Day 2 Concepts and Formulas Compiled

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS
Fertilizer Mixture Orsat Analyzer

NPK: %N, %P2O5, %K2O KOH Solution → CO2
Filler: Gypsum Pyrogallol Solution → O2
Cuprous Chloride → CO
Reactive Processes
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑−𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜
%𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = × 100 Proximate Analysis
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜
𝐿𝑅 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 M → 1 hr, 104-110°C
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝐿𝑅 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
VCM → 7 mins, 900°C
𝑛𝐴 = 𝑛𝐴𝑜 (1 − 𝑋𝐴 )
FC → 2 hrs, 500-515°C
A → by difference
For Reactive Process with Recycle Stream
Reactant 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑒𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 0
Ranking of Solid Fuels
Where 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑖𝑛)
1. Anthracite
Note: Recycle is NOT considered in the calculation of 2. Bituminous Coal CV
theoretical amount 3. Subbituminous Coal
4. Lignite
Analysis of Coal
Ultimate: C, H, O, N, A, S ↑ CV if ↑ VCM, ↑ FC, ↓ M, ↓ Ash
Modified: C, Net H, CW, M, N, A, S
Proximate: FC. M, A, VCM (net H, VC, CW, N, S)
Empirical Equations on Coal Analysis Calorific Values
Dulong’s Formula Gross Calorific Value, 𝐺𝐶𝑉 = Σ𝐻𝑐 𝑖 𝑛𝑖
𝐶𝑉 = 0.338𝐶 + 1.44(𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐻) + 0.094𝑆 Net Calorific Value, 𝑁𝐶𝑉 = 𝐺𝐶𝑉 − 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 𝜆𝑐
Calderwood Equation 𝐻𝑐 = heat of combustion
𝑉𝐶𝑀 1.55 𝜆𝑐 = latent heat of condensation = 44 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐶 = 5.88 + 2.206(𝐶𝑉 − 0.094𝑆) + 0.0053 (80 − 100 )
𝐹𝐶
𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 = moles H2O from combustion of all H2
Oxygen Calculations
𝐻
Theoretical O2 from Air: 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 𝐶 + 4 + 𝑆 − 𝑂2 Calorific Value Losses
𝐶𝑂 𝐻2 Due to Incomplete Combustion
Excess O2: 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑂2 − −
2 2 𝐶𝑉 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑛𝐶𝑂 𝐻𝐶 𝐶𝑂 + 𝑛𝐻2 𝐻𝐶𝐻2
Combustibles in Residue
𝑉𝐶𝑀 𝑉𝐶𝑀
Due to Uncondensed Water Vapor
Uncoked Coal ( ) =( ) 𝐶𝑉 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 𝜆𝑐
𝐹𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝐶 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒
%C lost = %CV lost = %VCM lost = %FC lost 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 = moles H2O from combustion
%VCM lost = %net H lost = %CW lost = %N lost = % S lost
Due to Sensible Heat
Coked Coal 𝑉𝐶𝑀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒 = 0
𝐶𝑉 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = Σ𝑛𝑆𝐺 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑆𝐺 − 𝑇𝑜 )
Coked + Uncoked ( )
𝐹𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙
≠( )
𝐹𝐶 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑇𝑆𝐺 = temperature of stack gas
%C lost ≠ %CV lost ≠ %VCM lost ≠ %FC lost 𝑇𝑜 = datum temperature = 25°𝐶
%VCM lost = %net H lost = %CW lost = %N lost = % S lost
Burning of Raw Sulfur
Main Reaction 𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2
3
Side Reaction 𝑆 + 2 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂3
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 (𝑆 → 𝑆𝑂2 )
%𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 (𝑆 → 𝑆𝑂2 ) = × 100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 (𝑆 → 𝑆𝑂2 )
%𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 (𝑆 → 𝑆𝑂3 ) = × 100
Roasting of Iron Pyrites
Main Reaction 4𝐹𝑒𝑆2 + 11𝑂2 → 2𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 8𝑆𝑂2
Side Reaction 4𝐹𝑒𝑆2 + 15𝑂2 → 2𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 8𝑆𝑂3
%𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 (𝑆 → 𝑆𝑂2 ) = × 100
%𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 (𝑆 → 𝑆𝑂3 ) = × 100
Calcination of Limestone
Main Reactions 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2
𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂3 → 𝑀𝑔𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2
SEPARATION PROCESSES
Leaching Distillation
Equilibrium Relation Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium
𝑥1 = 𝑦1 or 𝑋1 = 𝑌1 Raoult’s Law 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 𝑃𝑖 °
Tiller-Tour Equation Dalton’s Law 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + ⋯
𝑥 −𝑦
log (𝑥 1− 𝑦 2 ) 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑥1 𝑃1 ° + 𝑥2 𝑃2 ° + ⋯
𝑛 𝑛+1
𝑁= 𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑛 + 1
log (𝑦 − 𝑦 ) 𝑥𝑖 𝑃𝑖 °
2 𝑛+1
Vapor Mole Fraction 𝑦𝑖 =
𝑃𝑇
𝐿
Where 𝑦2 = 𝑉 (𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑛 ) + 𝑦𝑛+1 𝑦𝐴 (1−𝑥𝐴 )
Relative Volatility 𝛼𝐴𝐵 =
𝑥𝐴 (1−𝑦𝐴 )
Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Equilibrium Relation
Batch Distillation
𝑌 = 𝐾𝐷 𝑋
𝐴, 𝐸 𝐴, 𝑅
[ ] = 𝐾𝐷 [ ]
𝑆 𝐸 Rayleigh Equation
𝐴1 𝐵1
For 𝑛 number of stages ln = 𝛼𝐴𝐵 ln
𝑛 𝐴2 𝐵2
𝐵
𝐴, 𝑅𝑛 = 𝐴, 𝐹 [ ]
𝐾𝐷 𝑆 + 𝐵
Flash Distillation Simple Continuous Distillation
- aka Continuous or Equilibrium Distillation
- for large difference in boiling points
−(1 − 𝑓) 𝑥𝐹 𝑦𝐴 𝑥𝐵 𝐷𝐴 𝐵𝐵
𝑦= + 𝛼𝐴𝐵 = =
𝑓 𝑓 𝑥𝐴 𝑦𝐵 𝐵𝐴 𝐷𝐵
Fraction vaporized,
𝑉
𝑓=𝐹
Steam Distillation Rectification/Fractional Distillation

- operates in vacuum to maintain superheated steam
𝑛𝑆 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝐵 °
=
𝑛𝐵 𝑃𝐵 °
B: volatile
O: non-volatile
S: open steam
Partial condenser/reboiler = equilibrium stage

Note: Closed steam is used for heating Total condenser/reboiler = equilibrium stage
McCabe-Thiele Method Minimum Reflux Ratio
𝐿 𝐷𝑥𝐷
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝐷 − 𝑦′
Enriching Line 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑉 𝑥𝑛+1 + =
𝑉 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 1 𝑥𝐷 − 𝑥′
𝑥𝐷
y-intercept =
𝑅+1
Minimum Number of Stages
𝐿′ 𝐵𝑥𝐵 Fenske Equation
Stripping Line 𝑦𝑚 = 𝑉 ′ 𝑥𝑚+1
− 𝑉′
𝑥 (1 − 𝑥𝐵 )
log 𝐷
q-Line
𝑞 𝐹
𝑦 = 𝑞−1 𝑥 − 𝑞−1
𝑧 𝑥𝐵 (1 − 𝑥𝐷 )
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
log 𝛼𝐴𝐵
𝑞 −(1−𝑓)
slope = =
𝑞−1 𝑓
𝑓 = fraction of vapor in feed

𝑞 = 1 − 𝑓 = fraction of liquid in feed
𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝐵𝑃 − 𝑇𝐹 )
𝑞= +1
𝜆𝑣
𝑇𝐵𝑃 = boiling point temperature
𝑇𝐹 = temperature of feed
𝜆𝑣 = latent heat of vaporization
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
Closed Systems Open Systems
Δ𝑈 = 𝑄 + 𝑊 Δ𝐻 + Δ𝑃𝐸 + Δ𝐾𝐸 = 𝑄 + 𝑊𝑠
Formulas for Reversible Processes
General Equation Isothermal Isochoric Isobaric Adiabatic
𝑉
𝑊= −𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln 𝑉2 𝑊 = −𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑑𝑊 = −𝑃𝑜𝑝 𝑑𝑉 𝑃
1
𝑊=0 𝑊 = Δ𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 Δ𝑇
𝑊= −𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln 𝑃1 𝑊 = −𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
2
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 Δ𝑈 = 0 Δ𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 Δ𝑇 Δ𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 Δ𝑇 Δ𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 Δ𝑇
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 Δ𝐻 = 0 Δ𝐻 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 Δ𝑇 Δ𝐻 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 Δ𝑇 Δ𝐻 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 Δ𝑇
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑄 + 𝑑𝑊
𝑄 = −𝑊 𝑄 = Δ𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 Δ𝑇 𝑄 = Δ𝐻 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 Δ𝑇 𝑄=0
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑(𝑃𝑉)
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑇1 𝑉1
𝛾−1
= 𝑇2 𝑉2
𝛾−1
𝑃𝑉 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 = =
=𝑘 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇1 𝑇2 1−𝛾 1−𝛾
𝑇
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝛾 = 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾
Heat Capacities Work Efficiency
Monoatomic Gases (He, Ne, Ar) 𝑊
Work done on system (+) 𝜂 = 𝑊 𝑟𝑒𝑣
5 3 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
2 2 𝑊𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣
Work done by system (-) 𝜂= 𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑣
Diatomic Gases (O2, N2, H2, air)
7 5
𝐶𝑃 = 2 𝑅 𝐶𝑉 = 2 𝑅 Compressibility of Liquids
Consider the change in volume 𝑉 = 𝑓(𝑃, 𝑇)
Triatomic Gases (O3) 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
9 7 𝑑𝑉 = ] 𝑑𝑃 + ] 𝑑𝑇
𝐶𝑃 = 2 𝑅 𝐶𝑉 = 2 𝑅 𝜕𝑃 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑃
For Ideal Gases: 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝑅 Isothermal Compressibility, 𝜅 =
−1 𝜕𝑉
⋅ 𝜕𝑃]
𝑉
For Solids and Liquids: 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 𝑇
1 𝜕𝑉
Polytropic Process Isobaric Thermal Expansivity, 𝛽 = 𝑉 ⋅ 𝜕𝑇 ]
𝑃
𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝑘
𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑑𝑉 = −𝜅𝑉𝑑𝑃 + 𝛽𝑉𝑑𝑇
𝑊= =
𝑛−1 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑉
= 𝛽𝑑𝑇 − 𝜅𝑑𝑃
Δ𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 Δ𝑇 𝑉
𝑄
Δ𝐻 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 ΔT Entropy 𝑑𝑆 =
𝑇
For liquids in adiabatic pumps Wet Mixture
𝑊𝑠 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐) = (Δ𝐻)𝑠 = 𝑉(Δ𝑃) 𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
𝑥= 𝑀𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝑥𝑀𝑆𝑉 + (1 − 𝑥)𝑀𝑆𝐿
Δ𝐻 = 𝐶𝑃 Δ𝑇 + 𝑉(1 − 𝛽𝑇)Δ𝑃 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑇2 Note: 𝑀 should be in a per mass or per mole basis
Δ𝑆 = 𝐶𝑃 ln − 𝛽𝑉Δ𝑃
𝑇1
Heat Engine
Clapeyron Equation
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 Δ𝐻𝑓
=
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇𝑓 Δ𝑉
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
𝑃2 Δ𝐻𝑓 1 1
ln = ( − )
𝑃1 𝑅 𝑇1 𝑇2
Steam Properties
For any property, 𝑀 (𝑉, 𝑇, 𝑆, 𝐻, 𝑈, 𝐺, 𝐴, … )
At any given 𝑃
𝑀𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 < 𝑀𝑆𝐿 subcooled/compressed liquid Energy Balance |𝑄𝐻 | = |𝑄𝐶 | + |𝑊|
𝑀𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝑀𝑆𝐿 saturated liquid |𝑊|
Efficiency 𝜂 = |𝑄
𝑀𝑆𝐿 < 𝑀𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 < 𝑀𝑆𝑉 wet mixture 𝐻|
𝑀𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝑀𝑆𝑉 saturated vapor

𝑀𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 > 𝑀𝑆𝑉 superheated vapor
Carnot Cycle (most efficient) Rankine Cycle
|𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 | |𝑊𝑃 + 𝑊𝑇 |
𝜂= =
1 → 2 isothermal expansion (heat addition) |𝑄𝐻 | |𝑄𝐻 |
2 → 3 adiabatic expansion
3 → 4 isothermal compression (heat rejection) Mean Effective Pressure
4 → 1 adiabatic compression 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑀𝐸𝑃 =
𝑇𝐶 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜂𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 −
𝑇𝐻
Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle
1 → 2 reversible, adiabatic compression

2 → 3 isobaric heat addition
1 → 2 reversible, adiabatic compression 3 → 4 reversible, adiabatic expansion
2 → 3 isochoric heat addition 4 → 1 isochoric heat rejection
3 → 4 reversible, adiabatic expansion 𝛾
4 → 1 isochoric heat rejection 1 𝑟𝑐 − 1
𝜂 =1− 𝛾−1
[ ]
𝑟 𝛾(𝑟𝑐 − 1)
1
𝜂 =1− 𝑉
𝑟 𝛾−1 Cutoff ratio, 𝑟𝑐 = 𝑉3
2
𝑉1 𝑉 𝑟
Compression ratio, 𝑟 =
𝑉2
>1 Expansion ratio, 𝑟𝑒 = 𝑉4 = 𝑟
3 𝑐
Brayton Cycle Refrigeration Cycle
Energy Balance |𝑄𝐻 | = |𝑄𝐶 | + |𝑊|

1 → 2 reversible, adiabatic compression
Coefficient of Performance
2 → 3 isobaric heat addition
𝑇𝐶 |𝑄𝐶 |
3 → 4 reversible, adiabatic expansion 𝐶𝑂𝑃 = =
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 |𝑊|
4 → 1 isobaric heat rejection
𝛾−1
𝑃1 𝛾
𝜂 =1−( )
𝑃2
Reviewer by Engr. AGP
MATERIAL BALANCE WITHOUT REACTION

Mixing
- is a unit operation in which a uniform mixture
is obtained from two or more components, by
dispersing one within the other. Hence it is a
process which involves manipulating a
heterogeneous physical system, with the intent
to make it more homogeneous.
OMB:
𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = 𝑃
Solute Balance:
𝐹1 𝑥𝐹1 + 𝐹2 𝑥𝐹2 = 𝑃𝑥𝑃
If ethyl alcohol is mixed with water and given a certain

temperature,
The densities can be obtained from Densities of

Aqueous Organic Solutions (HB); given mole fraction
or percent
Evaporation
- is a unit operation that separates a liquid from
solids by means of heat transfer via
vaporization or boiling. The purpose of
evaporation is to concentrate a solution of a
nonvolatile solute (i.e., solids) and a solvent
(i.e., liquid), which is typically water.
OMB:
𝐹 =𝑉+𝐶+𝑃
Solute Balance:
𝐹𝑥𝐹 = 𝑃𝑥𝑃
For some cases, there are presence of crystals (if

nothing mentioned, then don’t include)
Solubility
- The solubility of a substance is the amount of @T: Solubility =
𝟐𝟎𝒈 𝑨
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
that substance that is required to form a
saturated solution in a given amount of solvent
at a specified temperature. Solubility is often If A = 10 g unsaturated
If A = 20 g saturated
If A = 30 g supersaturated
measured in grams of solute per 100g of

solvent.
Crystallization
- is a unit operation through which a chemical
compound, dissolved in a given solvent,
precipitates under certain conditions to allow
successive separation between the phases.
OMB:
𝐹 =𝐿+𝑉+𝐶
Solute Balance:
𝐹𝑥𝐹 = 𝐿𝑥𝐿 + 𝐶𝑥𝐶
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑥𝐹 , 𝑥𝐿 , & 𝑥𝐶 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Given solubility, for an instance:
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
→ 𝑥𝐹 𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝐿 =
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑥𝐶 = 1;
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙, 𝐵𝑎(𝑁𝑂3 )2
𝑥𝐶 ≠ 1;
𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 ∙ 7𝐻2 𝑂
𝑀𝑊𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4
𝑥𝐶 =
𝑀𝑊 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 ∙ 7𝐻2 𝑂
Percent Yield:
𝐶𝑥𝐶
%𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100
𝐹𝑥𝐹
Solubility, L
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐹 (1 − 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)
Distillation
- is a unit operation that can be used to
fractionate liquid mixtures. It utilizes the
different volatility of the components of the
mixture to be separated.
OMB:
𝐹 = 𝐷+𝐵
Solute Balance:
𝐹𝑥𝐹 = 𝐷𝑥𝐷 + 𝐵𝑥𝐵
Note: Absolute alcohol = 100%
If reflux ratio is given:
𝐿
𝑅=
𝐷
Mass of Vapor condensed, 𝑉
𝑉 =𝐿+𝐷
If mol of feed is given, convert to mass by getting the

average weight
𝑀𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 = %𝑥(𝑀𝑊𝑥 ) + %𝑦(𝑀𝑊𝑦 ) …
Extraction
- is the process of separating a component
substance (the solute) from a solid or liquid
mixture by dissolving it in a liquid solvent.
OMB:
𝐹+𝑆 =𝐸+𝑅
Solute balance:
𝐹𝑥𝐹 = 𝑅𝑥𝑅 + 𝐸𝑥𝐸
Always start with inert balance:

𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡, 𝐹 = %𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡, 𝑅
If diluent, 𝐻2 𝑂, is given instead of inert:
𝐻2 𝑂, 𝐹 = %𝐻2 𝑂, 𝑅
Percent Recovery, %Recovery, oil
𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐸
%𝑅𝑒𝑐, 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑥 100
𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐹
Gas Absorption
- is a unit operation used in the chemical
industry to separate gases by washing or
scrubbing a gas mixture with a suitable liquid.
OMB:
𝐹 + 𝐻2𝑂 = 𝐿 + 𝐺
Solute balance:
𝐹𝑥𝐹 = 𝐿𝑥𝐿 + 𝐺𝑥𝐺
Always start with inert balance:
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡, 𝐹 = %𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡, 𝐺
Percent Recovery, %Recovery
𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝐿
%𝑅𝑒𝑐, 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑥 100
𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝐹
Or other solution:
𝑦2 𝑦1
= (1 − 𝑟𝑒𝑐)
1 − 𝑦2 1 − 𝑦1
Drying
- is a mass transfer process consisting of the
removal of water or another solvent by
evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid.
100 lb ws } 60 lb ds
40 lb 𝐻2 𝑂
40
%𝐻2 𝑂(𝑤𝑏) = 𝑥100 = 40%
100
40
%𝐻2 𝑂(𝑑𝑏) = 𝑥100 = 66.67%
60
Recycling
- A recycle stream is one where a portion of the
outlet of a process unit is combined with fresh
feed and sent into the same unit again.
Where 𝑿𝑹 = 𝑿𝑷
Bypass
- bypass stream is one where a portion of the
inlet to a process unit is split from the feed and
instead of entering the process is combined
with the outlet from that process.
Where 𝑿𝑭 = 𝑿𝑩𝑷
MATERIAL BALANCE WITH REACTION

Make a chemical reaction
Limiting and Excess Reactant

To solve for the LR and ER:
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
( )
= 𝑴𝑾
𝒏
Where mass is the mass of a given element or

compound
MW is the molecular weight of a given element or
compound
n is the no. of coefficient of a given element or
compound based on the given reaction
Percent Excess, %𝑿𝒔
𝑿𝒔
%𝑿𝒔 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐
In other cases, when given a reactor, and products are

given. Solve first for the feed side by basing on the
main product of the reaction converting to reactant
reacted.
Reactant, F = Reactant, reacted + Reactant, unreacted
Theoretical Yield
Theoretical
- The quantity of a product received from the

complete conversion of the limiting reactant in Convert limiting reactant to excess reactant
a chemical process
Excess Reactant, ER
𝑋𝑠 = 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
%Conversion, LR
- Degree of Completion 𝒏𝑨 = 𝒏𝑨𝒐 (𝟏 − 𝑿𝑨 )
- 𝑿𝑨
For some cases;
If given a fusion, make a basis on the side that has

more components.
Start with Ash balance:
Total compound = compound, reacted + compound,

unreacted
*compound, reacted can be computed using the

amount of product (product present in the reaction)
*from there, compute for the LR and ER
Compound, unreacted is as in the given fusion
If given is % excess oxygen and % fractional

conversion
• Make a chemical reaction
• If %excess oxygen is given, there is a
presence of Air which means that 𝑂2 & 𝑁2 are
present
• If %conversion is given, there is an incomplete
reaction (assume ko lang ‘to)
• List down the product components (products
from the reaction, 𝑂2 & 𝑁2 , as well as the
reactant)
Assume 100 mol basis of Feed

The main products can be computed by stoichiometric
analysis given the feed multiplied by the fractional
conversion
𝑂2,𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑(𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠)
Given % excess oxygen, compute for xs 𝑂2 in order to

compute for 𝑂2,𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝
𝑂2,𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝑥𝑠, 𝑂2 + 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜, 𝑂2

Or
𝑂2,𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜, 𝑂2 (1 + %𝑥𝑠𝑂2 )
and obtain 𝑁2 from:
79
𝑁2 = 𝑂2,𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 ( )
21
𝑂2 in the Product is:

𝑂2 , 𝑃 = 𝑥𝑠, 𝑂2 + 𝑂2 , 𝑢𝑛𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
= 𝑥𝑠, 𝑂2 + 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜, 𝑂2 (1 − %𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Given the %air, we can obtain the 𝑁2 and 𝑂2,𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝
𝑂2 , 𝑃 = 𝑂2,𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 − 𝑂2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
With Recycle Stream
@Reactor:
𝑖𝑛 − 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑒𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 0
Where cons0. = F(in)
𝐹1 + 𝑅 − 𝑅 − %𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝐹1 + 𝑅) = 0
Combustion
- Is a unit process in which oxidation reaction Fuel
takes place.
Air ] 79% 𝑁2 , 21%𝑂2
Complete Combustion:
𝑪 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2
𝟏
𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂
𝟐
𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2
Theoretical Oxygen
𝐻
𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 = 𝐶 + + 𝑆 − 𝑂2
4
Percent Excess Air

𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 + 𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠
𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠
%𝑥𝑠, 𝑂2 = 𝑥100
𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
Complete Combustion
100% conversion, theoretical air supplied *Make a balance equation
𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠 = 0 1. Basis of 100 mol feed
2. Compute 𝐶𝑇 and 𝐻𝑇 by multiplying subscript of
C and H to 100 moles, respectively
3. Compute for 𝐶𝑂2 & 𝐻2 𝑂 by using C as is and
H/2
𝐻
4. Compute for 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 = 𝐶 +
4
79
5. Compute for 𝑁2 by 𝑁2 = 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜[ ]
21
*no 𝑂2 free
100% conversion, with % excess air 1. Basis of 100 mol feed

𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 + 𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠 2. Compute 𝐶𝑇 and 𝐻𝑇 by multiplying subscript of
C and H to 100 moles, respectively
3. Compute for 𝐶𝑂2 & 𝐻2 𝑂 by using C as is and
H/2
𝐻
4
5. Compute for 𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜(1 + %𝑥𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟)
79
6. Compute for 𝑁2 by 𝑁2 = 𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝[ ]
21
7. Compute for 𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 − 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
*with 𝑂2 free
Not a 100% conversion, with % excess air 1. Basis of 100 mol feed
𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 + 𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠 2. Compute 𝐶𝑇 and 𝐻𝑇 by multiplying subscript of
C and H to 100 moles, and to (%conversion)
respectively
3. Compute for 𝐶𝑂2 & 𝐻2 𝑂by using C as is and
H/2 and CO by multiply feed(1-%conversion)
𝐻
4
79
21
𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠 − 𝑂2 , 𝑢𝑛𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
Or
𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = (𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 − 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜) − 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜(1

− %𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Case 1: For Orsat Analysis: no water

1. Basis of 100 mol feed
BASED ON FUEL ANALYSIS 2. Compute by multiplying subscript of C and H
from to respective no. of moles of each
Given the % mol of components in the Feed compound and get the 𝐶𝑇 and 𝐻𝑇
%excess air
Given the 𝐶𝑂2 /𝐶𝑂 For example: 𝐶2 𝐻6 = 75 𝑚𝑜𝑙 and 𝐶3 𝐻8 = 25 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Two reactants
𝐶𝑇 = 75(2) + 25(3)
For Orsat analysis:
𝐻𝑇 = 75(6) + 25(8)
KOH solution 𝐶𝑂2
Pyrogallol solution 𝑂2 3.Compute for 𝐶𝑂2, & 𝐶𝑂 using total C and the
Cuprous chloride 𝐶𝑂 ratio
𝐶𝑂
solution Example: 2 = 10: 1
𝐶𝑂
To solve for 𝒎𝟑 of dry air, 10

𝐶𝑂2 = 𝐶𝑇 ( )
11
(𝑁2,𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 + 𝑂2,𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 )𝑅𝑇
𝑉= 1
𝑃
𝐶𝑂 = 𝐶𝑇 ( )
11
𝐻
4
79
21
𝐶𝑂 𝐻2
𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠 + +
2 2
For complete analysis:
Previous steps + 𝐻2 𝑂 by using total H/2

Case II: For orsat:
BASED ON FLUE GAS ANALYSIS 1. Basis of 100 mol DSG
Given the % mol components in the Stack Gas 2. Assign reactant 1 as x and reactant 2 as y
3. Start with 𝑁2 to get the 𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝
21
𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝑁2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝( )
79
4. Compute for 𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠 by
𝐶𝑂 𝐻2
𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑶𝟐 , 𝒙𝒔 + +
2 2
5. Compute for 𝐶𝑇
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂
𝐻𝑇 can be computed by:

*easier way
𝐻
𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 = 𝐶 +
4
Or by getting the 𝑂2 , 𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟
𝑂2 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒:
𝐶𝑂
𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝐶𝑂2 + + 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
2
+ 𝑂2 , 𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂
𝐻2 𝑂 = (𝑂2 , 𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟)[ ]
1
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
2
or
𝐻2 𝑂 = 2(𝑂2 , 𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟)
Then, 𝐻𝑇
2𝐻 2𝐻
𝐻𝑇 = 𝐻2 𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻2 ( )
𝐻2 𝑂 𝐻2
6. Make two equations from 𝐶𝑇 & 𝐻𝑇
For example:
𝐶2 𝐻2 and 𝐶𝐻4
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑇
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 𝐻𝑇
where
𝑥 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶2 𝐻2 and
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻4
Formula of Hydrocarbon
ALKANE: 𝐶𝑇 𝐹(𝑛)
𝐶𝑛 𝐻𝑛+2 =
𝐻𝑇 𝐹(2𝑛 + 2)
Case III: When %excess air is required:

BASED ON PARTIAL ANALYSIS 1. Basis of 100 mol Feed
Given % mol components in the Stack Gas 2. Compute 𝐶𝑇 and 𝐻𝑇 by multiplying subscript of
C and H to 100 mols
𝐻
4
4. Compute for 𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠 by:
For complete combustion:
Let 𝑦 = 𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠 = 𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 + 𝑦
79
5. Compute for 𝑁2 by 𝑁2 = (𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 + 𝑦)[ ]
21
6. Compute for the amount of DSG by:
Using component balance:

For example:
C balance:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
𝐶𝑇 = %𝐶𝑂2 ( )(𝐷𝑆𝐺)
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
7. Compute 𝑦 = 𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠 = 𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
By using the summing up the amount of each product

component and equate to the total number of DSG
For example, for complete combustion:
𝐷𝑆𝐺 = 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑦 + 𝑁2
79
Where 𝑁2 = (𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 + 𝑦)[ ]
21
Octane Number For an instance: Octane Number

1. Basis of 100 mL Feed
If percent of a certain component in the DSG is 2. Compute for the amount of each compound
required, given: given the octane number
the octane number value *Note the given octane number is the same quantity as
the densities of the reactant components the component octane in the feed
𝐶𝑂
mol ratio of 2 ; 𝐻2
𝐶𝑂
𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑥 If the octane number is for instance = 85, therefore,
𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑁𝑜. = octane component in the feed = 85mL, the rest is the
𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑥 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑦 amount of another component = 15 mL
Where x is reactant 1 - octane 3. To obtain the amount of each component in
Where y is reactant 2 terms of moles, using the densities of each
component,
Octane Number 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
i-octane- 𝐶8 𝐻18 Octane = = mol octane
𝑀𝑊 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒
n-heptane -𝐶7 𝐻16

(the same with other component)
Cetane Number 4. Compute C and H by multiplying subscript of
Cetane – 𝐶16 𝐻34 C and H from to respective no. of moles of
Methyl naptha - 𝐶11 𝐻10 each compound and get the 𝐶𝑇 and 𝐻𝑇
For example: 𝐶8 𝐻18 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 and 𝐶7 𝐻7 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐶𝑇 = 𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙(8) + ℎ𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙(7)
𝐻𝑇 = 𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙(18) + ℎ𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙(16)
5. Compute the DSG components such as

𝐶𝑂2 , 𝐶𝑂, 𝐻2 using ratio
79
21
𝐶𝑂 𝐻2
𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠 + +
2 2
9. Total the DSG
If alkane number is required: For orsat:
Given the %mol of the components in the SG 1. Basis of 100 mol DSG
Densities of the reactant components 2. Assign reactant 1 as x and reactant 2 as y
3. Start with 𝑁2 to get the 𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝
21
𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝑁2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝( )
79
4. Compute for 𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠 by
𝐶𝑂 𝐻2
𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑶𝟐 , 𝒙𝒔 + +
2 2
5. Compute for 𝐶𝑇
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂
𝐻𝑇 can be computed by:

*easier way
𝐻
𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 = 𝐶 +
4
6. Make two equations from 𝐶𝑇 & 𝐻𝑇
For example:
𝐶2 𝐻2 and 𝐶𝐻4
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑇
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 𝐻𝑇
where
𝑥 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶2 𝐻2 and
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻4
7. Compute for the volume of each reactant

component using the x and y value obtained
from the previous step by:
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶2 𝐻2 (MW)

𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶2 𝐻2 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
(the same with other component)
8. Calculate alkane no. by:
𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑥
𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑜. =
𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑥 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑦
Solid Fuels
Ranking:
Anthracite VCM FC
Bituminous
Sub-bituminous
Lignite 𝐻2 𝑂 Ash
Gross Calorific Value (HHV)

- The HHV value, known as gross calorific 𝐾𝐽
𝜆𝑐 = 44
value of coal, is the total amount of heat 𝑚𝑜𝑙
released by combustion, which includes heat
of condensation of water vapor in the
combustion products that originate from the
combustion of hydrogen and evaporation of
the moisture contained in coal.
- Liquid
Net Calorific Value (LHV)

- The lower heating value (also known as net
calorific value, net CV, or LHV) of a fuel is
defined as the amount of heat released by
combusting a specified quantity (initially at 25
°C or another reference state) and returning the
temperature of the combustion products to 150
°C.
1. Proximate Analysis
- Prescribed method for the determination of Moisture
volatile characteristics of solid fuels VCM
FC
Ash
1 hr @ 𝑇 = 104 − 110℃
7 min @ 𝑇 = 900℃
2 hr @ 𝑇 = 500 − 815℃
Analysis of VCM
VCM ------------- C, VCM= 𝐶𝑇 − 𝐹𝐶
------------- net H
------------- N
------------- S
------------- CW
2. Modified Analysis
Moisture
𝑪𝑻 = 𝐶𝑉𝐶𝑀 + 𝐹𝐶
Net H
N
S
CW
Ash
3. Ultimate Analysis
C
2
H = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐻 + (𝑀 + 𝐶𝑊)[ ]
18
16
O = (𝑀 + 𝐶𝑊)[ ]
18
N
S
Ash
For Solid Fuels: 𝑂2 , 𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟
To get %H, make use of modified analysis: 𝑂2 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒:
C 𝐶𝑂
Net H 𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝐶𝑂2 + + 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
2
N + 𝑂2 , 𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟
S
Ash 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂
CW & M (by difference) 𝐻2 𝑂 = (𝑂2 , 𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟)[ ]
1
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
2
To get H = net H + (CW+M)(2/18) or
𝐻2 𝑂 = 2(𝑂2 , 𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟)
Then, 𝐻𝑇
2𝐻 2𝐻
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐻 = 𝐻2 𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻2 ( )
𝐻2 𝑂 𝐻2
Calorific Value of Fuel

𝐶𝑉, 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐶𝑉, 𝐹𝐶 + 𝐶𝑉, 𝑉𝐶𝑀
Or
𝑀𝐽
𝐶𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 , (100𝑘𝑔)
𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝐽
= 𝐶𝑉𝐹𝐶 , (𝐹𝐶 𝑘𝑔)
𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝐽
+ 𝐶𝑉𝑉𝐶𝑀 , (𝑉𝐶𝑀 𝑘𝑔)
𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝐽
Where 𝐶𝑉𝐹𝐶 = 33.8
𝑘𝑔
Calderwood: To compute for the total carbon, 𝐶𝑇
Using Calderwood Equation:
𝐶𝑇 = 5.88 + 2.206(𝐶𝑉 − 0.094𝑆)

𝑉𝐶𝑀 1.55
+ 0.0053 |80 − 100 ( )|
𝐹𝐶
where CV is in MJ/kg
Dulong’s Formula
To compute for net H
𝑀𝐽
𝐶𝑉, = 0.338𝐶 + 1.44 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐻 + 0.094𝑆
𝑘𝑔
When % component of one of the products in SG is
When Ultimate Analysis is given required:
𝐶𝑂
Given 2
𝐶𝑂
1. Basis of 100 kg Feed

If 𝑁 + 𝑆 ≤ 3, neglect N & S 2. Complete the Ultimate Analysis
C
In the presence of S, 𝑆𝑂2 is in the SG H
O
For other cases: N
Use Sulfur balance to get the feed S
Using the sulfur given in the product side and mol Ash
percent given in the feed multiply the feed/32
3. Compute for 𝐶𝑂2 & 𝐶𝑂 using C and ratio
If in mass, convert C to mole first
4. Compute for 𝐻2 𝑂 using H/1x2

5. Compute for 𝑆𝑂2 using S/32
6. Compute for 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 by
𝐻
𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 = 𝐶 + + 𝑆 − 𝑂2
4
Where 𝑂2 can be computed by O/32

79
21
𝐶𝑂 𝐻2
𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠 + +
2 2
Additional:
If 𝐶𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 is required, we can use Dulong’s formula:
𝑀𝐽
𝐶𝑉, = 0.338𝐶 + 1.44 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐻 + 0.094𝑆
𝑘𝑔
𝑂
Where 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐻 = 𝐻 −
8
Given proximate analysis If %excess 𝑂2 is required:

Mol % components of SG
CV, fuel 1. Basis of 100 kg Feed
2. Complete Proximate Analysis
3. Complete Ultimate Analysis
4. Complete Modified Analysis
5. Compute for 𝐶𝑇 using Calderwood:
𝐶𝑇 = 5.88 + 2.206(𝐶𝑉 − 0.094𝑆)

𝑉𝐶𝑀 1.55
+ 0.0053 |80 − 100 ( )|
𝐹𝐶
6. Compute for net H using Dulong’s formula
𝑀𝐽
𝐶𝑉, = 0.338𝐶 + 1.44 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐻 + 0.094𝑆
𝑘𝑔
7. Compute for H and O of Ultimate Analysis:

2
H = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐻 + (𝑀 + 𝐶𝑊)[ ]
18
16
O = (𝑀 + 𝐶𝑊)[ ]
18
8. Compute for 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 by
𝐻
𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 = 𝐶 + + 𝑆 − 𝑂2
4
Where 𝑂2 can be computed by O/32
9. Compute for the amount of DSG using C

balance
In mole:
𝐶 = (%𝐶𝑂2 + %𝐶𝑂)𝐷𝑆𝐺
10. Compute for 𝐶𝑂2 , 𝐶𝑂, 𝐻2 (if given) by:
𝐶𝑂2 = %𝐶𝑂2 (𝐷𝑆𝐺)
𝐶𝑂 = %𝐶𝑂(𝐷𝑆𝐺)
𝐻2 = %𝐻2 (𝐷𝑆𝐺)
11. Compute and let 𝑦 = 𝑂2 , 𝑥𝑠 using
𝐶𝑂 𝐻2
𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑶𝟐 , 𝒙𝒔 + +
2 2
𝐶𝑂 𝐻2
𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝒚 + +
2 2
Using the total amount of DSG:
𝐶𝑂 𝐻2 79
𝐷𝑆𝐺 = 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2 + (𝒚 + + ) + (𝑦 + 7.6)[ ]
2 2 21
12. Compute for 𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝑦 + 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜

79
13. Compute for 𝑁2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝[ ]
21
14. Compute for % component required in the SG
Coal Combustion with Combustibles in the Refuse
Type I:
( )𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 = ( )
UNCOKED COAL 𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒
Type II:
(no VCM)
COKED COAL
Type III:
COMBINATION OF COKED & UNCOKED COAL 𝑉𝐶𝑀 𝑉𝐶𝑀

( ) ≠( )
𝐹𝐶 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝐶 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒
When %𝐶𝑉 lost is required:

Given CV 1. Check the type of coal
%𝐶𝑉 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = %𝐶 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = %𝑉𝐶𝑀 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 2. Start with Ash balance to get the R
𝐶𝑉,𝑅 𝐴𝑠ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝐹 = %𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑅(𝑅)

%𝐶𝑉 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑋100 For %VCM lost:
𝐶𝑉,𝐹
𝐶,𝑅 a. 𝑉𝐶𝑀 𝑖𝑛 𝑅 = %𝑉𝐶𝑀 𝑖𝑛 𝑅(𝑅)

%𝐶 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑋100
𝐶,𝐹
𝑉𝐶𝑀,𝑅
b. %𝑉𝐶𝑀 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑋100
𝑉𝐶𝑀,𝐹
𝑉𝐶𝑀,𝑅
%𝑉𝐶𝑀 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑋100 For %C lost:
𝑉𝐶𝑀,𝐹
3. Compute for C using Calderwood:
a. 𝐶𝑇 = 5.88 + 2.206(𝐶𝑉 − 0.094𝑆) +

𝑉𝐶𝑀 1.55
0.0053 |80 − 100 ( )|
𝐹𝐶
b. 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶,𝑉𝐶𝑀 + 𝐶,𝐹𝐶
𝐶,𝑉𝐶𝑀
%𝐶, 𝑉𝐶𝑀 = 𝑋100
𝑉𝐶𝑀,𝐹
c. 𝐶𝑅 = 𝐶,𝑉𝐶𝑀,𝑅 + 𝐹𝐶,𝑅
@Refuse
d. 𝐹𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑅 = %𝐹𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑅(𝑅)
e. 𝐶,𝑉𝐶𝑀,𝑅 = %𝐶, 𝑉𝐶𝑀(𝑉𝐶𝑀 𝑖𝑛 𝑅)
𝐶,𝑅
f. %𝐶 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑋100
𝐶,𝐹
For %CV lost:
𝐶𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒 = 𝐶𝑉𝑉𝐶𝑀 + 𝐶𝑉𝐹𝐶

46.69𝑀𝐽 𝑀𝐽
𝐶𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒 = (𝑉𝐶𝑀𝑅 𝑘𝑔) + 33.8 𝐹𝐶 𝑘𝑔)
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑅
𝐶𝑉,𝑅 𝑀𝐽
%𝐶𝑉 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑋100
𝑀𝐽
𝐶𝑉,𝐹 (100𝑘𝑔)
𝑘𝑔
HEAT TRANSFER
TRANSPORT PROCESSES
CONDUCTION
Heat Transfer
Rate of transfer is from higher to lower Rate of Transfer=
𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑Γ
𝜑𝑧 = −𝛿
𝑑𝑧
𝑎𝑚𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦
Where 𝜑𝑧 is the
𝑚2 ∙𝑠
𝑚2
𝛿 is the diffusivity,
𝑠
𝑎𝑚𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦
𝑑Γ is the
𝑚2
𝑑𝑧 is the distance, z (m)
Momentum Transfer
−𝜈 𝑑(𝑣𝜌)
𝐽=
𝑑𝑧
𝐽 = −𝜇𝑑𝑣
Where 𝜌 is constant: therefore,
𝑑𝑣
𝐽 = −𝜈𝜌
𝑑𝑧
Thermal Conductivity, k
Fourier’s Law of Heat of Conduction
𝑘 = 𝛼𝐶𝑝𝜌
𝑄 𝑑Γ
= −𝑘
𝐴 𝑑𝑥
Where x is thickness
𝛼 is thermal diffusivity
(Eq. 5-1)
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
Conduction
- Physical contact
- Stationary or stagnant
- Medium is solid
Convection
- Movement of fluid (liquid or gas)
- Medium is liquid or gas
- Evaporation
Radiation
- Fastest heat transfer
- Electromagnetic waves due to radiation
𝑸
Rate of Heat Loss,
𝑨 𝑄 Δ𝑇
= −𝑘
𝐴 Δ𝑥
Where Q is the rate of heat loss

A is the area
k is the thermal conductivity
Δ𝑇 is the change in temperature, from lower to higher
Δx is the thickness
Conduction Through Solids in Series

𝑄𝑇 𝑄𝐴 𝑄𝐵 𝑄𝐶
= = =
Flat Surface 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝑄𝑇 −∆𝑇
=
𝐴 ∑𝑅
∑ ∆𝑥
Where ∑ 𝑅 =
𝑘
(Eq. 5-9)
Therefore,
𝑄𝑇 −∆𝑇
=
𝐴 ∑∆𝑥
𝑘
if Temperature in between is required,
−(𝑇𝐴𝐵 − 𝑇𝐻 )
𝑄= 𝑥𝐴
𝑘𝐴
If minimum wall thickness is required;
𝑄𝑇 −∆𝑇
= 𝑥
𝐴 𝐴
𝑘
𝑄𝑇 −∆𝑇
= 𝑥
𝐴 𝐵
𝑘
𝑄𝑇 −∆𝑇
= 𝑥
𝐴 𝐶
𝑘
∆𝑥𝑇 = 𝑥𝐴 + 𝑥𝐵 + 𝑥𝐶
If %𝑄𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑑 is rquired:
𝑄1 − 𝑄2
%𝑄𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑑 =
𝑄1
Conduction Through Solids in Parallel

𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵
1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵
Sphere
- temperature changes due to change in radius 𝑄 𝑑Γ
= −𝑘
𝐴 𝑑𝑥
Where dx is dr
4𝜋𝑘∆𝑇
𝑄=
1 1
−
𝑟2 𝑟1
There are some instance, 𝑟2 is not given, therefore we

can obtain by:
𝐷2 = 𝐷1 + 2𝑡
(Eq. 5-8)
Hollow Cylinder
- constant length −2𝜋𝑘∆𝑇
𝑄= 𝑟
- pipe ln ( 2 )
𝑟1
If given SCH No., assigned
𝐷1 = (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝐷2 = (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝐷3 = 𝐷2 + 2𝑡
Simplified Equation: (Eq. 5-7)
−2𝜋𝑘∆𝑇
𝑄=
1 𝑟2 1 𝑟
ln ( ) + ln ( 3 )
𝑘𝐴 𝑟1 𝑘𝐵 𝑟2
𝑊
Where 𝑘𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 45
𝑚∙𝐾
𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑘𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 26
ℎ𝑟∙𝑓𝑡−℉
If amount of steam condensed is required:

- Steam is condensed due to heat loss
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑠 𝜆𝑐
Where 𝜆𝑐 is 𝐻𝑆𝐿 − 𝐻𝑆𝑉
@ Inside surface temperature
𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1000𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝜆𝑐 = (𝐻𝑆𝐿 − 𝐻𝑆𝑉 ) 𝑥 𝑥 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙 18𝑔 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑠 = 𝑄𝜆𝑐
Forced Convection Counter Current
Parallel Flow
Convective Heat Transfer
Radiation
Stefan Boltzmann Law
Planck’s Law
Wien’s Law
MASS TRANSFER
EVAPORATION
Single Effect Evaporators

OMB: 𝑀𝐹 = 𝑀 + 𝑀𝑉
SB: 𝑀𝐹 𝑋𝐹 = 𝑀𝑋
Capacity: 𝑀𝑉
Steam consumption:𝑀𝑠
𝑚
Economy: 𝐸 = 𝑣
𝑚𝑠
Note: Start with solute balance
Single Effect Evaporation without BPE

(BPE=0) 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑉 + 𝐵𝑃𝐸
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑉
Energy balance:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑠 𝜆𝑠 = 𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑝𝑓 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑓 ) + 𝑚𝑣 𝜆𝑣
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑠 𝜆𝑠
Where 𝜆𝑣 = 𝐻𝑆𝑉 − 𝐻𝑆𝐿 from Steam Table using

Temperature
𝐾𝐽 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝜆𝑣 = (𝐻𝑆𝑉 − 𝐻𝑆𝐿 ) ( )( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 18 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝜆𝑠 = (𝐻𝑆𝑉 − 𝐻𝑆𝐿 ) ( )( )
Area:
Additional: 𝑄 = 𝑢𝐴ΔT
Given all the values needed, and the Economy Where 𝜇 is overall heat transfer coefficient
1. Start with Economy to get the mv
2. Solve for Q ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
3. Solve for 𝜇
𝑄
𝐴=
𝜇Δ𝑇
Note: 𝐸 < 1.0 (single-effect)
Note: Without BPE

- No stated BPE
- NaOH (BPE)
- Diluted
@ 1 atm
𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐽
𝜆𝑣 = 540 𝑥4.18 = 2275.2 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑙
Note: 1 𝑘𝑔𝑓 = 9.81 𝑁

If the given pressure is in mmHg, convert to MPa and
get 𝜆𝑣 from Steam Table
Single Effect Evaporation with BPE Energy balance:

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑣 𝐻𝑣 + 𝑚𝐻 − 𝑚𝑓 𝐻𝑓
Additional:
1. Given the pressure, obtain the values of 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑠 𝜆𝑠
Temperature and Enthalpy of vapor in Table 2-
135 via interpolation (if given in Pa, convert 𝐻𝑣 = 𝐻𝑠𝑣 + 𝐶𝑝 𝐵𝑃𝐸
first to MPa)
SB:
𝑚𝑓 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑚𝑥
OMB:
𝑚𝑓 = 𝑚 − 𝑚𝑣
From Fig. 2-17

𝐻𝑓 (enthalpy-concentration diagram)
1. Plot the %concentration
2. Connect with the feed temperature
3. Get the horizontal reading
𝐻 (enthalpy-concentration diagram)
1. Plot the %concentration
2. Connect with the solution temperature
3. Get the horizontal reading
Conversion if SI unit is needed:
𝐵𝑇𝑈 1.055 𝑘𝐽 𝑙𝑏
𝐻𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝐻 = 𝑥 𝑥
𝑙𝑏 𝐵𝑇𝑈 0.454𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
Note: 𝐶𝑝 = 1.88
𝑘𝑔−𝐾
𝐵𝑇𝑈
= 0.45
𝑙𝑏−℉
Using Duhring Line (Fig. 11-112) to get the BPE

1. Plot the temperature of the solution
2. Connect with the given solution
3. Then connect with the %concentration to get
the BPE
If pressure is given instead of temperature, then get the

temperature using Steam Table given the pressure via
interpolation.
Usually, if temperature of vapor is given, then assume a

maximum value of 𝐵𝑃𝐸 = 70℉.
For Trial 1:
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑉 + 𝐵𝑃𝐸
Then plot in the Duhring Line
For Trial 2:
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑉 + 𝐵𝑃𝐸
Where BPE obtained from the first trial will be used

Temperature is at degrees F, therefore convert to
Kelvin
The value of BPE will then be obtained by 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑉
Or
Value of BPE from the second trial in ℉ divided by 1.8:
𝐵𝑃𝐸
𝐵𝑃𝐸, 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟 ℃ =
1.8
Multiple Effect Evaporators

• Feed-forward 𝑀𝑉𝑇
𝐸= > 1.0
• Backward feed 𝑀𝑆
• Mixed feed
• Parallel feed 1
∑ ∆𝑇( )
𝜇1
∆𝑇1 =
1 1 1
+ +
𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜇3
𝜇1 ∆𝑇1 = 𝜇2 ∆𝑇2 = 𝜇3 ∆𝑇3
∆𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑉1 − 𝑇2
∆𝑇3 = 𝑇𝑉2 − 𝑇3
∑ ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑉3 𝑂𝑅 𝑉𝑁 − ∑ 𝐵𝑃𝐸
Multiple Effect Evaporators with BPE
∆𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇1
CRYSTALLIZATION
OMB: 𝐹 = 𝐿 + 𝑉 + 𝐶
SB: 𝐹𝑋𝐹 = 𝐿𝑋𝐿 + 𝐶𝑋𝐶
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑋𝐹 , 𝑋𝐿 , 𝑋𝐶 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑋𝐶 = 1.0 (e.g. NaCl, (NH4)2, SO4

𝑋𝐶 ≠ 1.0 (e.g. MgSO4-7H2O
𝑀𝑊 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4
𝑋𝐶 =
𝑀𝑊 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 − 7𝐻2𝑂
If percent saturation is required:

@Temperature: Table 2-20: Solubilities, we can get the
solubility if %concentration is not given.
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐. )

%𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝.
𝐶𝑋𝐶
%𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =
𝐹𝑋𝐹
Note: No evaporation if nothing mentioned
Crystallizer 𝑇1
𝑡2
𝑇2
𝑡1
𝑄 = 𝐹𝐶𝑝𝑓 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + 𝑉𝜆𝑣 + 𝐶𝜆𝑐
Note: 𝜆𝑐 is always negative

𝜆𝑣 (given temperature of solution
;(𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑣 )
From Steam Table:
(𝐻𝑆𝑉 − 𝐻𝑆𝐿 ) ( )( )
𝑄𝐶𝑊 = −𝑄
𝑄𝐶𝑊 = 𝑀𝐶𝑊 𝐶𝑃 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
𝑄 = 𝑢𝐴∆𝑇𝑙𝑚
∆𝑇ℎ − ∆𝑇𝑐
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
∆𝑇
ln ( ℎ )
∆𝑇𝑐
Additional case:
𝑄 = 𝐹𝐶𝑝𝑓 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + 𝑉𝜆𝑣 + 𝐶𝜆𝑐
Can also be used as heat balance (3 eq’ns)
Crystallization with BPE

Temperature of solution, 𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑣 + 𝐵𝑃𝐸
HUMIDIFICATION
Humidity, ℵ
𝑀𝐴
ℵ= (absolute humidity)
𝑀𝐵
𝑛𝐴
ℵ= (molal humidity)
𝑛𝐵
𝑃𝐴 𝑀𝑊𝐴
ℵ= 𝑥
𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝐴 𝑀𝑊𝐵
Saturated Humidity, ℵ𝒔
𝑃𝐴 ° 𝑀𝑊𝐴
ℵ𝑠 = ℵ = 𝑥
𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝐴 ° 𝑀𝑊𝐵
Relative Humidity, %𝑹𝑯 (Relatve Saturation)

𝑃𝐴
%𝑅𝐻 = 𝑥 100
𝑃𝐴 °
% Humidity, %ℵ
ℵ
%ℵ = 𝑥 100
ℵ𝑠
Note: Formulas can be found on Table 12-1

Table 12-3: Alternative Sets of Values for Antoine
Coefficients for the Air-Water System
Table 2-5: Vapor Pressure (MPa) of Liquid Water from

0 to 100 degrees Celsius
Psychrometric Chart: Fig. 12-2
Dew Point (Temperature)

@%𝑅𝐻 = 100% (saturated)
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐴 °
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑇 𝑦𝑖
𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑤 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 can be obtained from Antoine using 𝑃𝐴 ° or

using Table 2-5: Vapor Pressure of Liquid Water using
𝑃𝐴 ° just convert to MPa
Humid Volume, 𝑽𝑯
𝑅𝑇 1 ℵ
𝑉𝐻 = ( + )
𝑃 𝑀𝑊𝐵 𝑀𝑊𝐴
0.08205𝑇(𝐾) 1 ℵ 𝑚3 𝑎𝑖𝑟
SI Unit: 𝑉𝐻 = ( + );
𝑃(𝑎𝑡𝑚) 29 18 𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑎
0.73𝑇(°𝑅) 1 ℵ 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑎𝑖𝑟
English Unit: 𝑉𝐻 = ( + );
𝑃(𝑎𝑡𝑚) 29 18 𝑙𝑏 𝑑𝑎
Condensation involved
ℵ2
% 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (1 − ) 𝑥 100
ℵ1
If heater: ℵ1 = ℵ2
DRYING
Equilibrium Moisture, 𝑿∗ Amount of water that cannot be removed from a

particular solid.
Free Moisture
𝑊 = 𝑋∗ + 𝑋
𝑚𝐻2𝑂
Wet Basis: 𝑋 =
𝑚𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
Where 𝑚𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑚𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 + 𝑚𝐻2𝑂
𝑚𝐻2𝑂
Dry Basis:
𝑚𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝑋𝑤𝑏
𝑋𝑑𝑏 =
1 − 𝑋𝑤𝑏
Drying Time
𝜃𝑇 = 𝜃𝐶𝑅𝑃 + 𝜃𝐹𝑅𝑃
Constant Rate Period:

𝑄
𝜃𝐶𝑅𝑃 = (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑐 )
𝐴𝑅𝑐 1
Falling Rate Period:

𝑄 𝑥𝑐
𝜃𝐶𝑅𝑃 = 𝑥𝑐 𝑙𝑛
𝐴𝑅𝑐 𝑥2
Where X = free moisture = 𝑊 − 𝑋 ∗

𝑥𝑐 = critical moisture content
𝑄 𝑥𝑐
𝜃𝑇 = [(𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑐 ) + 𝑥𝑐 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝐴𝑅𝑐 𝑥2
𝑥1 = 𝑥1𝑠𝑡 − 𝑥 ∗
𝑥𝑐 = 𝑥𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 𝑥 ∗
𝑥2 = 𝑥2𝑛𝑑 − 𝑥 ∗
Note: Critical moisture should be in between 𝑥1𝑠𝑡

& 𝑥2𝑛𝑑 , otherwise, 𝑥2𝑛𝑑 from the second given will be

used then
𝜃1𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−2𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 − 𝜃𝑇(1𝑠𝑡) = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑
Note: if % free moisture is given then, there is no need

for subtracting equilibrium moisture
DIFFUSION
General Equation
• Fick’s Law of Diffusion 𝑑𝐶𝐴
𝐽𝐴𝑍 = −𝐷𝐴𝐵
𝑑𝑧
Where 𝑑𝐶𝐴 = concentration gradient

𝑑𝑧 = distance
In terms of concentration,
∆𝐶𝐴
𝐽𝐴𝑍 = −𝐷𝐴𝐵
∆𝑧
In terms of partial pressure,

𝐷𝐴𝐵 ∆𝑃𝐴
𝐽𝐴𝑍 = −
𝑅𝑇∆𝑧
In terms of mole fraction,
𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝑇 ∆𝑦𝐴
𝐽𝐴𝑍 = −
𝑅𝑇∆𝑧
Cross-sectional Area 𝜋 2
𝐴= 𝐷
4
Unicomponent Diffusion
Note: Unicomponent diffusion if one of the components
is Air
Integrated Equation
𝑁𝐴 𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑃 𝑃 − 𝑃𝐴2
𝑁𝐴 = = ln ( )
𝐴 𝑅𝑇∆𝑧 𝑃 − 𝑃𝐴1
Note: By default, 𝑃𝐴1 is the vapor pressure of the

diffusing substance, while 𝑃𝐴2 is 0 if the substance is
diffusing through air.
If 𝑃𝐴1 is not given, then using Temperature, compute for

Pressure, formula and values found on Table 2-8:
Vapor Pressure of Inorganic and Organic Liquids.
If Area is given, the formula will be

4𝜋𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑃 𝑃 − 𝑃𝐴2
𝑁𝐴 = ln ( )
1 1 𝑃 − 𝑃𝐴1
𝑅𝑇( − )
𝑟1 𝑟2
Assuming 𝑟2 is infinite, then
4𝜋𝑟1 𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑃 𝑃 − 𝑃𝐴2

𝑁𝐴 = ln ( )
𝑅𝑇 𝑃 − 𝑃𝐴1
In case height is given instead of diameter,:

Other case:
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Additional: Use integration method
Table 5-11: Correlations of Diffusivities for Gases
Estimation of Diffusivities for Gases • Chapman-Enskog Method
0.001858𝑇1.5 √𝑀𝐴𝐵
𝐷𝐴𝐵 =
𝑃𝜎 2𝐴𝐵 𝜂Ω𝐷
• Fuller-Schettler-Giddings Method
0.001𝑇1.75 √𝑀𝐴𝐵
𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 2
3 3
𝑃(√∑ 𝑣𝐴 + √∑ 𝑣𝐵 )
Where
𝑐𝑚2
𝐷𝐴𝐵 is in
𝑠
𝑇 is in K
𝑃 is in atm
1 1
√𝑀𝐴𝐵 = √ +
𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐵
𝑣𝐴 & 𝑣𝐵 can be obtained from Table 5-13: Atomic

Diffusion Volumes for Use in Estimating 𝐷𝐴𝐵 by the
Method of Fuller, Schettler, and Giddings
Example: 𝑣𝐴 = 𝐶(n) + H(n) + O(n)
If same pressure, we can compute diffusivity by using

ratio.
If Fuller-Schettler-Giddings Method is used:
𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝛼 𝑇 1.75
Therefore,
𝐷𝐴𝐵 2 𝑇2
= ( )1.75
If same temperature, we can compute diffusivity by

using ratio.
1
𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝛼
𝑃
Therefore,
𝐷𝐴𝐵 2 𝑃1
=
𝐷𝐴𝐵 1 𝑃2
Rate of Absorption To compute for the percentage of rate absorption:
𝐷𝐴𝐵 2 𝑃2 𝑃2 − 𝑃𝐴2 2
ln ( )
𝑁𝐴 2 𝑅𝑇2 ∆𝑧2 𝑃2 − 𝑃𝐴1 2
=
𝑁𝐴 1 𝐷𝐴𝐵 1 𝑃1 𝑃1 − 𝑃𝐴21
ln ( )
𝑅𝑇1 ∆𝑧1 𝑃1 − 𝑃𝐴11
If in terms of mole fraction:
𝑁𝐴 𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑃 1 − 𝑦𝐴2
= ln ( )
𝐴 𝑅𝑇∆𝑧 1 − 𝑦𝐴1
If two temperatures are given, use ratio:
= ( )1.75
Then, substitute the new 𝐷𝐴𝐵 2 in the equation.

Note:
If Chapman-Enskog Method is used:
*Rectification = equimolar diffusion
- equal but in opposite directions 𝐷𝐴𝐵 2 𝑇2
- transferred from gas to liquid and water from liquid to = ( )1.5
vapor.
Diffusion in Liquids
• Equimolar Counterdiffusion
𝐷𝐴𝑍 𝐶𝐴𝑉𝐸 (𝑋𝐴1 − 𝑋𝐴2 )

𝐽𝐴𝑍 =
∆𝑧
Where
𝜌1 𝜌
+ 2
𝑀𝑊1 𝑀𝑊2
𝐶𝐴𝑉𝐸 =
2
• Unicomponent Diffusion

𝐽𝐴𝑍 =
𝑋𝐵𝑀 ∆𝑧
Where
𝑋𝐵2 − 𝑋𝐵1
𝑋𝐵𝑀 =
𝑋
ln ( 𝐵2 )
𝑋𝐵1
Steps in solving diffusion in liquids problems:
1. Convert %wt to %mol

𝑋𝐴1,𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑀𝑊𝑋𝐴1
𝑋𝐴1,𝑚𝑜𝑙 =
𝑋𝐴1,𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑋𝐵1,𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
+
𝑀𝑊𝑋𝐴1 𝑀𝑊𝑋𝐵1
𝑋𝐵1,𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 1 − 𝑋𝐴1,𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑋𝐴2,𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑀𝑊𝑋𝐴2
𝑋𝐴2,𝑚𝑜𝑙 =
𝑋𝐴2,𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑋𝐵2,𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
+
𝑀𝑊𝑋𝐴2 𝑀𝑊𝑋𝐵2
𝑋𝐵2,𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 1 − 𝑋𝐴2,𝑚𝑜𝑙
2. Compute the average molecular weight,
𝑀𝑊1 = 𝑀𝑊𝐴1 (𝑋𝐴1,𝑚𝑜𝑙 ) + 𝑀𝑊𝐵1 (𝑋𝐵1,𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
𝑀𝑊2 = 𝑀𝑊𝐴2 (𝑋𝐴2,𝑚𝑜𝑙 ) + 𝑀𝑊𝐵2 (𝑋𝐵2,𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
3. Compute for the 𝐶𝐴𝑉𝐸
𝜌1 𝜌
+ 2
𝑀𝑊1 𝑀𝑊2
𝐶𝐴𝑉𝐸 =
2
4. Then substitute all the solved information in 𝑁𝐴
𝐽𝐴𝑍 = 𝑁𝐴 =
𝑋𝐵𝑀 ∆𝑧
Where
𝑋𝐵2 − 𝑋𝐵1
𝑋𝐵𝑀 =
𝑋
ln ( 𝐵2 )
𝑋𝐵1
Concepts: d. Is independent of temperature
Molecular diffusivity of a liquid: It represents the total mass transferred to mass

transferred by molecular diffusion:
a. Increases with temperature
b. May increase or decrease with temperature a. Schmidt Number
c. Decreases with temperature b. Sherwood Number
c. Reynolds Number
d. Nusselt Number
Which of the following is true about rate of mass

transfer in liquid?
For turbulent mass transfer in pipes, the Sherwood

Number depends on the Reynolds number as:
A dimensionless number that represents the ratio of

the molecular momentum diffusivity to the molecular
mass diffusivity.
a. Sherwood Number
b. Reynolds Number
c. Schmidt Number
d. Rayleigh Number
MOMENTUM TRANSFER
Kinematic Viscosity, v
𝜇
𝑣=
𝜌
Newton’s Law of Viscosity

𝜏 = 𝜇𝛿
Where 𝜏 is the shear stress

𝜇 is viscosity
𝛿 is shear rate (change in velocity with respect to
change in distance)
Equation 6-4, 6-5
𝜇 = 𝑘𝛿 𝑛−1
𝜏 = 𝑘𝛿 𝑛
Where k is the power coefficient

**Applicable only to a Non-newtonian liquid
𝑔
Unit: 1 Poise = 1 ∙𝑠
𝑐𝑚
1 cP = 1𝑥10−3 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠
𝑙𝑏
= 6.72𝑥10−4 ∙𝑠
𝑓𝑡
Dimensional Analysis Method

𝐸 ∝ 𝐷𝑎 𝑁 𝑏 𝜌𝑐 𝜇𝑑
𝜇
𝐸 = 𝑘( 2 )
𝐷 𝑁𝜌
𝐸1 = 𝐸2
Where E is the efficiency

D is diameter (L)
𝜇 is viscosity (M/LT)
N is speed of rotation (1/T)
𝑀
𝜌 is density ( 3 )
𝐿
or
Bucking-Pi Method
𝜇
𝜋=
𝑁𝜌𝐷2
Reynold’s Number 𝐷𝑣𝜌

𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
If D is in SCH (Table 10-22) – ID

𝜌 = (Table 2-31) T in K
𝜇 = (Figure 2-19) Nomograph, T in ℃
Continuity Equation
𝑚1 = 𝑚2
𝑚 = 𝑄𝑣𝜌
𝑄𝑣 = 𝑣𝐴
𝑉1 𝐴1 𝜌1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 𝜌2
If bypass:
𝑚 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
Mechanical Energy Balance

OEB: 𝑄 + 𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐻
∆𝑃
MEB: 𝑄 + 𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 + +∑𝐹
𝜌
∆𝑷
𝑾′ = ∆𝑲𝑬 + ∆𝑷𝑬 + + ∑𝑭
𝝆
𝐽 𝐵𝑇𝑈
Where OEB = 𝑜𝑟
𝑘𝑔 𝑙𝑏
𝐽 𝑙𝑏𝑓
MEB = 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑡 ∙
𝑘𝑔 𝑙𝑏
𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2
∆𝐾𝐸 =
2𝑔𝑐
∆𝑧𝑔
∆𝑃𝐸 =
𝑔𝑐
∆𝑃 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
=
𝜌 𝜌
∑ 𝐹 = total frictional losses (always +)

Work
@Pump: 𝑊 ′ (+)
𝑊′
𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡 =
𝜂
@Turbine: 𝑊 ′ (−)
𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑊′𝜂
Additional Notes: • 𝑃1 > 𝑃2 ; 𝑊 ′ = 0

∆𝑃
• If storage is both open, then can be
𝜌
neglected
• 𝑣1 = 0 (if large area, reservoir, river, etc)
• 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 < 9; 𝐾𝐸 = 0
• ΔKE = 0; (Pump, since diameter for the pump
is the same, same dimension
• @pump; ∑ 𝐹 = 0 (small distance)
• Neglect viscous effects (∑ 𝐹 = 0)
• In turbine. If 𝑧1 > 𝑧2 , then Δ𝑧 = (−)
• Pressure drop means that 𝑊 ′ = 0
If SI: J/kg
If English: ft-lbf/lbm
If density is not given, use the handbook: Table 2-31
if viscosity is not given, use nomograph Table 2-19
Given the SC No., look for the inside diameter in Table
10-22: Properties of Steel Pipe
If head (𝑊 ′ )is given in terms of length, multiply it with

g/gc to make it J/kg
Conversion 𝑙𝑏𝑓
1 ℎ𝑃 = 550 𝑓𝑡 ∙
𝑙𝑏
= 0.7457 𝑘𝑊
1 𝑓𝑡 3 = 7.481 𝑔𝑎𝑙
1 𝑏𝑏𝑙 = 42 𝑔𝑎𝑙
Frictional Losses, ∑ 𝑭
∑ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝐿 = 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
2𝑓𝐿𝑣 2
𝐹𝐿 =
𝑔𝑐𝐷
Where f = fanning friction factor
Re: Laminar < 2100

16
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
Re: Turbulent > 4000
Churchill Equation:
1 𝜀 7 0.9
= −4log (0.27 + ( ) )
√𝑓 𝐷 𝑅𝑒
Where 𝜀 = roughness
𝜀
= relative roughness
𝐷
Commercial steel pipe:

𝜀 = 0.0457 𝑚𝑚
= 0.00015 𝑓𝑡
Smooth pipe: 𝜀 = 0
If friction loss is required:

STEPS:
1) Solve for Re
2) Solve for f
3) Solve for ∑ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝐿
Non-circular Conduit
𝐷𝐻 = 4𝑟𝐻
4(𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎)

=
𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Circular pipe: 𝐷𝐻 = 𝐷
2𝑎𝑏
Rectangular duct: 𝐷𝐻 =
𝑎+𝑏
Annular Space
𝐷𝐻 = 𝐷 − 𝑑
Where D = ID
d = OD (if SCH no. is given)
Note: Hydraulic diameter is only used in solving f and

Re, but not in solving the Area
Instead, solve Area by:
𝜋 2
𝐴= (𝐷 − 𝑑2 )
4
Note: In non-circular conduit, assume 𝑊 ′ = 0 if not

given or required
−∆𝑃 2𝑓𝐿𝑣 2
Usually, =
𝜌 𝑔𝑐𝐷
𝜋
Note: 𝐴 = (𝐷2 − 𝑑2 )
4
If volumetric flowrate (Qv) is required, use trial & error

or Colebrook formula
If trial & error:

1) MEB: =
𝜌 𝑔𝑐𝐷
2) Integrate equation
3) Assume value of f
4) Solve for v using 2
5) Solve for Re
6) Solve for f (if 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 ), then use v
7) Solve for Qv, 𝑄𝑣 = 𝑣𝐴
If Colebrook formula:
1 𝜀 1.256
= −4log ( + ); 𝑅𝑒 > 4000
√𝑓 3.7𝐷 𝑅𝑒√𝑓
1) MEB: =
𝜌 𝑔𝑐𝐷
2) Integrate equation
3) Solve for 𝑅𝑒√𝑓;
3
𝐷2 ∆𝑃𝜌𝑔𝑐
𝑅𝑒√𝑓 = √
𝜇 2𝐿
4) Solve for f
5) Substitute f to 2
6) Solve for v
7) Solve for Qv
Branching
1
𝑓𝛼 𝛼 𝑅𝑒 −0.25
𝑅𝑒 0.25
Simplified equation:
𝐷1 −1.25 𝑣11.75 = 𝐷2 −1.25 𝑣21.75
𝑄𝑣 = 𝑄𝑣1 + 𝑄𝑣2
For pressure drop, if viscosity and density are given

where length and diameter is constant, therefore:
𝜌0.75
−∆𝑃2 𝜇 −0.25
= 0.75
∆𝑃1 𝜌
𝜇 −0.25
Additional:
∑ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝐿 + 𝐹𝑓 + 𝐹𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿𝑣 + 𝐿𝑓 + 𝐿 + 𝐻
Where 𝐿𝑣 = pipe diameter x inside diameter
𝑘𝑓𝑣 2
𝐹𝑓 =
2𝑔𝑐
k (Fig. 6-5)
2𝑓𝐿𝑣 2
𝐹𝐿 =
𝑔𝑐 𝐷
Head lost, H (m or ft)

𝐻𝑔
𝐸=
𝑔𝑐
Where E = 𝑓𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑓
Condition: 𝐻 = 𝐸 if
𝑙𝑏
𝐽
=
𝑘𝑔
Affinity Laws (Table 10-13)
𝑄1 𝑁1
C: =
𝑄2 𝑁2
𝐻1 𝑁
H: = ( 1 )2
𝐻2 𝑁2
𝑃1 𝑁
P: = ( 1)3
𝑃2 𝑁2
For some instances:

𝑃 ∝ 𝐷3 𝑁 3
Laminar:
𝜋(−∆𝑃)𝑔𝑐 𝐷4
𝑄𝑣 = (𝐸𝑞. 6 − 35)
128𝜇𝐿
𝑚
𝑄𝑣 =
𝜌
𝜇 = 𝑣𝜌
Compressible Fluids 4𝑅𝑇𝑓𝐿𝐺 2

𝑃1 2 − 𝑃2 2 = (𝐸𝑞. 6 − 115)
*assume isothermal flow 𝑔𝑐 𝐷𝑀𝑊
Mach No. (Eq. 6-114) This formula is to get the Mach Number, in order to
obtain the actual velocity
𝑣2
𝑀𝑎 =
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where 𝑣2 is the actual velocity
Getting Ma will determine if it is critical or sonic,

subsonic, and supersonic.
𝑀 = 1; Critical or sonic
𝑀 < 1; Subsonic
𝑀 > 1; Supersonic
𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 = √
𝑀𝑊
𝐶𝑝
Where 𝑘 = 𝛿 =
𝐶𝑣
Where R is 8314
If flow is isothermal, disregard k.
𝑅𝑇𝐺
𝑣2 =
𝑃2 𝑀𝑊
𝑚 𝑄𝑣𝜌
𝐺= =
𝐴 𝐴
If density is not given, compute using:

𝑃𝑀𝑊
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
Where G is mass velocity

m is mass flowrate
A is area
𝐺𝐴
𝑄𝑣 =
𝜌
Natural Gas (e.g. Methane)

0.008
𝑓= 1 (𝑊𝑒𝑦𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐷3
Where D is the diameter in inches

Memorize
Applicable only to Natural Gas
If 𝜌 is not given, solve using
𝑃𝑀𝑊
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
If not a Natural Gas (e.g. 𝑵𝟐 , 𝑶𝟐 , 𝑨𝒊𝒓)

Re; if 𝜇 is not given, then get from Table 2-138: Vapor
Viscosity
Compressors, Fans & Blowers

Adiabatic Compressor
𝛿−1
𝛿𝑅𝑇1 𝑁 𝑃2 𝛿
𝑊′ = [( ) − 1] (𝐸𝑞. 10 − 68)
𝛿 − 1 𝑃1
Where N = no. of stages, if not mentioned, assume N=1

Monoatomic: 𝛿 = 1.67
Diatomic: 𝛿 = 1.40
𝛿 values can be found in Table 2-157 (8TH), Ratios of

Specific Heats of Gases at 1 atm Pressure given the
temperature
Fans & Blowers

∆𝑃
𝑊 ′ = ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 + + ∑𝐹
𝜌𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝜌1 +𝜌2
Where 𝜌𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
Note: Pumps are used for liquids

Compressors are used for gases
If P in between pump is required,

𝑃𝑁
𝑟 = 𝑁√
𝑃𝑜
𝑃𝑜 𝑋𝑟 = 𝑃1 … 𝑃𝑁
Additional:
Darcy friction factor
𝑓𝐷 = 4𝑓
Flow Metering Devices

Pitot tube
2∆𝑃𝑔𝑐
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑐√
𝜌
= 𝑐√2𝑔𝑐 ∆𝐻
Where c is the pitot tube coefficient, if nothing

mentioned, assume c=1.0
∆𝑃 𝑆𝐺𝑚 𝑔
∆𝐻 = = 𝐻𝑚 ( − 1)
𝜌 𝑆𝐺 𝑔𝑐
Where 𝐻𝑚 is the manometer reading

𝑆𝐺𝑚 is the specific gravity of fluid in the manometer
𝑆𝐺 is the specific gravity of the fluid in the pipe
𝑣
Re, max: If laminar, = 0.5
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
If turbulent: Plot Re (Fig. 10-13)
Steps: 𝐻𝑚 → 𝑄𝑣
1) ∆𝐻
2) 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
3) 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑣
4)
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
5) 𝑣
6) 𝑄𝑣
Steps: 𝑄𝑣 → 𝐻𝑚
1) 𝑣
2) 𝑅𝑒
𝑣
3)
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
4) 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
5) ∆𝐻
6) 𝐻𝑚
Orifice & Venturi Meters

𝐷2
𝛽=
𝐷1
Where 𝐷2 is orifice/venturi
𝐷1 is pipe
2𝑔𝑐 ∆𝐻
𝑣2 = 𝑐√
1 − 𝛽4
∆𝑃
Where ∆𝐻 =
𝜌
@Orifice:
𝑐 = 0.61
𝑅𝑒 > 30000
@Venturi:
𝑐 = 0.98
𝑅𝑒 > 10000
STEPS:
1. Solve for ∆𝐻
2. Solve for 𝑣2
3. Solve for 𝑄𝑣
𝑄𝑣 = 𝑣2 𝐴2
Where 𝐷2 must be used to compute for Area

PARTICULATE TECHNOLOGY
SCREENING
Additional Note:
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑃
If ratio is given, then 𝑃 = 𝐹( )
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
Mesh size
▪ Perfectly functioning (∑ 𝑋𝐹 )
▪ Actual performance (𝐹 = 𝑂 + 𝐹2 )
Particle Unit of Measurement

Coarse cm, in, mm
Fine mesh
Very fine Microns
Ultrafine 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑔 (square area/unit mass)
Moh’s Scale of Hardness
Soft 1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
Intermediate 4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Feldspar
Hard 7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum (sapphire)
10. Diamond
Stages of Size Reduction
Coarse (>2.96 in) Intermediate (1-3 in) Fine (<0.25/0.5 in)

▪ Jaw crusher ▪ Cone crusher ▪ Ball mill
▪ Gyratory crusher ▪ Crushing rolls ▪ Rod mill
▪ Hammer mill
Mechanism of Size Reduction
Particle Unit of Measurement

Coarse Compression
Fine Impact
Very fine Attrition
SCREENING
Screen Effectiveness, E
𝑋𝑃 𝑃 1 − 𝑋𝑃 𝑃
𝐸= (1 − )
𝑋𝐹 𝐹 1 − 𝑋𝐹 𝐹
𝑋𝑃 𝑋𝐹 − 𝑋𝑅 (1 − 𝑋𝑃 )(𝑋𝐹 − 𝑋𝑅 )
𝐸= ( )(1 − )
𝑋𝐹 𝑋𝑃 − 𝑋𝑅 (1 − 𝑋𝐹 )(𝑋𝑃 − 𝑋𝑅 )
𝑃 𝑋𝐹 − 𝑋𝑅
=
𝐹 𝑋𝑃 − 𝑋𝑅
Additional:
Mesh number (particle diameter) can be found in HB:

Chapter 17
Sphericity, ∅ ▪ For any particle:
1 2
𝜋 3 (6𝑉𝑃 )3
∅=
𝑆𝐴𝑃
▪ For cube: ∅ = 0.806
▪ For cylinder:
𝑉𝑃 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝐿
𝑆𝐴𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝐿(2𝜋𝑟)
Taggart’s Formula
𝑇 = 0.6𝐿𝑆
Where: T = tons/hr (short ton)

L = length of feed opening, in
S = greatest width of discharge opening, in
If 𝑇 < 0.115 then jaw crusher, otherwise gyratory
crusher.
SIZE REDUCTION
Critical Speed of Ball Mill, 𝑵𝒄 42.3
𝑁𝑐 = (𝐸𝑞. 21 − 143)
√𝐷 − 𝑑
Where: 𝑁𝑐 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑚𝑖𝑛
D = diameter of the ball mill (m)
d = diameter of the grinding balls (negligible,
therefore 0)
Power Requirement of a Crusher
𝑃
𝐸=
𝑇
Where P = Power
T = mass flowrate
𝑃 1 1
1. Bond’s Law (n = 1.5) 1. 𝐸= = 𝐾𝐵 ( − )
𝑇 𝑋2 0.5 𝑋1 0.5
𝑃 1 1
2. 𝐸= = 𝐾𝑅 ( − )
𝑇 𝑋2 𝑋1
2. Rittinger’s Law (n = 2)
𝑃 𝑋1
3. Kick’s Law (n = 1) 3. 𝐸= = 𝐾𝑅 ln ( )
𝑇 𝑋2
Bond’s Law with Work Index

▪ SI Unit
SI Unit: P = kW
T = ton/hr 𝑃 1 1
= 0.3162𝑊𝑖 ( − )
𝑊𝑖 = kW-h/ton 𝑇 √𝑋2 √𝑋1
▪ English Unit
English Unit: P = hP
T = ton/hr (short) 𝑃 1 1
𝑊𝑖 = hP-h/ton = 1.46𝑊𝑖 ( − )
𝑇 √𝑋2 √𝑋1
Both 𝑋2 & 𝑋1 is in mm if SI and ft if English
Work Indices, 𝑊𝑖 can be found in HB: Chapter 21
SEDIMENTATION
Terminal settling velocity, 𝑉𝑡
1. Stoke’s Law
𝑔𝐷𝑝 2 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)

𝑣𝑡 = ; 𝑘 < 3.3
18𝜇
2. Intermediate Law (memorize)
0.153𝑔0.71 𝐷𝑝1.14(𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)0.71

𝑣𝑡 = ; 𝑘 = 3.3 − 44
𝜌0.29 𝜇0.43
3. Newton’s Law
𝑔𝐷𝑝 (𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)
𝑣𝑡 = 1.73 𝑥 √ ; 𝑘 > 44
𝜌
• Reynolds number, Re
𝐷𝑃 𝑣𝑡 𝜌
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
• k
1 𝑔𝜌(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌) 1
𝑘 = 𝐴𝑟 3 = 𝐷𝑃 ( )3
𝜇2
Calculate for the 𝜌 of air by:
𝑃𝑀𝑊
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
Obtain the vapor viscosity of air by using the formula in the HB: Table 2-138
Hindered Settling
If concentration of solids is given,
▪ Terminal settling velocity, 𝑉𝑡
𝑔𝐷𝑝 2 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)
𝑉𝑡 = 𝜀2∅
18𝜇
▪ 𝜀 (porosity)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝜀= =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
= 1 – (concentration of solids, x)
1 –x
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞
=
1 –x x
+
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝜌𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠
▪ ∅
1
∅=
101.82(1−𝜀)
▪ Reynolds number, Re
𝐷𝑃 𝑣𝑡 𝜌𝑚
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇𝑚 𝜀
▪ 𝜌𝑚
𝜌𝑚= 𝜀𝜌+(1−𝜀)𝜌𝑝
▪ 𝜇𝑚
𝜇𝑙𝑖𝑞
𝜇𝑚 =
∅
If non-sphere, square plates (e.g mica plates)

2𝑔𝑚𝑝 (𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)
(Eq. 6-238) 𝑣𝑡 = √
𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝐴𝑝 𝜌𝑝
𝑏
Where 𝐶𝐷 =
𝑅𝑒 𝑛
𝑚𝑝 = 𝑣𝑝 𝜌𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑡𝜌𝑝
Where t is thickness
𝑡𝑣𝑡 𝜌
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
b n
Stoke’s Law 24 1
Intermediate 18.5 0.6
Newton 0.44 0
When using Stoke’s Law:
Simplified Equation:
𝑡 2 𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)
𝑣𝑡 =
12𝜇
In laboratory application, Free Settling
𝑧𝑜 − 𝑧𝑐
𝑣𝑡 =
𝜃𝑐
Hindered Settling
𝑧𝑜 − 𝑧∝
ln ( ) = 𝑘(𝜃 − 𝜃𝑐 )
𝑧 − 𝑧∝
Where 𝑧𝑜 is the initial height

𝑧𝑐 is the second height
z is the third height
𝑧∝ is the infinite height
𝜃𝑐 is the time
CENTRIFUGATION
▪ Centrifugal force, 𝐹𝑐
𝑚𝑟𝜔2
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑔𝑐
▪ G-level
𝐹𝑐 Ω2
= (𝐸𝑞. 18 − 82)
𝐹𝑔 𝑔
𝐹𝑐
▪
𝐹𝑔
𝐹𝑐 𝑟𝜔2
=
𝐹𝑔 𝑔
Where Ω or 𝜔 is the angular velocity

𝐹𝑐
is force of g’s
𝐹𝑔
2𝜋𝑁
𝜔=
60
Where N is rev/min
*Centrifugation is used when terminal settling velocity is low
Clarifying Centrifuge
If average size, 𝐷𝑝
𝑟
18𝜇ln ( 2 )
𝑟1
▪ 𝑡= 2 2
𝜔 𝐷𝑝 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)
𝑣𝑡 𝜋𝑏(𝑟2 2 −𝑟1 2 ) 𝜔2 𝐷𝑝 2 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)

▪ 𝑄𝑐 = = 𝑟2 ∗
𝑡 ln ( 18𝜇
𝑟1 )
If cut size or critical diameter is given, 𝐷𝑝𝑐

𝜋𝑏(𝑟2 2 −𝑟1 2 ) 𝜔2 𝐷𝑝𝑐2 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)
▪ 𝑄𝑐 = 2𝑟2 ∗
ln ( 18𝜇
𝑟1 +𝑟2)
Where 𝑟2 is the diameter of the bowl

Given thickness, 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 − 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
▪ (memorize)
Stress in the Centrifuge Rotor, 𝝈𝒉 𝜌𝐿 𝑟𝑠 2 𝑟𝑏

𝜎ℎ = 𝜌𝑚 𝑣𝑡 2 (1 + 0.5 (1 − 2 ) ) 𝐸𝑞. 18 − 100
𝜌𝑚 𝑟𝑏 𝑡
Terminal settling velocity, 𝑉𝑡 𝑉𝑡 = 𝜔𝑟𝑏
FILTRATION
Rate of Equation (−Δ𝑃)𝑔𝑐 𝐴2
𝑟𝑓 =
𝛼𝐶𝜇(𝑣 + 𝜈𝑒)
𝑘
𝑟𝑓 =
2((𝑣 + 𝜈𝑒)
Constant Pressure Filtration (𝑣 + 𝑣𝑒)2 = 𝑘(𝜃 + 𝜃𝑒)
2(−Δ𝑃)𝑔𝑐 𝐴2
𝑘=
𝛼𝐶𝜇
Rate of Washing
𝑉𝑤
𝑟𝑤 =
𝜃𝑤
▪ Plate and Frame Filter
𝑟𝑓
𝑟𝑤 =
4
▪ Leaf Filter
𝑟𝑤 = 𝑟𝑓
Volume of Cake
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑘𝑒 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠 (𝑙𝑤ℎ)
Capacity, y
𝑉𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑦=
𝜃𝑇
If 𝑹𝒎 is not given, then ve & 𝜽𝒆 is 0

𝑣𝑒𝐶𝛼 𝑚𝑐
𝑅𝑚 = ;𝐶 =
𝐴 𝑉
If 𝑹𝒎 is given, then ve & 𝜽𝒆 is

𝑣𝑒 2
𝜃𝑒 =
𝑘
Additional,
𝑚𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑦 = 𝑚𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑚𝑤𝑐
Constant Rate Filtration

𝑉𝑟
𝑟𝑓 =
𝜃𝑟
−ΔP = 𝐾𝑟 𝑣 + 𝛽
𝛼𝐶𝜇 𝑉𝑟
𝐾𝑟 = ( )
𝑔𝑐 𝐴2 𝜃𝑟
𝛼𝐶𝜇 𝑉𝑟
𝛽= ( )𝑣𝑒
𝑔𝑐 𝐴2 𝜃𝑟
Constant Pressure Filtration preceded by Constant (𝑣 2 + 𝑣𝑟 2 ) + 2𝑣𝑒(𝑣 − 𝑣𝑟 ) = 𝑘(𝜃 − 𝜃𝑟)

Rate
2𝑣𝑟(𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣𝑒)
𝑘=
𝜃𝑟
FLUIDIZATION
𝑚𝑠
𝑉𝑠 = ; 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 𝐿𝑂
𝜌
1
𝐿𝛼
1−𝜀
−Δ𝑃𝑚𝑓 (1 − 𝜀)(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)𝑔

= 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒 ∗
𝐿𝑚𝑓 𝑔𝑐
𝐷𝑣𝑚𝑓 𝜌 0.0408𝐷3 𝜌𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌) 0.5

𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑓 = = (1135.7 + )
𝜇 𝜇2
− 33.7
𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑓 (Ergun equation – eq. 17-1)
Minimum Fluidizing Velocity For minimum fluidization,

(memorize)
For packed bed:
Use this equation for a very small Reynolds number*

when there’s a given 𝜀𝑚𝑓 , initial bed porosity and no
bed porosity at minimum fluidizing condition
∆𝑃 150𝜇𝑣𝑡 (1 − 𝜀)2
= ∙
𝐿 𝐷𝑝 2 𝜀3
∆𝑃
= 𝑔(1 − 𝜀)(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)
𝐿
Therefore,
We can use this equation to solve for the minimum

fluidizing velocity,
150𝜇𝑣𝑡 (1 − 𝜀)2
∙ = 𝑔(1 − 𝜀)(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)
𝐷𝑝 2 𝜀3

Day 2 Concepts and Formulas Compiled

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

Fertilizer Mixture Orsat Analyzer

Steam Distillation Rectification/Fractional Distillation

Partial condenser/reboiler = equilibrium stage

𝑓 = fraction of vapor in feed

𝑑𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 Δ𝑈 = 0 Δ𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 Δ𝑇 Δ𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 Δ𝑇 Δ𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 Δ𝑇

𝑑𝐻 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 Δ𝐻 = 0 Δ𝐻 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 Δ𝑇 Δ𝐻 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 Δ𝑇 Δ𝐻 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 Δ𝑇

𝑀𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝑀𝑆𝑉 saturated vapor

1 → 2 reversible, adiabatic compression

Energy Balance |𝑄𝐻 | = |𝑄𝐶 | + |𝑊|

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

MATERIAL BALANCE WITHOUT REACTION

𝐹1 𝑥𝐹1 + 𝐹2 𝑥𝐹2 = 𝑃𝑥𝑃

If ethyl alcohol is mixed with water and given a certain

The densities can be obtained from Densities of

For some cases, there are presence of crystals (if

measured in grams of solute per 100g of

𝐹𝑥𝐹 = 𝐿𝑥𝐿 + 𝐶𝑥𝐶

Given solubility, for an instance:

𝐹𝑥𝐹 = 𝐷𝑥𝐷 + 𝐵𝑥𝐵

Note: Absolute alcohol = 100%

If reflux ratio is given:

Mass of Vapor condensed, 𝑉

If mol of feed is given, convert to mass by getting the

𝑀𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 = %𝑥(𝑀𝑊𝑥 ) + %𝑦(𝑀𝑊𝑦 ) …

𝐹𝑥𝐹 = 𝑅𝑥𝑅 + 𝐸𝑥𝐸

Always start with inert balance:

If diluent, 𝐻2 𝑂, is given instead of inert:

Percent Recovery, %Recovery, oil

𝐹𝑥𝐹 = 𝐿𝑥𝐿 + 𝐺𝑥𝐺

Always start with inert balance:

Percent Recovery, %Recovery

MATERIAL BALANCE WITH REACTION

Limiting and Excess Reactant

Where mass is the mass of a given element or

Percent Excess, %𝑿𝒔

In other cases, when given a reactor, and products are

Reactant, F = Reactant, reacted + Reactant, unreacted

- The quantity of a product received from the

For some cases;

If given a fusion, make a basis on the side that has

Start with Ash balance:

Total compound = compound, reacted + compound,

*compound, reacted can be computed using the

Compound, unreacted is as in the given fusion

If given is % excess oxygen and % fractional

Assume 100 mol basis of Feed

𝑂2,𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑(𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠)

Given % excess oxygen, compute for xs 𝑂2 in order to

𝑂2,𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 = 𝑥𝑠, 𝑂2 + 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜, 𝑂2

and obtain 𝑁2 from:

𝑂2 in the Product is:

= 𝑥𝑠, 𝑂2 + 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜, 𝑂2 (1 − %𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)

Given the %air, we can obtain the 𝑁2 and 𝑂2,𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝

𝑂2 , 𝑃 = 𝑂2,𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 − 𝑂2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜

With Recycle Stream

𝑖𝑛 − 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑒𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 0

Where cons0. = F(in)

Percent Excess Air

100% conversion, with % excess air 1. Basis of 100 mol feed

𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 − 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜

𝑂2 , 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = (𝑂2 , 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝 − 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜) − 𝑂2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜(1

Case 1: For Orsat Analysis: no water

To solve for 𝒎𝟑 of dry air, 10