Exogenic Processes

EXOGENIC
PROCESSES
Introduction
Earth is subjected to constant several types of forces.
Geological Processes are the processes that shape the
earth and generally they are classified into two.
Endogenic processes are processes that are caused by
forces from within the Earth.
Exogenic processes are processes that come from
forces on or above the Earth's surface such as
weathering and erosion.
Introduction
Rizal monumentis a memorial in Rizal Park in Manila, Philippines built to
commemorate the executed Filipino nationalist, José Rizal. The monument
consists of a standing bronze sculpture of Rizal, with an obelisk, set on a
stone base within which his remains are interred. Unveiled in 1913, the
Rizal Monument in Luneta has stood watch over Manila’s transformation
for over a century. It has also accumulated over a hundred years of soot
and wear. The white granite obelisk is no longer luminous. The bronze
statue of our national hero is streaked with years of dirt and patina.
Introduction
The Statue of Liberty's exterior is made
of copper, and it turned that shade of
green because of oxidation.
Weathering
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soils and minerals as well
as artificial materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere,
biota and waters. Physical weathering is also known as mechanical
weathering, it refers to the breakdown of rocks without a change
in its composition.
Thermal and pressure change
Rocks crumble and break into fragments because they are
subjected to alternating hot and cold temperature many
times; during the day, when a rock gets hot, it expands, at
night, the rocks gets cold causing contraction. Repeated
sings in temperature weaken the rock and in the process,
mineral grains are loosened from the rocks and eventually
the rocks break down into pieces.
Thermal and pressure change
Wind and Waves
Tiny grains of sand are picked up and carried off by
the wind, which are blasted on the surface of the
rocks, smoothening them. On the seashore, the action
of the waves chips away and cracks the rock.
Freeze and Thaw
Water expands when freezes, when water collects in the rock pores and slits, it
expands when it freezes. The freezing creates cracks, when the ice thaws, the
water seeps into new cracks and causes more cracks as it freezes. Soon the
rocks break apart
Freeze and Thaw
Organic Activity
Animals and plants also take a heavy toll on rocks and cause them to wear away.
Weeds and plants grow in cracks; animals burrow into crack. Anthropogenic
activities becomes the primary cause of weathering like road construction,
mining, or even simple walking.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical Weathering is the decomposition of rocks due
to chemical reactions occurring between the minerals
in rocks and environment.
Hydration. Molecules of some substance in rocks
chemically combine with water. When water
decomposes, the elements can react with ions of the
minerals in rocks and destroy their atomic composition,
usually forming new minerals.
Carbonation
It is the process in which carbon dioxide bond
with other substances. Carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is being dissolved in the droplets
of water that make up clouds. It causes the
rainwater to become more acidic. This form
weak carbonic acid then reacts with certain
rocks and minerals.
Carbonation
A stalactite is a mineral formation that
has its base on the ceiling of a cave,
usually forming a roughly conical shape
pointing downward. On the other hand, a
stalagmite is a mineral formation that has
its base on the floor of a cave. It usually
takes a roughly conical shape, like a
stalactite, but pointed upwards from the
floor instead.
Oxidation
It occurs when oxygen combines with another
substance like minerals in rocks, yielding
compounds called oxides. When rocks
particularly those containing iron are exposed
to air and water, the iron undergoes oxidation
forming iron oxides (rust). This results to
discoloration, weakening the rocks and making it
to crumbles.
Oxidation
The bright red colors at the Valley
of Fire are a side effect of iron
oxide (better known to many as
rust!) found in the rocks.
Erosion
Erosion is the process by which soil and rock are removed from the
Earth's surface by natural processes such as wind or water flow,
and then transported and deposited in other locations. It involves
the movement of the weathered rock (now pebbles, sand or soil)
from one place to the other by the action of wind, ice, water and
gravity.
Erosion is not the same as weathering. Weathering is the process
where rock is broken down or dissolved into smaller pieces by
physical, chemical or biological weathering process. Transport
makes erosion complete because it involves the movement of
eroded materials and sediments
Erosion
Transport by water. Rainwater is the
most important force or agent of
erosion. Everyday, millions of tons of
eroded materials are moved along the
river, coasts, and deep oceans. Gravity is
the driving force and it gives water the
energy to erode and carry away rock
materials.
Erosion
Transport by wind. Erosion by wind is known
as aeolian (or eolian) erosion (named after
Aeolus, the Greek god of winds) and occurs
almost always in deserts. Aeolian erosion of
sand in the desert is partially responsible for
the formation of sand dunes. The power of the
wind erodes rock and sand. wind continuously
blows away loose particles of rocks and soil
from place to place.
Mass wasting/movement
-type of erosion capable of making big changes to a mountain
-the variety of the downslope mass movements reflects the diversity of
factors that are responsible for the origin
-factors include weathering and erosion, the character and structure of
rocks, the removal of the vegetation cover, which increases the
susceptibility to mass movement by reducing its stability, earthquake
tremors, which affects the slope’s equilibrium and lastly the flowing
ground water.
Mass wasting/movement
Types of Mass wasting
Rock fall
-abrupt movement and free fall of solid blocks of rock
Creep
-almost imperceptible
downslope movement
of soil particles and
rock debris
Bulging
-subsurface creep of
rock material
Landslide
-the multiplicity of downslope
movement of bedrock and other
debris caused by the separation of a
slope section along a plane of least
resistance or slip surface
Slump
-the separation of a mass moving
down a curved slip and collecting at
slope’s foot.
Earthflow
-the saturation of debris and
weathered materials by rainfall in the
upper section of a slope or valley
causing a downslope movement.
Mudslide
-rapidly moving
earthflow containing
higher water content
Avalanche
-a fast moving earthflow in a mountainous region
Subsidence is the sinking mass movement that occurs in a
relatively rapid fashion.
Settlement is a gradual movement
Subsidence is the sinking mass movement that occurs in a
relatively rapid fashion.
Settlement is a gradual movement
Dolomite Beach
In September, the overlaying of the dolomite in Manila Bay beach or
the beach nourishment project caught public attention, stirring
curiosity and setting off waves of people flocking to the area to get
a glimpse of the "white sands".Many criticized the project, throwing
allegations at the DENR, calling the project a health hazard and a
waste of public funds.
But the DENR emphasized that the beach nourishment with the use of
dolomite is a significant component of the rehabilitation aimed to
protect the coastal resources in the area and prevent coastal
flooding, erosion, and pollution.
Dolomite Beach
Being a mineral, a naturally occurring chemical
compound that is calcium magnesium carbonate,
DENR said the dolomite is not detrimental to the
ecosystems of Manila Bay, and is a known
neutralizer that lessens the acidity of seawater
making it popular for use in fish aquariums.
Anthropogenic changes to coastal environment
High-density residential use

Real, Quezon
High-density commercial use Pagudpod-San Vicente, San
Fernando, La Union
High-density commercial use
•Paringao, Bauang, La Union
Industrial use
•Poro Pt, San Fernando,
La Union
Small-scale dune mining
for construction
•Taboc, San Juan, La
Union
Dunes are destroyed when
removed and replaced by
houses and resorts
Taboc, San Juan, La Union
Dalumpinas Oeste, San
Fernando, La Union
Quarrying
Rimus, Luna, La Union
This is Boracay Island, hailed as one of the
best beaches in the world , located in the
northwest tip of Panay Island in Western
Visayas. Its totalland area is 10.32 sq.km.
And only 7 km long. Politically, it is under
jurisdiction and governance of Malay,
Aklan.
However, what used to be a shoreline today will soon be a part of the sea in a few
years time.
Coastal erosion is actually a natural process. Unfortunately, like what is happening
in Boracay right now, beach erosion occurs at an incredible rate.
Although the swell of tourists is good for the local economy, it harms the island and
its ecosystem.
As tourist arrival increases, construction activities also intensify and the demand
for more spaces rises.
At present there are 331 resorts catering to
tourists, of which 293, were found violating
building cod mandating that at least buildings
should be 30 meters away from the shoreline.
(Philippine Daily Inquirer, 2015)
Japanese and Filipino scientist warned that the
island has already exceeded its carrying
capacity.
The white outline seen in this photo are the
white sand beaches surrounding the island. The
world famous powdery white sand is from
coral fragments.
Coral reefs used to be very abundant before.
It declined by almost 70% in just 23 years.
Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte approved a tourist ban in the country's most
famous island, Boracay, for at least six months from April, 26 2018 fix sewage and
environment-related problems.
At least 300 hotels, resorts and inns have been ignoring an ordinance that requires
them to build their own sewage and wastewater treatment facilities. They have
instead been dumping waste into canals meant only for rainwater and surface
overflow.
Such malpractices have led to an
increase in the coliform bacteria level,
which indicates fecal contamination
and can cause diarrhea, in waters
around Boracay, and longer episodes
of algal bloom
Marine and Coastal Processes
Coastal processes are responsible for
some formations in the country and
around the world.
Example of which are sea cave, sea
arch, sea stack, and beach.
Coastal Erosion
-is the gradual breakdown of the land
or coast due to unending wave action.
Coastal erosion happened by any of
the following processes or
combination of these processes:
hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition,
and corrosion
Coastal Erosion
Hydraulic action
-occurs whenever water from the waves
enters cracks in the cliff face and exerts
pressure on the surrounding rock.
Repeatedly, the rocks weakens and breaks
apart.
Coastal Erosion
Abrasion
-occurs when rocks are picked up and
carried by the waves and thrown onto beach
and cliffs damaging them.
Coastal Erosion
Attrition
-occurs when rocks and pebbles
carried by the waves hit against
one another and break down into
smaller particles.
Coastal Erosion
Corrosion
-occurs when weak acids in
seawater reacts with certain
types of rocks.
Coastal Erosion
Coastal Erosion
Coastal Erosion
Coastal Erosion
Coastal Erosion
Factors Affecting the Rate of Coastal Erosion
1. The Resistance of the Rocks - e.g. limestone, chalk and granite are resistant rocks (often forming
cliffs and headlands) and erode relatively slowly, whilst less resistant rocks such as clay are easily
eroded.
2. The Strength of the waves - affected by the wind strength and duration and its fetch
3. The shape of the coastline (which is dependent on its geology) - on concordant coastlines, rocks
are parallel to the wave front and therefore rates of erosion are similar along the coastline. On
discordant coastlines, differential erosion may occur, where bands of hard and soft rock outcrop at
right angles to the sea. Consequently headlands and bays form along discordant coastlines and
whilst headlands remain exposed to the force of the waves, bays are sheltered.
Waves
Waves are created by the energy of the wind on the sea. The wind causes water
particles to rotate and produce waves. Large waves are usually formed during storms
and typhoons. The height and energy of the waves vary on wind speed, duration of the
wave, fetch, and water depth.
Fetch is an area of a water wave where the wind blows in a constant direction. The
higher speed, longer duration, wide fetch, and deeper wave have more energy than other
types of wave.
Types of Waves
Types of Waves
Transportation or Coastal Transport
-once erosion occurs, the eroded materials are transported somewhere else by ocean
waves and tides.
The main form of transport operating at the coast is that of LONGSHORE DRIFT.
Longshore drift is the process by which sand and pebbles are moved along a beach by
the movement of the waves.
Waves can approach the coast at any angle because of the changing direction of the
prevailing wind.
The swash (the movement of water rushing up the beach) of the waves carries material
to the shore at an angle ,
Then flows in the backwash (the movement of water flowing back down the beach
towards the sea) straight at a 90° angle to the beach back to the ocean.
Continual swash and backwash transports material sideways along the coast, moving
material in a zig-zag fashion. This is called longshore drift.
Method of Coastal Transport
Material eroded by the sea is carried within the water in a number of ways,
-minerals dissolved from rocks are carried in solution
-whilst small rock fragments, light enough to be held within the water, float in suspension
-largest rock fragments which are too heavy to be picked up by the waves, are transported by the
process of traction, this is where they roll along the bed when the waves pick up enough energy
-medium sized rock particles, which cannot be carried by the waves all the time, are moved by saltation.
Solution-Minerals that are eroded and dissolved through salt and acids in the sea water are then
carried in solution. As the material has dissolved it has effectively vanished and cannot be seen within
the water. One example of solution is when chalk or limestone is eroded leading calcium carbonate to
be transported through solution.
Suspension-his is when small particles of sediment and other material is light enough to be carried by
the water for most of the time. The type of material that is likely to be carried are silts and clays,
often making the water discoloured or cloudy. During storm conditions, due to stronger winds and
higher energy waves, more material can be carried in suspension.
Saltation: Saltation involves the lifting of material and smaller sediments along
the seabed. Small pieces of shingle or rocks and large sand grains are transported
like this, but as they can be relatively heavy the currents cannot keep them
afloat for long periods of time. This results in the 'bouncing' of the sediment
being lifted and dropped in the waves.
Traction: Larger and heavier sediment is transported through traction, whereby
the material is rolled along the seabed rather than being lifted by the waves and
currents.
Solution-minerals are dissolved in the water and carried along without being seen
Suspension-smaller particles of silt and sand are held within the water and
transported along in the flow of water
Saltation-smaller pebbles and stones are bounced along the seabed
Traction-large boulders and rocks are rolled along the seabed.
Deposition
When the sea loses energy, it drops the sand, rock particles, pebbles and any
other material it was carrying back down on the beach.
Deposition happens when the swash is stronger than the backwash and is
associated with constructive waves.
Deposition is more likely to occur when:
> Waves enter an area of shallow water,
> Waves enter a sheltered area, for example a cove or a bay,
> There is little wind to create the energy for larger waves,
> There is a good supply of material.
Deposition
Submersion
while erosion is the process of removing sediment,
submersion is when the sediment is submersed under
water and eventually replaced back to its original location.
This often takes place during violent storms, when sand is
dragged or pushed underwater, and it tends to return
back to the visible place (via wave action) it had
previously been when the seas have calmed down. at its
most extreme, submersion can temporarily submerse an
island, and create islands as well.
Tides
Tides are temporary fluctuations in sea levels due to gravitational forces between the
sun, the moon, and the earth. They carry less energy to the coasts but occur more often
than waves. High tides occur when water levels are at their highest while low tides occur
when water levels are at their lowest.
Low-lying locations get submerged in seawater during high tide leading to submersion.
Repeated exposure of the coasts to submersion can loosen materials and cause erosion in
the long run.
Sea Level Rise
Faster sea level rise has been observed in the recent
years. This is due to the warming of the sea and
melting of glaciers. The rise in sea level has become
more permanent. This warming of the sea and melting
of glaciers are due to enhanced greenhouse effect
brought about by carbon emissions from various
human activities.
Islands and even some countries are in danger of being
submerged underwater if the sea levels continue to
increase. Sea level changes threaten low-lying areas to
experience submersion permanently
Storm Surge
Storm surge occurs when the wind from tropical cyclones
cause sea water levels to be unusually higher than high tide
levels. It can go as high as 20 feet or more above the normal
sea level. It is more likely to occur on coasts with gentle
slopes than those with steep slopes.
Some locations experience submersion during storm surge,
which is not experienced during high tides. Erosion is also
more likely to happen because of the additional actions of
waves during storm surge. Inland groundwater sources
experience saltwater intrusion. This happens when the
seawater reaches the coastal areas and gets into
groundwater and other freshwater resources.
Saltwater Intrusion
is the movement of saline water
into freshwater aquifers, which
can lead to contamination of
drinking water sources and
other consequences
Saltwater Intrusion
Saltwater Intrusion
•Salt water intrusion caused by overpumping of
ground water.
•Salt water intrusion caused by overpumping of
ground water.
Coastal Protection
Break water
Is a way of protecting against long
shore drift. Break wasters is used to
reduce the power of the wave. They
are built to protect a beach that is
sloping. The depth of the water and
the tidal range depend weather its
fixed or floating.
Coastal Protection
Rip rap
loose stone used to form a
foundation for a breakwater or other
structure.
Coastal Protection
Gabions is a strong wire cage with
pebbles, stones and rocks inside.
Gabions protect the coast line by
stopping the waves hitting the cliffs.
it reduces the power of the waves
when it hits the small rocks inside the
cage.
Coastal Protection
Groynes are fences that go along the
beach at angles to prevent long shore
drift. The energy from the waves is
absorbed in the groynes. It also
catches and traps sediment to
prevent it from moving up the beach.
Coastal Protection
Revetments are sloping structures
placed on banks or cliffs in such a
way as to absorb the energy of
incoming water.
Coastal Protection
Sea walls are a curved
concrete walls that stop
strong waves hitting the
cliffs.
Coastal Protection
A jetty is a long, narrow structure that
protects a coastline from the currents
and tides. Jetties are usually made of
wood, earth, stone, or concrete. They
stretch from the shore into the water.
Coastal Protection
Sandbags are used to
counteract waves that hit
the shores. They also diminish
the effect of a storm surge
that can cause submersion.
Coastal Protection
Beach nourishment is a
method where a large amount
of sand is added to the
coasts. This will create a new
beach or widen an existing
one. However, this method is
costly which deters
communities to use it.
Coastal Protection
Coastal Protection
Mangroves are effective
natural defense against
coastal erosion as their
roots strongly bind soil
together.
Reducing Coastal Erosion
Development of infrastructures must be constructed in safe distances from the coasts.
Beach dewatering involves pumping out water from the shores to prevent erosion.
Artificial seaweeds can be placed in the water near the coasts to reduce the speed of current
that promote erosion.
Ban of mining activities near coasts prevents erosion caused by mining.
Plant cover and vegetation around coasts aid in protecting coasts from erosion.
Coping with Saltwater Intrusion
Monitoring and assessment ensure effective management of saltwater intrusion cases.
Regulations from governing units aid in coping with saltwater intrusion. Structures must be
regulated to have a safe distance from the sea to prevent excessive groundwater extraction
from the reservoir that contributes to saltwater intrusion.
Artificial recharges pump freshwater to the reservoir to prevent saltwater from intruding
through the coasts.
Barriers can be constructed along coasts to prevent further advancement of saltwater if
already present.
Mitigation of the Impacts of Land Development,
Waste Disposal, and Construction on Coasts
Human activities such as land development, waste
disposal, and construction cause different
changes in coastal features. It is vital that
impacts of these activities be prevented or
mitigated to help the coasts in withstanding
coastal processes.
Coastal Land Development
Coastal land development is due to the demand in
space, structures, and facilities that are used for
various human needs. It aggravates the effects
of coastal processes. It increases the incidents of
sand mining and sediment run-off that
contribute to coastal erosion. In addition, the
increase in establishments leads to higher demand
for freshwater which then contribute to
saltwater intrusion.
Waste Disposal
The increase in development and population may

lead to increased amounts of waste disposed of
in a coastal area. The wastes are sometimes
disposed of in landfills built near the coasts. The
construction of these landfills not only causes
land and water pollution to the coastal area but
also amplifies the effects of coastal erosion and
results in saltwater intrusion.

Exogenic Processes

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Exogenic Processes

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EXOGENIC

High-density residential use

The increase in development and population may

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