
Vs ( e 0 e)
Solid
Material
Vs
Vs
(a) Before Deformation
(b) After Deformation
V0 Vs (1 e0 )
V Vs (1 e0 e)
3115ENG
Relation between volume strain and voids ratio

V0 Vs ( 1 e 0 )
V Vs ( 1 e 0 e )
Vs e
V V0
V0
Vs (1 e 0 )
e
1 e0
For confined compression
zz
e
1 e0
(3a)
zz = v
(2e)
(3b)
84
3115ENG
One dimensional soil behaviour

A
2
C
Voids ratio, e
1
B
D
Log 10 (effective stress, )
3115ENG
Terminology
Preconsolidation stress (pressure)

The maximum effective stress which has been applied to
an element of soil
Over - consolidated
A soil is called over-consolidated (OC) if:
Current Effective Stress
<
Preconsolidation Stress
Normally consolidated
A soil is called normally consolidated (NC) if:
85
3115ENG
Terminology
It is not possible for

>
Impossible states
Normal
Consolidation
Line
Over-consolidated
states
log10 ()
3115ENG
Over - consolidated soil

O
e = e0
e = ef
Overconsolidation ratio, OCR
pc
pc
logarithmic scale
(5)
86
3115ENG
Estimating the preconsolidation pressure

D
e
C
A
F
E
pc
B
log ()
Casagrandes method
3115ENG
Site Investigation
Bearing Capacity
Settlement
Earth Pressure
Instrumentation
Slope Stability
Deep Foundation
87
3115ENG
Types of Retaining Wall
Gravity walls
Sheet walls
3115ENG
Failure of Retaining Walls
Collapse of side walls

Foundation failure
Heave due to water pressures
Settlement due to groundwater lowering
Seepage carrying fines into base of excavation
88
3115ENG
Sheet Retaining Walls

Sheet walls may be split into 3 groups, each with its separate
method of analysis. The groups are
Cantilevered walls
Walls with a single strut or anchor
Walls with multiple struts
3115ENG
Sheet Retaining Walls
For all sheet walls the following must be considered in design

The overall stability of the soil/wall system
The structural strength of the wall
The possibility of damage to adjacent structures, and services in
the ground, due to wall construction
89
3115ENG
Cantilever Walls
Direction of
wall movement
Excavation
Active pressures
Passive
pressures
3115ENG
Rankine Active and Passive pressures

Direction of
wall movement
v
Active
h
v
Passive
h
Wall frictionless principal stresses are

vertical and horizontal
90
3115ENG
ctan
hmin
3115ENG
hmax
N 3 + 2 c
For most walls the long term, fully drained, condition

governs the stability.
Use effective stress strength criterion with c = 0, = cs
The effective lateral stresses on the wall are then
v
N
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
v N
1 sin
v K a v
1 sin
1 sin
v K p v
1 sin
91
3115ENG
Cantilever wall stability
Geometry
Pressure Diagram
Active
Passive
x
d
Passive
Point of
rotation
3115ENG
Design calculations are required to determine the depth

of penetration, d, of the wall.
Because the depth of the point of rotation is also
unknown 2 equations are required to obtain a solution.
These are moment and force equilibrium
SF = 0
SM = 0
92
3115ENG

Forces
Pressures
PA1
K ( x H)
h
a d
K x
h
p d
K ( x H)
h
p d
PP1
PA2
PP2
K (d H )
h
p d
K d
h
a d
3115ENG

1
K a d (x H) 2
2
1
KP d x2
2
PA1
PP1
1
K a d (d x) 2
2
1
K p d ( x H ) ( d x) K p d (d x ) 2
2
PA 2 K a d x (d x)
PP 2
Force Equilibrium leads to

PA1 + PP2 - PP1 - PA2 = 0
This gives a quadratic equation with terms in x2 and d2
93
3115ENG
Cantilever wall serviceability
Considerable movement of the wall is required to mobilise the

limiting passive stresses
The movements required to reach the active and passive
conditions depend on the soil type.
For example, for retaining walls of height H the movements
required are
SAND
Active
0.001H
Passive0.05H - 0.1H
CLAY
Normally Consolidated Active
Over-Consolidated
3115ENG
0.004H
Passivelarge
Active
0.025H
Passive0.025H
Cantilever wall serviceability
Movements of the wall are associated with settlement of the

supported soil
Because of excessive settlements the wall will fail to meet
serviceability requirements well before ultimate failure
To control the settlements the earth pressures are factored
There are two main methods of doing this, based on the
different wall movements to reach limiting conditions.
94
3115ENG
Cantilever wall - effects of surcharge

s
v s d z
h K a ( s d z)
3115ENG
Cantilever wall - effects of surface load

QL
PA
95
3115ENG
Cantilever wall - effects of water

Water
Table
Water
Effective stresses must be used when evaluating the lateral

stresses h K v
Pore water pressures will cancel
3115ENG
Cantilever wall - effects of water
v v u
and
h K v
Force due to water is now different on the two sides of the wall and this
must be taken into account when considering equilibrium
96
3115ENG
Modes of failure
The force F may be provided by
friction at the base (gravity retaining walls)
founding the wall into the ground (sheet retaining walls)
anchors and struts
external loads
3115ENG
Modes of failure
1. ACTIVE Failure
If the force F is too small failure of the wall will occur with soil pushing the
wall out.
direction of soil
movement
For most retaining walls active failure is the primary concern.
97
3115ENG
Modes of failure
1. PASSIVE Failure
If the force F is too large failure of the wall will occur with the wall
pushing into the soil.
direction of soil
movement
This mode of failure is usually only relevant when large external

forces are being applied.
However, local passive conditions may occur if any part of the wall
moves towards the soil.
3115ENG
Rankines theory
Assume that the wall is frictionless

The normal stress acting on the wall will thus be a principal
stress
If the wall is vertical and the soil surface horizontal the vertical
and horizontal stresses throughout the retained soil mass will be
the principal stresses
The vertical stress may then be calculated in the usual way
d1
d2
The vertical total stress at

depth z is given by
v 1 d1 2 ( z d1 )
98
3115ENG
Rankines theory
Assume that the horizontal stress can be calculated from the

failure criterion. That is the retained soil is assumed to be
everywhere at failure.
3115ENG
Rankines theory
Assume that the horizontal stress can be calculated from the

failure criterion. That is the retained soil is assumed to be
everywhere at failure.
From the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion we have
1 N 3 2 c N
For active failure the horizontal stress will reduce to its minimum
value. That is h = the minimum principal stress, and v =
.
The minimum (Active) horizontal stress is then
h min
v 2 c N
N
99
3115ENG
Rankines theory
For passive failure the horizontal stress will increase to its

maximum value. That is h = the maximum principal stress,
and v = .
The maximum (Passive) horizontal stress is then
h max N v 2 c N
If the vertical stress stays constant the horizontal stress is
bounded by the active and passive values.
In the Rankine method a stress state is found that is in
equilibrium with the applied loads and has the soil at failure. In
plasticity theory this approach is referred to as a lower bound
method, a method which can be shown to produce safe,
conservative solutions.
3115ENG
Rankines theory
The relation between the active and passive pressures may

be shown graphically by considering Mohr circles.
c tan
100
3115ENG
Rankines theory

c tan
hmin
3115ENG
Rankines theory

c tan
hmin
hmax
101
3115ENG
Total Stress Analysis
The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion must be expressed in terms

of total stress, using undrained parameters cu, u.
A total stress analysis is only appropriate if soil remains
undrained. It can only be used in the short term for soils with
low permeabilities.
For the undrained active failure of a wall we have
h
where
v 2 cu N
N
1 + sin u
1 - sin u
and for a homogeneous soil layer

v = sat z
3115ENG
Total Horizontal Stress

2c u
N
cu, usat
sat H 2 c u
If u is non-zero this implies that the undrained strength varies

with depth. The soil must be saturated to use a total stress
(undrained) analysis.
102
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Tension cracks
The analysis indicates negative, tensile, stresses at the surface.

Soil particles cannot provide tension
The negative stresses have to come from suctions in the pore
water
It is difficult to rely on the tensile forces and they are usually
ignored
The tensile stresses reduce the force required for stability of the
wall. Ignoring the tensile stresses therefore gives a more
conservative solution.
3115ENG
Tension cracks
The horizontal stress distribution becomes

z0
H
cu, u
sat
sat H 2 c u
The depth of the tensile region z0 may be determined from

h = 0
v 2 cu
z0
2 cu
N sat z 0
N
sat
103
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Tension cracks
In the tensile region a crack can develop.

If water is available it can fill the crack, and reduce the stability of
the wall. The horizontal stresses on the wall become.
Water
z0
w z0
Soil
sat H 2 c u N
N
3115ENG
The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion must be expressed in terms

of effective stress, using effective parameters c, .
An effective stress analysis is always appropriate, irrespective of
the drainage conditions. To perform an effective stress analysis
the pore water pressures must be known. This usually limits
effective stress analysis to investigation of long term stability.
For active failure of a wall we have
h
=
v 2 c N
N
1 + sin
where
and
v = v - u
1 - sin
104
3115ENG
Consider active failure of a wall retaining dry sand

2c
N
c, dry
dry H 2 c N
N
3115ENG
The use of values of c, associated with peak failure leads to

the prediction of impossible tensile stresses.
It is generally more appropriate and safer to use ultimate or
critical state parameters, c = 0, = ult
Using the critical state parameters a larger active force is
required for wall stability, and hence a safer estimate is obtained
c ,
c = 0, = ult
105
3115ENG
For passive failure the horizontal stresses on a wall retaining dry

sand are given by
h dry z N 2 c N
In this case the critical state parameters c = 0, = ult give a
smaller force. However, this is a safe, conservative, estimate of
the maximum force the soil can support.
It is important to use effective vertical stresses, v = v - u to
calculate the effective horizontal stresses, h. Then the total
horizontal stress is given by h = h - u
If the water level is not the same on both sides of a wall, water
will flow. The pore pressures must then be determined from a
flow net before calculating v.
3115ENG
Site Investigation
Bearing Capacity
Settlement
Earth Pressure
Instrumentation
Slope Stability
Deep Foundation
106
3115ENG
Fig. 10
3115ENG
1. Instrumentation for
site investigation and
evaluation of soil parameters
- In-situ determination of stress-strain and
strength properties
- Permeability and in-situ stresses
- The use of penetration tests, plate tests and
pile loading tests.
107
3115ENG
2.
Instrumentation for
construction control:
They may consist of a documentation of:

- Ground movements
- Changes in ground water levels
- Intensity of vibrations etc.
3115ENG
Most important reason for control

instrumentation:
To obtain information, which can be used to
evaluate the safety of a project during
construction, and thereby avoid injury, loss of life
or failure of the project.
108
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3. Instrumentation for
performance measurements:
Behavior of completed structures is necessary
to properly evaluate our design and
construction concepts for refinements with
time and to advance our engineering concepts
for future works.
3115ENG
4. Full scaled field tests

Tests on footings or piles, trial embankments, and
full scale tests.
-To evaluate a new construction technique
- To investigate the applicability
of existing construction methods
for projects where the soil
conditions differ from past experience.
109
3115ENG
Direct field measurements of engineering

properties:
Shear strength, compressibility, permeability and
in-situ stresses.
Other most frequently measured
quantities are:
Force, stress and strain, linear and angular
displacements, and pressure.
3115ENG
Fig. 11 Devices for settlement measurements
110
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Fig. 12 Measurement of horizontal displacements
3115ENG
Fig. 13 Measurement of loads and strains in structural elements
111
3115ENG
Fig. 14 Piezometers for pore pressure measurements
3115ENG
Fig. 15 Earth pressure measurements
112
3115ENG
Site Investigation
Bearing Capacity
Settlement
Earth Pressure
Instrumentation
Slope Stability
Deep Foundation
3115ENG
Objective:
Methods to Assess Stability of Slopes
Slope Stability
113
3115ENG
Slope Stability
A common mode of slope failure is a rotational slip along an

approximately circular failure surface
Shallow failure
Deep-seated failure
3115ENG
Slope Stability- Undrained u = 0
At failure
c u tan u c u
Before failure
cu
F
x
=cu
Moments about centre
Wx
/F
2
R cu
F
114
3115ENG

F
2
R cu
Wx
Resisting Moment
Disturbing Moment
The factor of safety of the slope is determined by considering a

range of failure surfaces (slip circles) with different centres and
radii to find the slip circle that gives the minimum value of F
To obtain the minimum value of F computer methods are
generally required. Charted solutions are available for simple
geometries and homogeneous soil.
The analysis can be easily modified for non-homogeneous soil
deposits (layers of different cu).
3115ENG
Tension cracks must be considered, and the possibility that

these cracks may fill with water
tension crack
U
W
Water in a the tension crack will significantly reduce F
115
3115ENG
Method of Slices
This method must be used when is non-zero
It is the basis of all numerical analysis programs

Applicable to undrained and effective stress analysis
R
Wi
Ti
Ni
Method of Slices
3115ENG
Consider slice i
R sin i
i
x i
Xi
U ii
E i
E i 1
U ii 1
Xi 1
l i
Ti
N i
Ui
116
Method of Slices
3115ENG
Overturning moment
Wi sin i
i=1
Restoring moment
Ti
i=1
n
Effective stress
analysis
i=1
n
Re sisting Moment
F
Overturning Moment
[ c l
i
c i li
F
tan i
+ N i
]
F
N i tan i ]
i 1
W sin
i
i 1
Method of Slices
3115ENG
Restoring moment
Ti
i=1
Undrained
analysis
[
i=1
c ui li
F
tan ui
+ Ni
]
F
The unknown interslice forces cancel when determining

moment equilibrium. However, these forces are required
to determine N which is needed when f is non-zero.
The situation is statically indeterminate and thus to

determine N an assumption is required
117
Swedish Method of Slices
3115ENG
Assumption: The resultant of the inter-slice forces acts

perpendicular to the normal force N.
Xi
R
E i
U ii
E i 1
U ii 1
Xi 1
Wi
Wi
Ti
Ti
N i
N i
Ui
Ui
N i + Ui =
Ni =
Wi cos i
Swedish Method of Slices
3115ENG
For effective stress analysis

n
[ c l
i
+ (Wi cos i - U i ) tan i ]
i=1
n
sin i
i=1
For total stress (undrained) analysis

n
[c
F
ui
l i + Wi cos i t an ui ]
i=1
n
sin i
i=1
118
Bishops simplified method
3115ENG
Assumption: The vertical inter-slice forces are equal and opposite. The
resultant thus acts perpendicular to W
Xi
U ii
E i
E i 1
Xi 1
Wi
U ii 1
Wi
Ti
Ti
N i
N i
Ui
Ui
Wi
3115ENG
Wi
now
Ti sin i + N i cos i + u i x i
Ti
hence N i
Ti sin i + N i cos i + u i x i
c i l i
F
N i tan i
F
Wi - u i x i - (1 / F) c i x i
tan i tan i
cos i 1 +
F
tan i
119
3115ENG
Substitution of the expression for N into the equation for

the factor of safety
n
Re sisting Moment
F
Overturning Moment
[ c l
i
N i tan i ]
i 1
W sin
i
i 1
leads to
n
( c x
i
i=1
1
+ ( Wi - u i x i ) tan i )
M i ( )
n
sin i
i=1
where
M i ()
cos i [ 1 + tan i
tan i
]
F
3115ENG
1.6
Note: is + when slope of failure arc is
in same quadrant as ground slope
1.0
1.4
Values of M i
0.8
1.2
0.6
-tan
---------F
1.0
0.4
0.8
0.2
0.2
tan
----------F
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.4
-40
0.8
1.0
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
Values of
30
40
50
60
GRAPH FOR DETERMINATION OF M i
120
3115ENG
Note that in the Bishop's simplified method the factor of safety

appears in both sides of the equation, as it is included also in
the Mi () term
Thus to obtain a solution an iterative approach is needed.
Calculations are similar to the Swedish method, but a value for
F must be assumed to evaluate the summations.
The calculated value of F can be used in the next iteration. It is
found that the factor of safety converges rapidly.
3115ENG
Comments
Both methods can be used for undrained and effective stress

analyses.
Both methods underestimate F determined by more rigorous
methods. Bishops method is more accurate
If the soil is submerged the effect of the overlying water must be
accounted for
The factor of safety is very sensitive to pore pressures in the
ground. If water is flowing these should be determined from a
flow net
121
3115ENG
Site Investigation
Bearing Capacity
Settlement
Earth Pressure
Instrumentation
Slope Stability
Deep Foundation
3115ENG
Objectives
Understand the Concepts of Piled Foundation
Deep Foundation
122
3115ENG
Pile Foundations
Piles are relatively long and slender members used to transmit

foundation loads through soil strata of low bearing capacity to
deeper soil or rock having a higher bearing capacity.
Pile resistance is comprised of

end bearing
shaft friction
For many piles only one of these components is important. This

is the basis of a simple classification
3115ENG
When to Use Deep Foundations

Upper soils are weak, structural loads are high;
Required spread footings are too large
Upper Soils are subject to scour or undermining
Foundation must penetrate through water
Need large uplift capacity
Need large lateral load capacity
123
3115ENG
Types of Deep Foundations

Piles Prefabricated Members driven into
ground
Drilled Shafts Drill Cylindrical Hole and insert
reinforcing & fill with concrete
Caissons Prefabricated box or cylinder sunk
into ground and filled with concrete
3115ENG
Types of Deep Foundations

Mandrel driven shells Thin corrugated steel shells
driven into ground and filled with concrete
Auger Cast Piles Drill a slender cylindrical hole with
hollow-stem auger and then pump grout through auger
hole while auger is slowly retracted
Pressure Injected Footings Cast in place concrete that
is rammed into the soil using a drop hammer
124
3115ENG
Load Transfer
3115ENG
Belled Piers
125
3115ENG
Piles versus Drilled Shafts

Piles
Drilled Shafts
Precast Members driven

into soil
Cast-in-situ
Timber, steel, prestressed

concrete, composite
Reinforced concrete
Maximum diameter~0.6 m.
Can be as large as 1.8 ~2.5 m

diameter
Used in groups pile groups
Used singly
3115ENG
Pile Foundations
Types of Piles
Materials
Typical Dimensions
Installation Methods & Equipment

Construction Procedures
Typical Applications
126
3115ENG
Types of Piles
Timber Piles
Steel Piles
Concrete Piles
Composite Piles
3115ENG
Steel Piles
Easy to Splice
Good choice when D>18 m
Good choice in hard soils
Expensive
Noisier to drive
Susceptible to Corrosion
127
3115ENG
Steel Piles
H-piles
15 45 m length
small displacement piles
Pipe Piles
30 45 m length
0.2 1 m diameter
closed or open end
3115ENG
Concrete Piles
Reinforced Concrete (less common now)

Pre-stressed concrete
Do not tolerate hard driving conditions
Square or Octagonal Section
12 120 m long
0.2 0.6 m width
400 3500 N working loads
128
3115ENG
Concrete Piles
3115ENG
129
3115ENG
Square Concrete Piles
3115ENG
Composite Piles
Concrete filled Steel Pipe Piles
Greater uplift capacity because of increased weight
Increased shear and moment capacity
Plastic-Steel Composite Piles

Used in marine environments to increase resistance
to borers, decay, abrasion
stronger than timber
130
3115ENG
End Bearing Piles
PILES
SOFT SOIL
ROCK
3115ENG
Friction Piles
PILES
SOFT SOIL
Strength
increases
with depth
131
3115ENG
Types of Pile
There are many piling systems
The pile installation procedure varies considerably, and has an

important influence on the subsequent response
Two main groups can be identified

Displacement piles
Bored piles
3115ENG
Types of Displacement Piles
Displacement
Large
Preformed
Solid
Concrete,
or Timber
Hollow tube
Closed end
Steel or Concrete
Small
Formed in-situ
Hollow tube, or
H-section
Steel
Screw
Tube former
withdrawn
void filled with
concrete
132
3115ENG
Types of Bored Piles
Bored Piles
Unsupported
during
Construction
Supported
during
Construction
Steel Casing
Drilling Mud
Void filled with

Reinforced Concrete
3115ENG
Bridge Supported on Drilled Shafts
133
3115ENG
Drilled Shaft Construction using Casing
3115ENG
Drilled Shaft Construction using Casing
134
3115ENG
Auger-Cast Piles
3115ENG
Loads applied to Piles

Combinations of vertical, horizontal and moment loading
may be applied at the soil surface from the overlying
structure
V
M
H
For the majority of foundations the loads applied to the

piles are primarily vertical
For piles in jetties, foundations for bridge piers, tall
chimneys, and offshore piled foundations the lateral
resistance is an important consideration
The analysis of piles subjected to lateral and moment
loading is more complex than simple vertical loading
because of the soil-structure interaction.
135
3115ENG
Vertically loaded piles

Pu
Psu
Pu = Psu + Pbu - W
Pbu
3115ENG
1. Base Resistance
Pbu = A b ( f b + p o )
fb+ p o
po
Pile weight is usually similar to the force due to the

overburden pressure, hence
W Ab po
Pu = Psu + Ab fb
136
3115ENG
2. Shaft Resistance (Friction)
Psu f s A s
fs
Average ultimate side resistance per unit area
The shaft resistance, fs will in general be a function of depth

below the surface, because both the undrained strength cu
(short term undrained analysis) and the effective stresses (long
term analysis) increase with depth.
The average shear stress can be expressed mathematically by
L
1
f s f s dz
L0
3115ENG
Vertically loaded piles - Total stress analysis
1. Base Resistance
P bu
A b ( f b + po )
Ab qf
qf is the bearing capacity, and for u = 0 this is given by
qf =
Nc cu +
D =
Nc cu +
po
The net ultimate resistance is simply

f b = Nc c u
and the ultimate base resistance, allowing for the pile weight
P bu = A b N c c u
137
3115ENG
Assume
cu = cub the undrained strength at the pile base
u = 0
Skemptons chart can be used for Nc
9
Nc
le
Circ
uare
or sq
uous
Contin
6
5.14
5
D/B
3115ENG

2. Shaft resistance
f s ( z) c u ( z)
is a reduction factor that depends on
soil type
pile type
method of installation
time since installation
soil strength
138
3115ENG

1.0
Reduction Factor,
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
100
200
Average Undrained Shear Strength, s u (kPa)
3115ENG
Vertically loaded piles - Effective stress analysis
1. Base Resistance
f b N q v
300
260
220
180
Nq
Nq
140
100
60
L/d =20
20
L/d
24
28
32
36
40
44
(degrees)
139
3115ENG
2. Shaft Resistance
fs
h
PILE
f s h tan
h = K v
SOIL
3115ENG
f s K v tan
fs
fs
Nq
50
v tan cs
L
1 N q ( z)
v ( z) tan cs ( z) dz
L 0 50
140
3115ENG
Vertically loaded pile groups
Piled foundations usually consist of many piles

These may be distributed uniformly underneath a structure or in
distinct pile groups under heavily loaded areas
In design a check should be made of the ultimate capacity of the
group
The group capacity will be the lesser of
The sum of the ultimate loads of the individual piles, that is n
Pu1
The ultimate capacity of an equivalent block containing the piles
and the soil between the piles
3115ENG
Vertically loaded pile groups

A
PLAN
VIEW
Psu (group) = 2 (A + B) Lf s
Pbu (group) = A B fb
ELEVATION
141
3115ENG
END
NEXT LECTURE
142

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3115ENG

What have we learnt in 2102ENG Soil

Understand Soil Constituents

Understand Soil Constituents

The Science of Earth

Engineering Geology is the applied geology in

Supply demands: water, metals, energy, etc.

It is the gaseous envelope surrounding the

The Solid Earth

Divisions of Earth Interior

Continental crust & Oceanic crust

Upper and Lower Mantle

Trends within earths interior

Plate Tectonics Theory

Major Earths Tectonic Plates

Types of Plate Boundaries

Prominent Features of Ocean Floors

Movement of plates generates:

Understand Soil Constituents/Properties

1. Soil Formations and Deposits

1.1 Rock Cycles

The final products

1.2 Bowens Reaction Series

The reaction series are similar to the weathering stability

Involves the complexing and removal

1.4 Transportation of Weathering Products

1.4.2 Transported soilsto be moved and deposited to other

1.4.2 Transported Soils (Cont.)

(from Das, 1998)

Major Geology Formations in Australia

Major Geological Formations in Queensland, Australia

3.1 Three Phases in Soils

3.2 Three Volumetric Ratios

(1) Void ratio e (given in decimal, 0.65)

Volume of voids (Vv )

(2) Porosity n (given in percent 100%, 65%)

Volume of voids (Vv )

(3) Degree of Saturation S (given in percent 100%, 65%)

Total volume of voids contains water (Vw )

3.2.1 Engineering Applications (e)

Cubic-tetrahedral (CT), e = 0.65,

Volume change tendency

Link: the strength of

(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

3.2.1 Engineering Implications (e)(Cont.)

The fluid (water) can flow more easily through the

3.2.1 Engineering Applications (e)(Cont.)

The finer particle cannot pass

Critical state soil mechanics

3.2.2 Engineering Applications (S)

3.2.2 Engineering Applications (S) (Cont.)

3.3 Density and Unit Weight

g : accelerati on due to gravity

3.4 Weight Relationships

For some organic soils w>100%,

(2) Density of water (slightly

(3) Density of soil

Mass of soil solids(M s )

b. Total, Wet, or Moist density

Mass of soil sample( M s M w )

c. Saturated density (S=100%, Va =0)

Mass of soil solids water(M s M w )