Tire Model For Longitudinal Forces

3/7/24, 10:37 PM Tire model for longitudinal forces – x-engineer.
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Tire model for longitudinal forces
A vehicle’s tire must withstand forces and torques from several axes, depending on its driving state and direction of
travel. In the contact patch of a tire from a driving axle, we can find longitudinal forces, side (lateral) forces, vertical
forces and aligning torques.
The purpose of this article is to define a mathematical model of a tire, which can be used to calculate the longitudinal
force in a tire (braking / traction) function of the vertical load of the tire. The mathematical model of a tire can be used
for simulation purposes, mainly for development of wheel slip control strategies or for driving simulators (e.g. racing
games).
https://x-engineer.org/tire-model-longitudinal-forces/ 1/17
3/7/24, 10:37 PM Tire model for longitudinal forces – x-engineer.org
Image: Forces in driving wheel
where:
Fx [N] – longitudinal tire force
Fy [N] – side (lateral) tire force
Fz [N] – vertical tire force
Mz [Nm] – tire aligning torque
Ω [rad/s] – tire angular velocity

V [m/s] – tire longitudinal velocity
α [°] – tire slip angle
The longitudinal force of the tire is generated when the vehicle is travelling in a straight line, during acceleration or
braking. The side (lateral) wheel force is generated when the vehicle is changing direction, during cornering. The
vertical tire force is given by the weight of the vehicle and depends on the dynamic behaviour of the suspension.
For a free rolling wheel, its longitudinal velocity is calculated as:
\[V_{x0} = r_{w} \cdot \Omega_{0}\]

where:
Vx0 [m/s] – rolling tire longitudinal velocity
rw [m] – rolling tire radius
Ω0 [rad/s] – rolling tire angular velocity
When a torque is applied to the tire, either for acceleration or braking, a longitudinal slip occurs between the tire and
the vehicle, calculated as:
\[ \begin{split}
k = \left\{\begin{matrix}
– \frac{V_{x0}-r_{w} \cdot \Omega}{V_{x0}} = – \frac{\Omega_{0}-\Omega}{\Omega_{0}} \text{, } a_{v}<0\\
\frac{r_{w} \cdot \Omega – V_{x0}}{r_{w} \cdot \Omega} = \frac{\Omega-\Omega_{0}}{\Omega} \text{, } a_{v}>0
\end{matrix}\right.
\end{split} \]
where:
k [-] – longitudinal tire slip
Ω [rad/s] – braking/accelerating tire angular velocity
a [m/s2] – vehicle acceleration

During braking, if the wheel is completely locked (Ω = 0), the tire slip will reach its minimum, -1. During acceleration, if
the wheel is turning but the vehicle is at standstill (Ω0 = 0), the tire slip reaches its maximum, 1.
The lateral tire slip is defined as the ratio between the lateral and longitudinal velocity of the wheel. This is equivalent
with the tangent of the slip angle.
\[\tan(\alpha) = – \frac{V_{y}}{V_{x}}\]
The sign of the lateral tire slip has been chosen such that the lateral tire forces become positive when the tire slip
angle is positive.
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Image: Combined side force and brake force characteristics

Credit: [1]
The lateral (side) and the longitudinal (brake/traction) tire forces depend on a great extent on the brake/traction slip
and the lateral slip angle of the tire.
The aligning torque, also known as self aligning torque or aligning moment is the torque generated in a rolling tire,
which tends to rotate the wheel around its vertical axis. When the tire side slip angle is non-zero, the aligning torque
tends to steer the wheel in the direction of travel, hence the name self aligning torque.
Image: Wheel side force and aligning torque

Credit: [1]
The wheel camber angle is defined as the angle between the vertical axis of the wheel used for steering and the Patreon
vertical axis of the vehicle when viewed from the front or rear.
The longitudinal, lateral tire forces and the aligning torque depend on four main parameters:
tire longitudinal slip

tire lateral slip
wheel camber angle
tire vertical load (force)
For simulation purposes, we need to have a mathematical expression of the tire forces function of the above
parameters. One method of doing it is by using the Magic Formula equations. This method was developed by Hans
B. Pacejka [1]. Recent Posts
They equations are called “Magic Formula” because there is no particular physical basis for the structure of the
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equations, but they fit a wide variety of tire constructions and operating conditions. There are a set of equations and
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parameters for each: longitudinal tire force, lateral tire force and self-aligning moment. The parameters are
determined as a best fit between experimental data and the tire model. Analytical solution for battery cell discharge
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In this article we are going to focus only on the equations for the longitudinal tire force, for braking and acceleration.
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Tire Model Magic Formula with Constant Parameters About
Contact
The simplest form of Pacejka’s Magic Formula has an equation with constant parameters:
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\[F_{z} = F_{z} \cdot D \cdot \sin \left ( C \cdot \arctan \left \{ B \cdot k – E \cdot \left [ B \cdot k – \arctan(B \cdot k)
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\right ] \right \} \right )\]
As you can see, the longitudinal force Fx [N] depends only on two variables: the vertical load Fz [N] and the Terms and Conditions
longitudinal tire slip k [-].
The dimensionless parameters B, C, D and E have constant values. These parameters are called:
B: stiffness factor
C: shape factor
D: peak factor
E: curvature factor
Depending on the surface of the road, these parameters have different values [2]:
Surface B C D E
Dry tarmac 10 1.9 1 0.97
Wet tarmac 12 2.3 0.82 1
Snow 5 2 0.3 1
Ice 4 2 0.1 1
The vertical tire load can be calculated function of the vehicle weight. If we consider that, for a 4-wheel vehicle, its
weight is equally distributed between the wheels:
\[F_{z} = \frac{G_{v}}{4} = \frac{m_{v} \cdot g}{4}\]

where:
Gv [N] – vehicle weight
mv [kg] – vehicle mass
g [m/s2] – gravitational acceleration
Tire Model Load Dependent Parameters Magic Formula

A more realistic version of the Magic Formula has the parameters of the equation dependent on the tire longitudinal
slip and vertical load [1].
\[F_{x} = D_{x} \cdot \sin \left ( C_{x} \cdot \arctan \left \{ B_{x} \cdot k_{x} – E_{x} \cdot \left [ B_{x} \cdot k_{x} –
\arctan(B_{x} \cdot k_{x}) \right ] \right \} \right )+S_{Vx}\]
The values of the coefficients are given by the equations:
\[ \begin{split}
df_{z} &= \frac{F_{z}-F_{z0}}{F_{z0}}\\
\mu_{x} &= D_{x1} + D_{x2} \cdot df_{z}\\
S_{Hx} &= H_{x1} + H_{x2} \cdot df_{z}\\
S_{Vx} &= F_{z} \cdot (V_{x1} + V_{x2} \cdot df_{z})\\
K_{xk} &= F_{z} \cdot (K_{x1} + K_{x2} \cdot df_{z}) \cdot e^{K_{x3} \cdot df_{z}}\\
D_{x} &= \mu_{x} \cdot F_{z}\\
C_{x} &= C_{x1}\\
B_{x} &= \frac{K_{xk}}{C_{x} \cdot D_{x} + \epsilon_{x}}\\
k_{x} &= k + S_{Hx}\\
E_{x} &= (E_{x1} + E_{x2} \cdot df_{z} + E_{x3} \cdot df_{z}^{2}) \cdot (1 – E_{x4} \cdot \text{sgn}(k_{x}))
\end{split} \]
SHx and SVx are offsets to the tire slip and longitudinal force in the force-slip function, or horizontal and vertical offsets
if the function is plotted as a curve. μx is the longitudinal load-dependent coefficient of friciton. εx is a very small
number used to avoid division by zero as Fz approaches zero. dfz is the normalized change in vertical tire load.
A set of coefficients for the equations above can be found in [1]:
Cx1 Dx1 Dx2 Ex1 Ex2 Ex3 Ex4
1.685 1.21 -0.037 0.344 0.095 -0.02 0
Kx1 Kx2 Kx3 Hx1 Hx2 Vx1 Vx2
21.51 -0.163 0.254 -0.002 0.002 0 0
Tire Model for Longitudinal Forces Calculator

The generate the tire longitudinal force function of tire slip, use the calculator below. You can also tune the
parameters in order to obtain the desired shape of the curves.
Fz [N]= 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
mv [kg]= 2000 Cx1 [-]= 1.685 Dx1 [-]= 1.21 Dx2 [-]= -0.037
Ex1 [-]= 0.344 Ex2 [-]= 0.095 Ex3 [-]= -0.02 Ex4 [-]= 0
Kx1 [-]= 21.51 Kx2 [-]= -0.163 Kx3 [-]= 0.254 Hx1 [-]= -0.002
Hx2 [-]= 0.002 Vx1 [-]= 0 Vx2 [-]= 0 Calculate
Tire Model for Longitudinal Forces in Scilab

We can also use Scilab to generate the tire longitudinal forces. The first example is for the tire model with constant
parameters.

clear()
clc()
clf()
// Tire model constant coefficients

B = [10 12 5 4];
C = [1.9 2.3 2 2];
D = [1 0.82 0.3 0.1];
E = [0.97 1 1 1];
// Vehicle parameters
mv = 2000;
g = 9.81;
Fz = (mv*g)/4;
// Plot setup parameters

surface = ["Dry tarmac" "Wet tarmac" "Snow" "Ice"];
colors = ["k" "purple" "steelblue" "deepskyblue"];
// Wheel slip
slip = [-1:0.01:1];
// Plot
for i=1:length(B)
for j=1:length(slip)
Fx(i,j) = Fz * D(i) * sin(C(i)*atan(B(i)*slip(j)-E(i)*(B(i)*slip(j)-atan(B(i)*slip(j)))));
end
plot(slip,Fx(i,:),"Color",colors(i),"LineWidth",2)
end
xgrid()
xlabel("Wheel slip [-]")
ylabel("Tire longitudinal force, Fx [N]")
title("x-engineer.org","Color","blue")
legend(surface,2)
By running the Scilab instructions above, we get the following graphical representation:
Image: Tire longitudinal force – constant coefficients
The second implementation in Scilab is for the Magic Formula with load dependent coefficients.

clear()
clc()
clf()
// Tire model load dependent coefficients

Cx1 = 1.685;
Dx1 = 1.21;
Dx2 = -0.037;
Ex1 = 0.344;
Ex2 = 0.095;
Ex3 = -0.02;
Ex4 = 0;
Kx1 = 21.51;
Kx2 = -0.163;
Kx3 = 0.254;
Hx1 = -0.002;
Hx2 = 0.002;
Vx1 = 0;
Vx2 = 0;
epsx = 1e-9;
// Vehicle and environmental parameters

mv = 2000;
g = 9.81;
Fz0 = (mv*g)/4;
// Wheel slip and tire vertical load

slip = [-1:0.01:1];
Fz = [500:500:Fz0];
// Tire longitudinal calculation

for i=1:length(Fz)
dfz(i) = (Fz(i)-Fz0)/Fz0;
mux(i) = Dx1 + Dx2 * dfz(i);
SHx(i) = Hx1 + Hx2 * dfz(i);
SVx(i) = Fz(i) * (Vx1 + Vx2 * dfz(i));
Kxk(i) = Fz(i) * (Kx1 + Kx2 * dfz(i)) * exp(Kx3 * dfz(i));
Dx(i) = mux(i) * Fz(i);
Cx(i) = Cx1;
Bx(i) = Kxk(i) / (Cx(i) * Dx(i) + epsx);
for j=1:length(slip)
kx(i,j) = slip(j) + SHx(i);
Ex(i,j) = (Ex1 + Ex2 * dfz(i) + Ex3 * dfz(i)^2) * (1 - Ex4 * sign(kx(i,j)));
Fx(i,j) = Dx(i)*sin(Cx(i)*atan(Bx(i)*kx(i,j)-Ex(i,j)*(Bx(i)*kx(i,j)-atan(Bx(i)*kx(i,j)))))+SVx
end
plot(slip,Fx(i,:),"LineWidth",1)
xstring(0.15,max(Fx(i,:)),strcat(["Fz = " string(Fz(i)) " N"]));
end
// Pot setup
xgrid()
xlabel("Wheel slip [-]")
ylabel("Tire longitudinal force, Fx [N]")
title("x-engineer.org","Color","blue")
By running the Scilab instructions above, we get the following graphical representation:
Image: Tire longitudinal force – load dependent coefficients
Tire Model for Longitudinal Forces in Xcos

For simulation purposes of chassis dynamics, we might need to have the Magic Formula implemented in Xcos. The
following model implements both constant and load dependent parameters model using Xcos block diagram.
Image: Tire longitudinal force – Xcos model
The longitudinal tire slip is generated using an interpolation map, based on the simulation time.
The Constant Coefficients Xcos model is implemented as:
Image: Constant coefficients – Xcos model
The constant parameters need to be loaded in the Scilab workspace before the simulation is run.
The Load Dependent Coefficients Xcos model is implemented using a C block:
Image: Load dependent coefficients – Xcos model
By running the simulation and doing post-processing of the longitudinal tire force saved in the Scilab workspace, we
get the following shapes:
Image: Tire longitudinal forces – constant (left) and load dependent coefficients (right)
Conclusion
The Pacejka’s Magic Formula tire models are widely used in professional vehicle dynamics simulations, and racing
car games, as they are reasonably accurate, easy to program, and solve quickly. Each tire is characterised by a
number of coefficients (10 – 20) for each important force that it can produce at the contact patch, typically lateral and
longitudinal force, and self-aligning torque, as a best fit between experimental data and the model. These coefficients
are then used to generate equations showing how much force is generated for a given vertical load on the tire,
camber angle and slip angle.
References:
[1] Hans B. Pacejka, Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, Delft University of Technology, 2002.
[2] https://uk.mathworks.com/help/physmod/sdl/ref/tireroadinteractionmagicformula.html
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2 Comments
Volkan 
Hi Suri,
Did you calculate Fx in MSC Adams? Is there any difference between two plots?
Aneesh Suri 
Amazing website you have put up. In this article, I think you have written Fz instead of Fx under the subheading “Tire
Model Magic Formula with Constant Parameters”.
Wish you the best!
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3/7/24, 10:37 PM Tire model for longitudinal forces – x-engineer.

Tire model for longitudinal forces

Image: Forces in driving wheel

Fy [N] – side (lateral) tire force

Fz [N] – vertical tire force

Mz [Nm] – tire aligning torque

Ω [rad/s] – tire angular velocity

For a free rolling wheel, its longitudinal velocity is calculated as:

\[V_{x0} = r_{w} \cdot \Omega_{0}\]

rw [m] – rolling tire radius

Ω0 [rad/s] – rolling tire angular velocity

a [m/s2] – vehicle acceleration

AJ on How to calculate wheel curb climbing

Sks on Electronic clutch control

Ray Cis on Gear synchro

Dave on Display data in Scilab using the

Disha on EV design – energy consumption

Image: Combined side force and brake force characteristics

Image: Wheel side force and aligning torque

tire longitudinal slip

Proportional (P) controller

How to calculate the internal resistance of a

Active vs Reactive Power

Tire Model Magic Formula with Constant Parameters About

Dry tarmac 10 1.9 1 0.97

Wet tarmac 12 2.3 0.82 1

\[F_{z} = \frac{G_{v}}{4} = \frac{m_{v} \cdot g}{4}\]

mv [kg] – vehicle mass

g [m/s2] – gravitational acceleration

Tire Model Load Dependent Parameters Magic Formula

A set of coefficients for the equations above can be found in [1]:

Cx1 Dx1 Dx2 Ex1 Ex2 Ex3 Ex4

1.685 1.21 -0.037 0.344 0.095 -0.02 0

Kx1 Kx2 Kx3 Hx1 Hx2 Vx1 Vx2

21.51 -0.163 0.254 -0.002 0.002 0 0

Tire Model for Longitudinal Forces Calculator

Fz [N]= 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Hx2 [-]= 0.002 Vx1 [-]= 0 Vx2 [-]= 0 Calculate

Tire Model for Longitudinal Forces in Scilab

// Tire model constant coefficients

// Plot setup parameters

Image: Tire longitudinal force – constant coefficients

// Tire model load dependent coefficients

// Vehicle and environmental parameters

// Wheel slip and tire vertical load

// Tire longitudinal calculation

Image: Tire longitudinal force – load dependent coefficients

Tire Model for Longitudinal Forces in Xcos

Image: Tire longitudinal force – Xcos model

The Constant Coefficients Xcos model is implemented as:

Image: Constant coefficients – Xcos model

The Load Dependent Coefficients Xcos model is implemented using a C block:

Image: Load dependent coefficients – Xcos model

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