2.

FORCE AND LAWS OF MOTION

1. Force

Consider a ball kept on a table. We can move it by pulling or pushing. We can increase its speed by
pushing it in the direction of motion. If we push it opposite to the direction of motion its speed will
decrease. If the ball is in motion towards east, we push it towards north, the direction of motion will
change.
Take a soft rubber ball between your palms and push the ball from both sides, the shape of the ball is
distorted. In all the above cases we have applied the force on the ball.
Force is an external influence (in the form of push or pull) which changes or tends to change the state of
rest or of uniform motion, direction of motion, or the shape and size of a body.
Force has a magnitude as well as direction. So, force is a vector quantity.

Unit of Force:

The SI unit of force is newton, which is denoted by N. For example, a force of five newton may be
described as 5 N.

Effects of Force:

Force
(i) produces or tries to produce motion in a body at rest, or
(ii) stops or tries to stop a moving body, or
(iii) changes or tries to change the direction of motion of the body, or
(iv) changes or tries to change the speed of a moving body, or
(v) changes or tries to change the shape of a body.

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 2.2 Force and Laws of Motion

The following examples illustrate the above definition:

(i) When we push a heavy stone, it does not move. The effort made in this case has only tried to
produce motion.
(ii) A ball falling downwards can be easily caught by our hands. The motion of the ball has been
stopped.
(iii) The batsman hits the ball in different direction than the direction of incoming ball.
(iv) When you press the toothpaste tube, the shape of the toothpaste tube changes.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS

Force is an interaction between two objects. Force is exerted by an object A on another object
B. For any force you may ask two questions, (i) who exerted this force and (ii) on which
object was this force exerted? Thus, when a block is kept on a table, the table exerts a force
on the block to hold it.
Neeraj Toshniwal
AIR 23 , NSO

1.1 Classification of Forces

Forces may be classified into the following two classes:

1. Contact force 2. Action at a distance force

1.1.1 Contact Force

The force that involves a physical contact between two objects, one by which the force is exerted and the
other on which the force is being exerted is called contact force.
Pulling (stretching) of a coiled spring, pulling of a cart/pram and kicking of a football are some examples
of contact forces. The force exerted on us by the wind is also a contact force.

1.1.2 Action-at-a-Distance Force

The force which does not involve any physical contact between the two objects but acts through the space
between the two is called action-at-a-distance force.
The gravitational force, electrical force, and magnetic force are very common examples of action-at-a-
distance force.

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 Foundation for Physics 2.3

Resultant Force:

If a single force acting on a body produces the same acceleration as produced by a number of forces, that
single force is called the resultant of these individual forces.

Balanced and Unbalanced Forces:

If a set of forces acting on a body produces no acceleration in it, the forces are said to be balanced. If it
produces a nonzero acceleration, the forces are said to be unbalanced.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS

If the resultant of all the forces acting on a body is zero, the forces are called balanced forces.
A body under the action of balanced forces does not change its position of rest or of uniform
motion. Though balanced forces cannot produce motion in a stationary body or stop a
moving body, they can, however, change the shape of the body. An example is the squeezing
of a rubber ball or balloon.
Shivam Agarwal
AIR 3, NSO

2. Galileo’s Experiments

Experiment 1:

It was observed by Galileo that when a ball is rolled down on an inclined plane it speed increases, whereas
if it is rolled up an inclined plane its speed decreases. If it is rolled on a horizontal plane the result must
be between the cases describe above i.e. the speed should remain constant. In all the cases it is assumed
that all the surfaces are frictionless. It can be explained as shown in figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Galileo’s experiment with ball’s motion

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 2.4 Force and Laws of Motion

Experiment 2:

When a ball is released on the inner surface of a smooth hemisphere, it will move to the other side and
reach the same height before coming to rest momentarily. If the hemisphere is replaced by a surface
shown in figure 2.2(b) in order to reach the same height h ball will have to move a larger distance.

Figure 2.2: Ball reaching the same height in case (a) and (b) and in case (c) ball continues to move

If the other side is made horizontal, the ball will never stop because it will never be able to reach the same
height, it means its speeds will not decrease. It will have uniform velocity on the horizontal surface. Thus,
if unbalanced forces do not act on a body, the body will either remain at rest or will move with a uniform
velocity. It will remain un-accelerated.
Conclusion of Galileo’s Experiments:
(i) A body is at rest and no unbalanced forces act on it, it remains at rest.
(ii) A body is moving and no unbalanced forces act on it, it will continue to move at constant speed
in a fixed direction.
(iii) If unbalance forces act on a body the body will be accelerated. The idea was suggested by Galileo
and was later formulated into laws by Newton.

3. Newton’s First Law of Motion

We have learnt so far that:

(i) If a body is at rest and no unbalanced force acts on it, it remains at rest.
(ii) If a body is moving and no unbalanced force acts on it, it will continue to move at constant speed
in a fixed direction.
(iii) If an unbalanced force acts on a body, the body will be accelerated.
These facts are taken together from Galileo’s law of inertia and Newton’s first law of motion. The idea
was suggested by Galileo and was later formulated into a law by Newton. We can state Newton’s first law
of motion as follows:
Statement of Newton’s First Law of Motion: “A body at rest will remain at rest or in the state of
uniform motion unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.”
This law can also be stated as follows:

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 Foundation for Physics 2.5

A body remains un-accelerated if and only if, the resultant force on it is zero.
In such a case the body is said to be in equilibrium.

3.1 Inertia
Description:

It follows from first law of motion that in absence of any external force, a body continues to be in its state
of rest or of uniform motion along a straight line. In other words, the body cannot change by itself its
position of rest or of uniform motion.
The inability of the body to change by itself its states of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line is
called inertia. Newton’s first law of motion is also called law of inertia.

Inertia Depends upon Mass:

We know that it is difficult to move a heavier body than the lighter one. Similarly, it is difficult to stop a
moving heavier body than a lighter body moving with the same velocity. Thus, we conclude that mass of
the body is the measure of inertia, more the mass, more the inertia.

3.1.1 Types of Inertia

Inertia is of the three types:

(a) Inertia of Rest:
The tendency of the body to continue its state of
rest even when some external unbalanced force is
applied on it, is called the inertia of rest (figure 2.3).

Description:
Figure 2.3: Coin falling in the glass due to
(i) A person sitting in a bus falls backwards when the Inertia

bus suddenly starts. The reason is the lower part of his body begins to move along with the bus but
the upper part of his body tends to remain at rest due to inertia of rest.
(ii) We beat a carpet with a stick to remove dust particles. When the carpet is beaten, it is suddenly
set into motion. The dust particles tend to remain at rest due to inertia of rest and hence fall off.
(iii) When a branch of tree is shaken the fruits get separated from the tree due to inertia of rest.
(b) Inertia of Motion:
The tendency of the body to continue in its state of motion even when some unbalanced forces are
applied on it, is called the inertia of motion.

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 2.6 Force and Laws of Motion

Description:

(i) A man carelessly getting down a moving bus falls

forward, the reason being that his feet come to
rest suddenly, whereas the upper part of his body
retains the forward motion. (See figure 2.4)
(ii) An athlete runs a certain distance before taking a
leap so that the inertia of motion of his body at
the time of leaping may help him in his muscular
efforts.
Figure 2.4: Man has the inertia to move
(iii)  We remove snow or mud from our shoes by
forward
striking them against wall. On striking the wall,
the feet comes to rest whereas the snow which is still in motion separates from the shoes.
(c) Inertia of Direction:
The tendency of a body to oppose any change in its direction of motion is known as inertia of
direction.
(i) If a car takes a turn along a curved track, the passengers experience a force acting away from the
centre of the curved track. This is the result of tendency of the passenger to continue moving along
a straight path.
(ii) Tie a stone to one end of a string and holding the other end of the string in hand rotate the stone
in a horizontal circle. If during rotation, the string breaks at certain stage, the stone is found to fly
off tangentially at that point of the circle.
(iii) The water drops sticking to cycle’s tyre are found to fly off tangentially.
(iv) The sparks produced during sharpening of a knife or a razor against a grinding wheel, leave the
rim of the wheel tangentially (figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5: Rotating bodies tend to go tangentially due to inertia

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 Foundation for Physics 2.7

3.2 Definition of Force from First Law of Motion

Description:

According to first law of motion, if there is no force, there is no change in state of rest or of uniform
motion. In other words, if a force is applied, it may change the state of rest or of uniform motion. If the
force is not sufficient, it may not produce a change but only try to do so.
Hence force is that physical quantity which changes or tries to change the state of rest or of uniform
motion of a body in straight line.

4. Momentum

Suppose we throw a cricket ball and a tennis ball, both with the same speed or velocity. It will be found
that more force is required to stop the cricket ball which has more mass and less force is required to stop
the tennis ball (which has less mass). And if we throw two cricket balls of same mass but with different
speed or velocity. It will be found that more force is required to stop the ball having more velocity
as compared to the ball with less velocity. We conclude that there must be a physical quantity which
depends on the mass of the body as well as on the velocity of the body. That physical quantity which
depends upon mass and velocity is called momentum. Thus, momentum is a measure of the quantity of
motion of a body.
Thus, momentum = mass × velocity
→ →
p = mv
→ 
Where p = momentum m = mass of the body v = velocity of the body

Momentum is a vector quantity, and its direction is same as the direction of velocity. Its S.I. unit is
kilogram - meter per second or kg - m/s.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS

Momentum is considered to be a measure of the quantity of motion of a moving body.

Though a cricket ball is not very heavy but when it is thrown with a high speed (or high
velocity), it acquires a very large momentum and sometimes hurts the batsman. On the other
hand, a car or bus may not be running at a high speed but because of its high mass, it has a
very high momentum which may hurt the person coming in its way.
Neeraj Toshniwal
AIR 23 , NSO

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 2.8 Force and Laws of Motion

Two variables, mass and velocity, help describe many of the different interactions we observe.
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object. The unit of mass is the kilogram.
Unlike weight, mass does not depend on the interaction of an object with a planet; mass is
the same everywhere. Mass and velocity are combined in our perceptions of interactions. We
use the concept of momentum to describe this combination. Momentum, defined as the
product of mass and velocity, is a vector quantity whose direction is the same as the direction
of the velocity.
Anand K
AIR 1, NSO 2011

5. Newton’s Second Law of Motion

It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force and
takes place in the same direction as the force.
Suppose the velocity of a body of mass m changes from u to v in time t. The magnitude of initial and final
momentum of the body will be p1 = mu and p2 = mv respectively. The change in momentum (P2 – P1),
takes place in time t. Then according to law

p2 − p1 m(v − u)
F∝ or F=k  ... (i)
t t
v −u
Now is the rate of change of velocity, which is acceleration ‘a’, so we have
t

F= k × ma  ... (ii)
We choose the units of force in such a manner that the value of k = 1. So that
F = ma  ... (iii)
Therefore, Newton’s second law of motion can also be stated as follows:

Another Form of Second Law:

The force acting on a body is directly proportional to the product of the “mass” of the body and the
“acceleration” produced in the body by the action of the force, and it acts in the direction of the
acceleration.
Force = mass × acceleration
or F= k × ma , where k is a constant
The value of k in S.I. unit is 1.

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 Foundation for Physics 2.9

So the above equation becomes: F = ma or Force = mass × acceleration

F
So from the above equation, the acceleration produced on the body is given by a =
m

5.1 Units of Force

(a) In C.G.S. System:

∴ F = ma → gm × cm/s2 = Dyne
Definition of one dyne:
If m = 1 gm, a = 1 cm/s2, then F = 1 dyne.
When a force is applied on a body of mass 1 gram and the acceleration produced in the body is 1 cm/s2,
then the force acting on the body will be one dyne.
(b) In S.I. System:
F = ma → kg × m/s2 = Newton
Definition of one Newton:
If m = 1 kg and a = 1 m/s2 then by, F = ma
F = 1 × 1 = 1 kg m/s2 = 1 N.
If a force is applied on a body of a mass 1 kg and acceleration produced in the body is 1 m/s2, then the
force acting on the body will be one Newton.
Other units:
There are two other units of force called gravitational units.
(c) Kilogram Force (kgf ):
Kilogram force (kgf ) or Kilogram weight (kg. wt.) is force with which a mass of 1 kg is attracted by the
earth towards its centre.
1 kgf = 9.8 N
(d) Gram Force (gf ):
Gram force or gram weight is the force with which a mass of 1 gram is attracted by the earth towards its
centre.
1 gf = 981 dyne
Relation between the units newton and dyne:
We know:
1 N = 1kg × 1 ms-2
or 1 N = 1000 g × 100 cms-2

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 2.10 Force and Laws of Motion

or 1 N = 105 g cms-2
= 105 dyne
∴ 1 N = 105 dyne

5.2 First Law of Motion by Second Law of Motion

Description:

According to first law of motion, if there is no net force, there is no change in state of rest or of uniform
motion. In other words, if a force is applied, it may change the state of rest or of uniform motion. If
the force is not sufficient, if may not produce a change but only try to do so. Hence, force is that which
changes or tries to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body in straight line.
Hence, we get the definition of force from Newton’s first law of motion.
Newton’s first law of motion can be deduced from Newton’s second law of motion.
According to second law of motion,
F = ma
If F = 0, then a = 0
Since m ≠ 0
v −u
So,
= a = 0
t

or mv = mu
or v-u=0
or v=u
or v = u [after more time]
Which means that the velocity of the body cannot change in absence of external force. If the body is
initially at rest i.e., if u = 0, v = 0 and if u = 5 ms-1, v = 5ms-1, etc.
Thus, it follows that a body will continue to be in the state of rest or of uniform motion along a straight
line if no external force acts on it and this is the first law. Thus, first law can be deduced from second law
of motion.

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 Foundation for Physics 2.11

PLANCESS CONCEPTS

We use the concept of net force to describe situations in which more than one force act.
The net force acting on an object is the vector sum of all forces acting on it. When the mass
of the object remains constant, the net force acting on it is the product of its mass and its
acceleration: Fnet =ma. This relationship is known as Newton’s second law.
When the net force acting on an object is zero, the object experiences no acceleration. It
either remains stationary or continues to move at a constant velocity. When the net force is
not zero, the object accelerates.
Neeraj Toshniwal
AIR 23 , NSO

Illustration 1: A body of mass 2 kg, under action of force F1 moves with acceleration of 2.5 ms-2.
Another body of mass 5 kg moves with acceleration of 2 ms-2 under action of force F2. Find the
F2
ratio .
F1

Solution: According to newton’s second law of motion, F = ma

For first body, F1 = 2 × 2.5 = 5N
For second body F2 = 5 × 2 = 10N
F
2 10
So, = = 2.
F1 5

Illustration 2: A force of 20N acting on a mass m1 produces an acceleration of 4 ms-2. The same force is
applied on mass m2 then the acceleration produced is 0.5 ms-2. What acceleration would the same force
produce, when both masses are tied together?
Solution: For mass m1: F = 20N, a = 4 ms-2
F 20
Then m1= = = 5kg
a 4

For mass m2: F = 20N, a = 0.5 ms-2

F 20
Then m2= = = 40kg
a 0.5

When m1 and m2 are tied together:

F 20
Total mass = m1 + m2 = 45 kg, F = 20N, then=
a = = 0.44ms −2
(m1 + m2 ) 45

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 2.12 Force and Laws of Motion

Illustration 3: The same force acts on two masses A and B separately, producing acceleration of 20 m/s2
and 15 m/s2 respectively. Find the ratio of their masses.
Solution: Applying Newton’s second law of motion for same force acting on both the bodies,
F = m1a1 = m2a2 . . . (1)
From equation (1) taking ration of the masses on L.H.S we get
m1 a2 15 m 3
= = ⇒ 1 =
m2 a1 20 m2 4

Illustration 4: A mass of 2 kg at rest travels for 4 sec with an acceleration of 1.5 m/s2. What is the gain
in momentum?
Solution: Gain of momentum = final momentum – initial momentum
Using kinematical equation to find out final velocity, we get v = u + at = 0 + (1.5 × 4) = 6 m/s
Final momentum = m × v = 2 × 6 kg m/s = 12 kg m/s
As initial velocity u = 0 m/s, therefore initial momentum = m × u = 2 × 0 = 0
∴ Gain in momentum = (12 – 0) = 12 kg m/s.
Illustration 5: A constant retarding force of 50 N is applied to a body of mass 20 kg moving initially
with a speed of 15 m/s. How long does the body take to stop?
mv − mu
Solution: We know F =  . . . (i)
t

Given F = – 50 N
Initial momentum,
mu = 20 × 15 = 300 kg m/s.
Final momentum, mv = 20 × 0 = 0
We want to find the time, t taken by the body to come at rest.
0 − 300
∴Putting the values in equation (i) we get, − 50 = ⇒ t = 6 second
t

Illustration 6: A force of 0.04 N acts upon a body, as a result, the speed of the body changes from 0.30
m/s to 0.10 m/s, in passing through a certain distance. Find the distance if the mass of the body is one
kilogram?
Solution: Since velocity is decreasing under action of retarding force.
F = – 0.04 N, m = 1 kg, v = 0.10 m/s, u = 0.30 m/s
From the formula F = ma ⇒ – 0.04 = 1 × a ⇒ a = – 0.04 m/s2

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 Foundation for Physics 2.13

Using kinematical equation v2 = u2 + 2as to find distance we get ⇒ (0.1)2 = (0.3)2 – 2 × .04 × s
⇒s=1m
Illustration 7: The speed time graph of a car is shown in figure. The
car weighs 1000 kg.
(i) What is the distance travelled by the car in the first two seconds?
(ii) What is the breaking force applied at the end of 5 seconds to
bring the car to a stop within one second?
Solution: (i) Distance travelled in first two seconds
= Area under the line OA and the time axis
1 1
=× Base × height = × 2 × 15 = 15 m
2 2

(ii) To find breaking force, we first need to find acceleration and make use of F = ma
0 − 15 15
∴ Acceleration in last one second = slope of line BC = = −
6 −5 1

a = – 15 m/s2
Negative acceleration indicates retardation
So required retarding force, F
F = ma = 1000 × (– 15) ⇒ F = – 15000 N

6. Impulse of Force

(a) Introduction:
In previous section, we learnt that a moving body has momentum and that an effect (a force) is needed
to stop it. It is our common experience that a smaller force takes more time to stop the body whereas a
bigger force does the same in lesser time. This observation gives concept of a new quantity, force × time,
which is named as impulse.
(b) Definition:
The product of the magnitude of a force applied on a body and the time for which it is applied, is called
impulse of the force. It is represented by the symbol (I).
i.e., Impulse = Force × Time
or I = F. t
The S.I. unit of impulse is Newton-second (N-s) and the C.G.S unit is dyne - second (dyne-s)
(c) Impulse and Momentum:

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 2.14 Force and Laws of Motion

From Newton’s second law of motion

p2 − p1
Force, F = or = p2 − p1
F.t
t

i.e., Impulse = Change in momentum

This relation is called impulse equation or momentum-impulse theorem. It has an important application
in our everyday life.

6.1 Applications of Impulse Equation in Daily Life

(i) Catching the ball by a cricketer:

When the player catches fast moving cricket ball, he moves his hand in backward direction. By
moving his hands, the cricketer increases the time of contact with the ball. As a result he has to
apply a small force on the ball. In reaction, the ball also applies lesser force and the hands of the
player are not injured (Figure 2.6).
(ii) Jumping on heap of sand:

Figure 2.6: Cricketers catching the ball

When someone jumps on heap of sand from small height, his feet move inside the sand very
slowly. His momentum changes slowly requiring a lesser force of action from the sand. As a
result, the man is not injured.
(iii) Jumping down of a passenger from a moving train or bus:
Refer to figure 2.4. A passenger sitting in a moving train or bus has momentum. When the
passenger jumps down on platform or road, his momentum becomes zero after some time.
If he jumps down suddenly from the moving train or bus and tries to stand on his feet, his body
will fall forward due to inertia of motion. He will be injured.
He is advised to run over some distance on the platform or road along with (in direction of) the
train or bus. This will slow down his rate of change of momentum and lesser force will be involved.

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 Foundation for Physics 2.15

(iv) Springs in vehicles:

The vehicles are fitted with springs to reduce the hardness of the shock. When vehicles move over
an uneven road, they experience impulses exerted by the road. The springs increase the duration
of impulse and hence reduce the force.
(v) Springs in seats:
The seats are also fitted with springs to reduce their hardness. When we sit on them all of a
sudden, the seats are compressed. The compression increases duration of our coming to rest on
the seat. The reaction force of seats becomes negligible.
(vi) Soft material packing:
Crockery and glass-wares are packed with soft material when transported. While transporting
these goods they may collide with each other and get damaged. The soft-packaging reduces the
impact of collision by reducing the rate of change of momentum of these goods. As the force of
impact is reduced, the items are not broken.
(vii) Athletes:
Athletes are advised to come to stop slowly after finishing a fast race. In general, all changes of
momentum must be brought slowly to involve lesser force of action and reaction to avoid injury.

6.2 Impulse during an Impact or Collision

The impulsive force acting on the body produces a change in momentum of the body on which it acts.
We know, Ft = mv - mu, therefore maximum force needed to produce a given impulse depends upon
time. If time is short, the force required for a given impulse has to be large and vice-versa.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS

In an interaction of two bodies A and B, the magnitude of action (i.e., the force FAB applied
by the body B on the body A) is equal in magnitude to the reaction (i.e., the force FBA applied
by the body A on the body B), but they are in directions opposite to each other.
Vipul Singh
AIR 1, NTSE 2009

7. Newton’s Third Law of Motion

(a) Introduction:
When a force is applied to stop a moving body, we ourselves experience some force from the body being
stopped. When a cricketer used his hands to stop a moving ball, his hands also experience some force
from the ball and sometimes the force is unbearable. When we jump on a cemented road from some
height, our feet get injured by the impact of the road.

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 2.16 Force and Laws of Motion

From above examples we find that whenever one body exerts a force on another body, the second body
exerts an equal and opposite force on the first body. The force exerted by the first body on the second
body is called ‘action’ and the force exerted by the second body on the first body is called ‘reaction’.
(b) Statement:
The law states that “To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”. Moreover, action and
reaction act on different bodies.
(c) Demonstration:
Two similar spring balances A and B are joined by hook as shown in the figure 2.7. The other end of the
spring balance B is attached to a hook rigidly fixed in a rigid wall.

Spring balance Wall

A B
0 10 20 30 40 50 50 40 30 20 10 0
Hook

20 N 20 N
Action Reaction

Figure 2.7: Demonstration - Newton’s third law of motion

The other end of the spring balance A is pulled out to the left. Both the balances show the same reading
(20 N) for the force.
The pulled balance A exerts a force of 20N on the balance B. It acts as action, B pulls the balance A in
opposite direction with a force of 20 N. This force is known as reaction.
We conclude that action-reaction forces are equal and opposite and act on two different bodies.
(d) Explanation:
If may be noted that action and reaction occur simultaneously. Action and reaction never act on same
body. Had this been the case, there would have been no (accelerated) motion. Since action and reaction
occur in pairs and act on two different bodies, it is impossible to have single isolated force.
Some example of action and reaction forces:
(i) Swimming of a man: The man swims because he pushes water behind (action), water pushes man
forward (reaction). Man

(ii) Walking of man: Man pushes the earth behind from his foot
(action). Earth pushes the man forward (reaction). As a result the
Reaction
man walks in the forward direction (figure 2.8).
(iii)  Flight of jet or rocket: The burnt gases exhausted from the tail
Earth
of rocket are moving with backward momentum (action). The
exhausted gases impart forward momentum (reaction) on the jet Action Walking man
or rocket. As a result, jet or rocket moves.
Figure 2.8: Walking man

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 Foundation for Physics 2.17

(iv) Gun and bullet: When the gun’s trigger is pressed, the powder inside cartridge explodes. A force
of action acts on the bullet and makes the light bullet come out of the barrel with a high velocity.
The heavy gun moves behind (recoils) with a small velocity due to force of reaction. This is also
an example of law of conservation of linear momentum.
(v) Man and boat: A man on boat is near river bank at rest. To reach the bank, the man pushes the
boat behind (action), the boat pushes the man forward (reaction). The man lands on the bank.

7.1 No Action is Possible without Reaction

Examples:
(i) A nail cannot be fixed on a suspended wooden ball.
(ii) A paper cannot be cut by scissors of single blade.
(iii) A hanging piece of paper cannot be cut by blade.
(iv) Writing on a hanging page is impossible.
(v) Hitting on a piece of sponge does not produce reaction. You do not enjoy hitting.

7.2 Action and Reaction are not Balanced

Action and reaction, though equal and opposite are not balanced
because they act on two different bodies. In case when they act on
two different bodies forming a single system, they become balanced
(figure 2.9).
Figure 2.9: Unbalanced action –
reaction pair
7.3 Interaction between Bodies at a Distance

We have until now considered examples where the two bodies are in direct contact with each other, but
interaction takes place even when the two bodies are not in actual contact with each other. For example,
a comb rubbed with dry hair can attract small pieces of paper from a distance. Similarly a magnet can
attract an iron piece from a distance. Interaction between a falling stone and the earth also takes place,
although these are not in actual contact with each other. Thus when one body influences another body
by applying force with or without contact, we say that the first body is interacting with the second body.

7.4 Any Pair of Equal and Opposite Forces

is not an Action - Reaction Pair

Consider a book kept on a table (figure 2.10). We have seen

that the table pushes the book in the upward direction. Then
why does not the book fly up? It does not fly up because there
is another force on the book pulling it down. This is the force Figure 2.10: Forces equal but not
action – reaction pair

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 2.18 Force and Laws of Motion

exerted by the earth on the book, which we call the weight of the book. So, there are two forces on the
book - the normal force N acting upwards by the table, and the force W acting downwards, applied
by the earth. As the book does not accelerate, we conclude that these two forces are balanced. In other
words, they are equal in magnitudes but opposite direction.
Can we call N as the action and W, the reaction? We cannot. This is because, although they are equal and
opposite, they are not forces applied by two bodies on each other. The force N is applied by the table on
the book, its reaction will be the force applied by the book on the table. Weight W is the force applied
by the earth on the book, its reaction will be the force applied by the book on the earth.
So, although N and W are equal and opposite, they do not form an action – reaction pair.

8. Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum

By Newton’s second law, the rate of change of momentum is equal to the applied force.
Change in momentum
= Force
time

Change is momentum = F × t
If F = 0 then, change is momentum = 0
If the force applied on the body is zero then its momentum will be conserved. This is the law of
conservation of linear momentum and is applicable on the system. If in a system the momentum of the
objects present are P1 , P2, P3 ........... and external force on the system is zero, then -
P1 + P2 + P3 + .............. = Constant
NOTE: If only internal forces are acting on the system then its linear momentum will be conserved.

8.1 The Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum by Third Law of Motion

Suppose A and B are two objects of masses m1 and m2 and moving in the same direction with velocity u1
and u2 respectively (u1 > u2). Suppose the two balls collide with each other head-on and their collision
lasts for t seconds. After time t both move in their original direction with velocity v1 and v2 respectively.
The change in momentum of object A = m1v1 - m1u1
Change in momentum
The force on A by B is F1 =
time

m1 v1 − m1u1
F1 = ……. (1)
t
m m
The change is momentum of object B = m2v2 - m2u2
u u
Before collision (u >u )

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 Foundation for Physics 2.19

The force on B by A is

F2 = Change in momentum = m2v 2 − m2u2  …….(2)

time t

By Newton’s third law, F1 = - F2

m1 v1 − m1u1  m v − m2u2 
− 2 2
=  ⇒ m1v1 − m1u1 =
−m2v 2 + m2u2
t  t 

or m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

or Initial momentum = Final momentum

8.2 Some Illustration on Conservation of Momentum

(a) Recoil of Gun

A loaded gun (rifle) having bullet inside it M
v m V
forming one system is initially at rest. The
system has zero initial momentum. Bullet
Gun
T
When the trigger (T) is pressed, the bullet
is fired due to internal force of explosion of powder in Figure 2.11: Recoil of gun
cartridge inside (figure 2.11).
The bullet moves forward with a high velocity and the gun move behind (recoils) with a lesser velocity.
Let the bullet and the gun have masses m and M respectively. Let the bullet move forward with velocity
v and the gun recoils with velocity V.
Then final momentum of the gun and bullet is MV + mv
By the law of conservation of momentum:
Initial momentum of the system = Final momentum of the system.
mv
0 = MV + mv or V = −
M

mv mv
Hence the recoil speed of gun = and the velocity of the gun is = −
M M

(b) Flight of Jet Rocket:

Jet planes and rockets are provided with chemical fuels. Combustion of these fuels produces a high
velocity blast of hot gases. These gases move outward and escape through nozzle (a narrow opening) with
very high velocity and large momentum (they escape horizontally backward in case of jet planes and
vertically downwards in case of rocket). The escaping gases impart their momentum to the jet plane and
the rocket. They move forward or upward with a high velocity.

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 2.20 Force and Laws of Motion

In general, all cases involving action and reaction, are examples of law of conservation of momentum.
Action and reaction being equal and acting simultaneously for same duration, have equal and opposite
impulses. They produce equal and opposite changes of momentum in the pair of bodies involved. It
keeps the total momentum of the two body system constant (conserved).
Illustration 8: A field gun of mass 2 ton fires a shell of mass 15 kg with a velocity of 150 m/s. Calculate
the velocity of the recoil of the gun.
Solution: Mass of gun = 2 ton = 2 × 1000 kg = 1500 kg
According to given data:
Mass of shell = 15 kg
Velocity of shell = 150 m/s.
We want to find recoil velocity of the gun V
∴ We need to use law of conservation of linear momentum.
Momentum of gun = Mass of gun × velocity of recoil of the gun = 2000 V kg m/s
Momentum of shell = Mass of shell × velocity of shell = 15 × 10 kg m/s.
Momentum of gun = Momentum of shell
15 × 150
2000 V = 15 × 150 or V= = 1.125m / s.
2000

The recoil velocity of gun = 1.125 m/sec.

Illustration 9: A man weighing 45 kg is standing and fires a bullet of 100 gram with a velocity of 500
ms-1 by a gun of 5 kg. Find the recoil velocity of the man.
Solution: The initial momentum of the system, P1 = Momentum of man + momentum of gun +
momentum of bullet
or P1 = 45 × 0 + 5 × 0 + 0.1 × 0 = 0 ........... (1)
Final momentum of the system, P2 = Momentum of man + Momentum of gun + momentum of bullet
P2 = 45 V + 5 V + 0.1 × 500 (Here V is the recoil velocity of gun with man).
P2 = 50 V + 50. .…....... (2)
By the law of conservation of momentum
P1 = P2
0 = 50 V + 50 or V = -1 m/s.
The recoil velocity of man with gun is 1 m/s.

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