JAWAHAR NAVODAYA VIDYALAYA,BULDANA

CHAPTER :- LAWS OF MOTION

CLASS-XI PREPARED BY-V.N.KHAIRNAR

PGT-PHYSICS
JNV BULDANA
 CHAPTER LAWS OF MOTION
TOPICS COVERED
Concept map
Aristotle’s Fallacy
Newton’s first law of motion
Momentum
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Impulse
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
Horse cart problem
Newton’s Second Law as the Real law
Apparent weight of a man in lift
Law of Conservation of Momentum
Equilibrium of Concurrent Forces
Friction : Static, Kinetic
Friction is a Necessary Evil

Centripetal force
Motion of a Cyclist on a levelled circular road

Motion of a car on levelled circular road

Motion of a car on banked circular road

Pulling and pushing a lawn roller

Numericals
Objective type of questions
 GALILEO EXPERIMENT

EFFECT OF CAUSE OF
FORCE FORCE FORCE

Newton’s Laws of Motion Friction

Tension
Gravitation
Inertia Electromagnetic
force

Momentum Third Law of

Motion
First Law of
Motion Friction

Second Law of Motion

Second Law is Real

Law

Applications Free Body

Diagram

Laws of Friction Types of friction Friction is

necessary evil
Aristotle’s Fallacy
Aristotelian law of motion states that “an external force is required to keep
a body in motion”.
It was proved wrong by Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.
Galileo’s observations

A ball released from rest on one plane rolls down and climbs up the other.
In the absence of friction, the heights of the ball on both the planes are the
same (ideal condition).
In practical situation, the height on the second plane is always a little less
but never greater.
 Case-1
A ball released from
rest in case-1 reaches
the same height on the
other side (in the
absence of friction).

Case-2
The ball reaches the
same height on the other
side (in the absence of
friction) but travels
longer distance.
Case-3
The ball rolls down and continues to move in the horizontal
direction through infinite distance (in the absence of friction).

Contents
Galileo arrived to a new conclusion that
“the state of rest and the state of uniform linear motion are equivalent”.
In both the cases, there is no net force acting on the body.
Therefore, there is no need to apply an external force to keep a body in
uniform motion.

In practice we need to apply external force only to encounter the frictional or

any other force, so that the forces sum up to zero net external force.

To summarise, if the net external force is zero, a body continues to remain at

rest and a body in uniform motion continues to move with uniform velocity.

Contents
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
Every body continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line unless and until compelled by an external force to change its
state of rest or of uniform motion.

In simple words, if the net external force on a body is zero, its acceleration is
zero. Or, acceleration can be non-zero only if there is a net external force on
the body.
Reaction (R)
(Exerted by the table)

Since the block is at rest,

the normal reaction R must
be equal and opposite to its
weight W.

Weight (W)
(Force of gravity)
 F
The block remains at rest…..

unless and until it is acted

upon by an external force.

The ball continues to be in unless and until it is acted

uniform motion…… upon by an external force.
 INTERTIA

Inertia is the intrinsic property of a body due to which it resists a change in its
state of rest or of uniform motion.

Inertia means ‘resistance to change of state’.

Law of Inertia:

A body does not change its state of rest or of uniform motion, unless an
external force compels to change its state.

Inertia can be of the following types , viz. inertia of rest, inertia of motion and
inertia of direction.
Inertia cannot be measured individually however, it can be compared for
different objects. Mass is a measure of the inertia of a body.
Heavier objects have greater inertia and lighter objects have less inertia.
Eg. 1. An iron ball has more inertia than a plastic ball of same size.
2. A cricket ball has more inertia than a lawn tennis ball of the same size.
Inertia of Rest
An object at rest tends to remain at rest unless an external
force is applied on it to change its state.

Illustration 1

On a carom board when the lower most coin is stroked the upper
coins tend to remain at rest.
Examples of Inertia of rest:
 1. will a horse suddenly starts running the rider Falls
backward
 2. when we shake the branch of a tree its fruit and dry
leaves fall down.
 3. coin Falls into the tumbler of glass when the card is
given a sudden jerk.
Inertia of Motion
An object in uniform motion tends to remain in motion unless an
external force is applied on it to change its state.

More Examples of inertia of motion:

1. When a horse running fast suddenly stops the rider falls forward.
2. A person getting out of a moving bus or train falls in forward direction.
3. A rotating fan continues to do so for some more time even after the current is
switched off.
4. An simple pendulum bob does not halt at the mean position but continues to move
further when it is set into oscillations.
5. It is dangerous to jump out of a moving bus because the jumping man’s body is in
the state of inertia of motion but the legs are suddenly stopped by the ground and
hence he topples down. That is why a person has to run along for a while when
he/she gets down of a moving train or bus.
6. A passenger in a bus jerks forward when the bus stops suddenly because the
passenger tends to be in inertia of motion whereas the bus suddenly comes to
rest.
7. An athelete runs for a certain distance before taking a long jump. The inertia of
motion gained by him at the time of jumping gets added to his muscular effort and
helps him to take a longer jump.
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Inertia of Direction
An object moving in certain direction is unable to change the direction
unless an external force is applied to change its direction of motion

More Examples of inertia of direction:

1. Consider a stone being rotated in a circle at the end of a string. The velocity of the
stone at any instant is along the tangent to the circle. When the string is released,
the centripetal force whirling the stone vanishes. Due to directional inertia, the
stone flies off tangentially.
2. During the sharpening of knife, the sparks coming from the grind stone fly off
tangentially to the rim of the rotating stone.
3. When a vehicle moves, the mud sticking to its wheels flies of tangentially.
4. When a tiger chases a deer , the deer runs along a zig zag path. It becomes difficult
for the tiger to catch the deer. This is because the tiger has more mass and hence
has more inertia of direction than that of deer.
MOMENTUM
Momentum is the quantity of motion in a body and it depends on its mass
and velocity.
It is defined as the product of its mass and velocity.
i.e. Momentum = mass x velocity or p=mxv

 Momentum is directly proportional to mass.

If a cricket ball and a tennis ball move with same velocity, momentum of
cricket ball is more because its mass is larger than that of the tennis ball.
 Momentum is directly proportional to velocity.
If two cricket balls move with different velocities, then the momentum of
the ball with greater velocity possesses more momentum.
 If a body is at rest, its velocity is zero and hence its momentum is zero.
 But, every moving body possesses momentum.
 Momentum is a vector quantity.
 SI unit of momentum is kg m/s or kg ms-1.
 CGS unit of momentum is g cm/s or g cms-1.
Importance of Momentum for considering the effect of force on motion:
Eg.
1. Suppose a light vehicle (say a car) and a heavy vehicle (say a truck) are
parked on the horizontal road. A greater force is required to push the
truck than the car to bring them to the same speed in same time.
Similarly, a greater opposing force is required to stop the truck than the
car, if they are moving with the same speed.
2. A bullet fired by a gun can easily pierce human tissue before it stops,
resulting in casualty.
The same bullet with moderate speed will not cause much damage.
Thus, for a given mass, the greater the speed, the greater is the opposing
force needed to stop the body in a certain time.

The same force for the same time causes the same change in momentum
in different bodies.

The force not only depends on the change in momentum, but also on how
fast the change is brought. The greater the rate of change of momentum,
the greater is the force.
The above examples do not
indicate that momentum is a
vector.
The following example shows that
momentum is a vector.

Suppose a stone is whirled with

uniform speed in a horizontal
circle by means of a string.
The magnitude of momentum is
constant but its direction keeps
changing continuously.

A force is needed to change this

momentum vector.
This force is provided by hand through
the string and it is also felt by the hand.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
Change in momentum
Force α
Time taken
If force F changes the velocity of a body of mass m from v to v + Δv, then its
initial momentum p = mv will change by Δp = m Δv.
According to Newton’s Second Law,
d
F=k (mv)
Δp dt
Fα
Δt dv
F=km
Δp dt
or F=k
Δt
F=kma
where k is a constant
If force of 1 N applied on a body of mass 1
of proportionality.
kg produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 on
lim Δp the body, then 1 = k x 1 x 1 or k=1
or F=k
Δt→0 Δt
F= ma
dp
or F=k
dt Force = mass x acceleration
Previous
 F
Acceleration a =
m

The acceleration produced in a body is directly proportional to the force

acting on it and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.

 Force is a vector quantity.

 Force can cause acceleration or deceleration.
Eg.: Accelerator of a car accelerates it and brakes decelerate it.
 SI unit of force is ‘newton’.
 One ‘newton’ is defined as that force which when acting on a body of
mass 1 kg produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 in it.

Place an 100 g on your outstretched palm. The force you feel is nearly 1
newton !
Some important points about Second Law
1. In the Second Law, F = 0 implies a = 0. This is obviously consistent with
the First Law.
2. The Second Law is a vector law. It is equivalent to three equations, one
for each component of the vectors:

dpx
Fx = = max
dt
dpy
Fy = = may
dt
dpz
Fz = = maz
dt
This means that if a force is not parallel to the velocity of the body, but
makes some angle with it, it changes only the component of velocity
along the direction of force.
The component of velocity normal to the force remains unchanged.
For e.g. in the motion of a projectile under the vertical gravitational force,
the horizontal component of velocity remains unchanged.
 dp
3. The equation F = = m a is applicable to a single point particle.
dt
However, it is same for a rigid body or, even more generally, to a system
of particles. In this case, m refers to the mass of rigid body or total
mass of the system of the particles and a refers to the acceleration of
the centre of mass of the system. Any internal forces in the system are
not to be included in F.

4. The Second Law is a local relation which means that force F at a point in
space at a certain instant of time is related to a at that point at that
instant. Acceleration here and now is determined by the force here and
now, not by any history of the motion of the particle.
IMPULSE
When a ball hits a wall and bounces back, the force on the ball by the wall
acts for a very short time when the two are in contact, yet the force is large
enough to reverse the momentum on the ball.
Mathematically , the product of force and time, which is the change in
momentum is a measurable quantity. This product is called ‘impulse’.

Impulse = Force x time duration

= Change in momentum

j=Ft

A large force acting for a short time to produce change in momentum is

called ‘impulsive force’.
 Practical Applications of Concept of Impulse

1. A high jumping or long jumping athlete is provided either a cushion or a

heap of sand on the ground to fall upon.
The cushion or sand helps to increase the time in which the momentum
comes to zero. This decreases the rate of change of momentum and
hence the force. So, the athlete does not get hurt.
2. Packing materials like thermocoal, corrugated sheets, bubbled plastic
sheet, straw, paper strands, etc. are used while packing glassware,
chinaware, electronic devices, etc.
These materials help to increase the time in which the momentum
comes to zero when jolting and jerking take place. This decreases the
rate of change of momentum and hence the force. So, the articles do
not get broken.
3. Vehicles are provided with shock absorbers (shockers) : When a vehicle
moves on an uneven road, it receives jerks. The shocker increases the
time of jerk and hence reduces the force. This makes journey comfortable.
4. Shock absorbers are provided in vehicles to allow more time during the
bumps and jerks.
5. A seasoned cricket player stops the ball (catches) by drawing his hands
along the direction of motion of the ball thus by allowing more time and to
apply less force.

A fast moving cricket ball has a large momentum.

In stopping the cricket ball, its momentum has to be reduced to zero.
When a player moves his hands back, the time taken to stop the ball
increases and hence the rate of change of momentum decreases.
i.e. the force exerted by the ball on the hands decreases.
So, the hands of the player do not get hurt.
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.

If we take two objects A and B interacting with each other then the body A
exerts a force(action) on body B and body B exerts an equal an opposite
force (reaction) on body A.

FAB = - FBA

Note:
• Action and reaction are just forces. THEY NEVER CANCEL EACH OTHER.
• The forces always occur in pairs.
• Action and reaction do not act on the same body.
• Action and reaction act on different bodies but simultaneously. There is
no cause-effect relation as it is a misconception.
• Though action and reaction forces are equal in magnitude but they do not
produce equal acceleration in the two bodies (of different masses) on
which they act. Contents
Examples / Applications of Newton’s Third Law of motion

F F
Reaction Action
= 58 gwt = 58 gwt
60

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40

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20

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80
0

100

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60
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40

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0
0
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EXAMPLES BASED ON THIRD LAW OF
MOTION-
1. book kept on a table.
2. while walking we press the ground with our
feet slightly slanted in the backward direction.
3. while swimming a person pushes water with
his hands in the backward direction.
4. Rotary lawn sprinkler.
IMPULSE MOMENTUM THEOREM

 Horse and cart problem

The horse pulls the cart by pushing the ground backward with
the feet with a force F making an angle  with horizontal.
R1 R2
R sin R

Cart T 
R cos

f f F 

W1 W2

The ground in turn exerts a force R on the horse is equal and

opposite to F . The reaction R can be resolved into two rectangular
components, i.e. R cos  and R sin , as shown in the figure.
 If R cos  > f, the cart will move forward i.e., to the right.
 Note that W1 weight of the cart is balanced by the reaction R1 of the ground on the
cart.
 The component R cos (=T) tends to move the cart to the right.
 Whether the cart moves or not depends upon the relative magnitudes of Rcos and
frictional force ‘f’ between the cart wheel and the ground.
 Similarly, weight W 2 of the horse is balanced by (R2 + R sin ) where R2 is the
reaction of the ground on the horse.
R sin R

Cart T 
R cos

f f F 

W1 W2
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

THIS LAW STATES THAT-The total momentum of an isolated system of

interacting particles is conserved.
OR
When two or more bodies act upon one another, their total momentum remains
constant provided no external forces are acting on them.
Newton’s Second Law as the Real Law

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Derivation of Law of Conservation of Momentum by Newtons Second law of Motion

Suppose a big and a small car move in the same direction with different
velocities.
Let the mass of the bigger car be ‘m1’ and its initial velocity is ‘u1’.
Let the mass of the smaller car be ‘m2’ and its initial velocity is ‘u2’
such that u2 < u1.
Suppose both the cars collide for a short time ‘t’.
Due to the collision, the velocities will change.
Let the velocities after the collision be v1 and v2 respectively.

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Suppose that during collision, the bigger car exerts a force F 21 on the smaller
car and in turn, the smaller car exerts a force F12 on the bigger one.
When the force F21 acts on the smaller car, its velocity changes from u2 to v2.
F21 = m2a2
v2 – u2
F21 = m2
t
When the force F12 acts on the bigger car, its velocity changes from u 1 to v1.
F12 = m1a1
v1 – u1
F12 = m1
t
If the external force acting on the system is zero(isolated system) , then
F21 + F12 = 0
v2 – u2 v1 – u1
m2 m
+ 1 =0
Or t t
m2(v2 – u2) = - m1(v1 – u1)
m2v2 – m2u2 = m1u1 – m1v1
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2

Final momentum of the bigger car + Final momentum of the smaller car =
Initial momentum of the bigger car + Initial momentum of the smaller car
Total momentum after collision = Total momentum before collision
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Derivation of Law of Conservation of Momentum by Newton’s third law
mA FBA FAB mA mB
mB
vA vB vA’ vB’
m
Click
A to see the
mB collision…

Consider two bodies A and B of mass mA and mB moving with velocities vA and
vB respectively. Their initial momenta are pA and pB. Let the bodies collide, get
apart and move with final momenta pA’ and pB’ respectively.
By Newton’s Second Law, FAB Δt = pA’ - pA
and FBA Δt = pB’ - pB
where Δt is the common interval of time for which the bodies are in contact.
By Newton’s Third Law, F =-F AB BA

or FAB Δt = - FBA Δt

or pA’ - pA = - ( pB’ - pB)

i.e. pA’ + pB’ = pA + pB

The above equation shows that the total final momentum of the isolated
system equals its total initial momentum.
This is true for elastic as well as inelastic collision. Contents
COMMON FORCES IN MECHANICS
Gravitational Force:
The gravitational force is the force of mutual attraction between any two
objects by virtue of their masses.
Every object experiences this force due to every other object in the universe.

All objects on the earth, experience the force of gravity due to the earth.

In particular, gravity governs the motion of the moon and artificial satellites
around the earth, motion of the earth and planets around the sun, and, of
course, the motion of bodies falling to the earth.

It plays a key role in the large-scale phenomena of the universe, such

as formation and evolution of stars, galaxies and galactic clusters.
The gravitational force of attraction between two objects of masses m1 and
m2 held at a distance r apart is given by

m1 m2
F=G where G = Universal constant of gravitation.
r2
APPARENT WEIGHT OF A MAN IN AN ELEVATOR OR LIFT
Consider a man of mass m standing on a weighing machine
placed in a lift. The actual weight of the man is mg. it acts
vertically downwards. The weighing machine reads the
reaction R and which is the force experienced by the man. So
R is the apparent weight of the man.
(i) When the lift moves upwards with an acceleration ‘a’.
R – mg = ma
Therefore apparent weight, R = m(g+a)
So when the lift accelerates upwards , the apparent
weight of the man inside it increases.
(ii) When the lift moves downwards with
acceleration ‘a’
The net downward force on the man in
mg – R = ma
Therefore apparent weight , R = m(g – a )
So when the lift accelerates downwards, the apparent wieight
of the man inside it decreases.
(iii) When the lift is at rest or moving with uniform velocity v
downward/upward
The acceleration a = 0
Net force on the man is R – mg = m x 0 = 0
Hence apparent weight , R = mg
Thus apparent weight = actual weight

(iv) When the lift falls freely (a=g)

If the lift falls freely then the net downward force acting on the man is
R = m(g-g) = 0
Thus the apparent weight of the man becomes zero. Hence the person
develops a feeling of weightlessness when he falls freely under gravity.
Derivation of Law of Conservation of Momentum by Newtons Second law of Motion

Suppose a big and a small car move in the same direction with different
velocities.
Let the mass of the bigger car be ‘m1’ and its initial velocity is ‘u1’.
Let the mass of the smaller car be ‘m2’ and its initial velocity is ‘u2’
such that u2 < u1.
Suppose both the cars collide for a short time ‘t’.
Due to the collision, the velocities will change.
Let the velocities after the collision be v1 and v2 respectively.

Contents
Suppose that during collision, the bigger car exerts a force F 21 on the smaller
car and in turn, the smaller car exerts a force F12 on the bigger one.
When the force F21 acts on the smaller car, its velocity changes from u2 to v2.
F21 = m2a2
v2 – u2
F21 = m2
t
When the force F12 acts on the bigger car, its velocity changes from u 1 to v1.
F12 = m1a1
v1 – u1
F12 = m1
t
If the external force acting on the system is zero(isolated system) , then
F21 + F12 = 0
v2 – u2 v1 – u1
m2 m
+ 1 =0
Or t t
m2(v2 – u2) = - m1(v1 – u1)
m2v2 – m2u2 = m1u1 – m1v1
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2

Final momentum of the bigger car + Final momentum of the smaller car =
Initial momentum of the bigger car + Initial momentum of the smaller car
Total momentum after collision = Total momentum before collision
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 Vector Treatment
mA FBA FAB mA mB
mB
vA vB vA’ vB’
mA

Consider two bodies A and B of mass mA and mB moving with velocities vA and
vB respectively. Their initial momenta are pA and pB. Let the bodies collide, get
apart and move with final momenta pA’ and pB’ respectively.
By Newton’s Second Law, FAB Δt = pA’ - pA
and FBA Δt = pB’ - pB
where Δt is the common interval of time for which the bodies are in contact.
By Newton’s Third Law, F =-F AB BA

or FAB Δt = - FBA Δt

or pA’ - pA = - ( pB’ - pB)

i.e. pA’ + pB’ = pA + pB

The above equation shows that the total final momentum of the isolated
system equals its total initial momentum.
This is true for elastic as well as inelastic collision.
EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE
Equilibrium of a particle refers to the situation when the net external force on
the particle is zero.
Equilibrium of a particle requires not only translational equilibrium (zero net
external force) but also rotational equilibrium (zero net external torque).
According to Newton’s law, this means that, the particle is either at rest or in
uniform motion.
If two forces F1 and F2 act on a particle, equilibrium requires
F1 = - F2 F1 F2
i.e. the two forces must be equal and opposite.
or F1 + F 2 = 0
Equilibrium under three concurrent forces F1, F2 and F3 F1
requires that the vector sum of them is zero.
-F3
F1 + F 2 + F3 = 0 F2
F3
The resultant of two forces F1 and F2 obtained
by parallelogram law of forces must be equal F2
and opposite to the third force F3.
By triangle law of vectors, the three sides of the triangle F1
with arrows taken in the same order represent the F3
equilibrium of forces.
A particle is in equilibrium under the action of forces F 1, F2, …. Fn if they
can be represented by the sides of a closed n-sided polygon with arrows
directed in the same sense.
F1 P

O
F2
Q
F3

R
F1 + F2 + F3 = 0 implies that

F1x + F2x + F3x = 0

F1y + F2y + F3y = 0

F1z + F2z + F3z = 0

where F1x + F1y + F1z are the components of F1 along x, y and z directions,
F2x + F2y + F2z are the components of F2 along x, y and z directions
and F3x + F3y + F3z are the components of F3 along x, y and z directions
respectively.
COMMON FORCES IN MECHANICS
Gravitational Force:
The gravitational force is the force of mutual attraction between any two
objects by virtue of their masses.
Every object experiences this force due to every other object in the universe.

All objects on the earth, experience the force of gravity due to the earth.

In particular, gravity governs the motion of the moon and artificial satellites
around the earth, motion of the earth and planets around the sun, and, of
course, the motion of bodies falling to the earth.

It plays a key role in the large-scale phenomena of the universe, such

as formation and evolution of stars, galaxies and galactic clusters.
The gravitational force of attraction between two objects of masses m1 and
m2 held at a distance r apart is given by

m1 m2
F=G where G = Universal constant of gravitation.
r2
Some of the important properties of Gravitational forces:

(i) Gravitational force is a universal force.

(ii) It is pervasive.
(iii) It can act at a distance without intervening medium (non-contact
force).
(iv) It obeys inverse square law.
(v) It is always attractive in nature.
(vi) It is a long range force.
(vii) It is the weakest force operating in nature.
(viii) It is a conservative force.
Other Forces:
All other forces in mechanics are contact forces.
Contact force arises due to contact of one body with another (solid or fluid).
Contact forces are mutual forces (for each pair of bodies) satisfying Newton’s
third law.
The component of contact force normal to the surfaces in contact is called
‘normal reaction’.
The component of contact force parallel to the surfaces in contact is called
‘friction’.
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 For a solid immersed in a liquid, there is
an upward buoyant force equal to the
weight of the liquid displaced.

The viscous force, air resistance, etc. are

also examples of contact forces.
Weight Buoyant Force

Two other common forces are tension in a string and the force due to spring.

The restoring force in a string is called tension. It is customary to use the

same tension T throughout the string (of negligible mass).
 F

When a spring is compressed or extended by an external force, a restoring

force is generated which is proportional to the compression or elongation (for
small displacements).

The spring force is written as F = - kx where x is the displacement and k is a

constant.
The different contact forces mentioned above arise fundamentally from
electrical forces.
At the microscopic level, all bodies are made of charged constituents (nuclei
and electrons) and the various contact forces arising due to elasticity of
bodies, molecular collisions and impacts, etc. can ultimately be traced to the
electrical forces between the charged constituents of different bodies.
SOLVING PROBLEMS IN MECHANICS
More often, we may come across an assembly of different of different bodies.
Each body in the assembly experiences force of gravity.
The chosen part of the assembly is called ‘system’ and the remaining part of
the assembly (including other agencies of forces) as the ‘environment’.
When a number of bodies are connected together by strings, rods, etc it is
convenient to consider each body separately and to write equation of motion
for each body by taking into account all the forces acting on it .
A diagram for each body of the system showing all the forces exerted on the
body by the remaining parts of the system is called free – body diagram .
TO solve problems of connected motion in mechanics the steps followed are :
i) Draw a diagram showing schematically the various parts of the assembly of
bodies, the links, supports, etc.
ii) Draw a separate free body diagram for each body showing all the forces
acting on the body.
iii) In a free-body diagram, include information about forces (their magnitudes
and directions) that are given or can be interpreted from the given data.
iv) Solve the equations obtained by free body diagrams to get the results.
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 NUMERICALS
1. A wooden block of mass 2 kg rests on a soft horizontal floor. When
an iron cylinder of mass 25 kg is placed on top of the block, the
floor yields steadily and the block and the cylinder together go
down with an acceleration of 0.1 m/s2. What is the action of the
block on the floor (a) before and (b) after the floor yields? Take g
= 10 m/s2
Soln. In the figure (a) the block rests on the floor. Hence the free
body diagram shows two forces acting on the block
(i) Force of gravitation = weight of block = mg = 2 x 10 =20 N
(ii) Normal reaction R of the floor on the block, R = 20 N.
The net force acting on the block is zero . The force exerted by the 0.1 m.s2
block on the floor(Action of block) = 20 N downwards. Ans.
(b) The system (block + cylinder accelerated downwards with
0.1m/s2 due to the yielding of the floor. The free body diagram shows
thwo forces on the system R’
(i) Force of gravity due to earth = weight of block + cylinder =
(2+25) x 10 = 270 N
(ii) Normal reaction R’ of the floor .
Applying newtons second law , 270 – R’ = (2 +25)x0.1
R’ – 270 – 2.7 = 267 .3 N
By third law the action of the system to the floor = 267.3 N . Ans.
270N
Contents
NUMERICAL


m2 = 20kg
m1 = 10kg
T1 T1
A B F

m2 = 20kg
m1 = 10kg
F T2 T2
A B
 MOTION OF CONNECTED BODIES


T
T

a
mg

Mg
FRICTION Reaction (N)
(Exerted by the table)
Static Friction
The force of gravity W = mg
is equal and opposite to the F=0
normal reaction force N of fs = 0
F
the table. fk
fs
If the body is applied a small
force F, the body, in practice,
Weight (W)
does not move.
(Force of gravity)
If the applied force F were the only external force on the body, the body must
have moved with acceleration a = F/m, however small.
Clearly, the body remains at rest because some other force comes into play
in the opposite direction to the applied force F, resulting in zero net force on
the body.
This force fs parallel to the surface of the body in contact with the table is
known as frictional force, or simply ‘friction’. The subscript s stands for
‘static friction’.
Static friction does not exist by itself. It comes into play the moment there is
an applied force. As F increases, fs also increases, remaining equal and
opposite to the applied force (up to a certain limit), keeping the body at rest.
Since the body is at rest, the friction is called ‘static friction’.
Since the body is at rest upto the maximum limit (fs )max, it is called the
limiting value of static friction.
Static friction opposes the impending motion.
The term ‘impending motion’ means motion that would take place (but does
not actually take place) under the applied force, if friction were absent.
When the applied force F exceeds the limit (fs )max, the body begins to move.
Laws of Limiting Friction:
1. (fs )max is independent of the area of contact.

2. It varies with the normal reaction force (N) approximately as

(fs )max α N

(fs )max = μs N where μs is constant of proportionality

depending only on the nature of the
(fs )max surfaces in contact.
μs =
N μs is called coefficient of static friction.

The law of static friction may be written as fs ≤ μs N

Sliding or Kinetic Friction
If the applied force F exceeds the limit (fs )max, the body begins to slide on the
surface. When the relative motion has started, the frictional force decreases
from the limiting value of static friction (fs )max.
Frictional force that opposes relative motion between the surfaces in contact
is called kinetic or sliding friction.
It is denoted by fk.
Laws of Kinetic Friction:
1. fk is independent of the area of contact.
2. It is nearly independent of the velocity.
3. It varies with the normal reaction force (N) approximately as
fk α N or fk = μk N where μk is constant of proportionality
depending only on the nature of the
fk surfaces in contact.
μk = μk is called coefficient of kinetic friction.
N
μk is less than μs.
When relative motion has begun, the acceleration of the body is (F – fk) / m.
For a body moving with constant velocity, F = fk.
If the applied force on the body is removed, a = - fk / m and the body
eventually comes to a stop.
The laws of friction do not have the status of fundamental laws like those for
gravitational, electric and magnetic forces.
They are empirical relations that are only approximately true, but yet useful
in mechanical applications.
Rolling Friction
A body like a ring or a sphere rolling without slipping over a horizontal plane
will not suffer friction, in principle.
At every instant, there is just one point of contact between the body and the
plane and this point has no motion relative to the plane.
In this ideal situation, kinetic or static friction is zero and the body should
continue to roll with constant velocity.

However, in practice, this does not happen and the body comes to rest
eventually.
To keep the body rolling, some applied force is needed. This indicates that
there is a rolling friction though it is much smaller (by 2 or 3 orders of
magnitude) than static or sliding friction.

Rolling friction has a complex origin.

During rolling, the surfaces in contact get momentarily deformed a little, and
this results in a finite area (not a point) of the body being in contact with the
surface.
The net effect is that the component of the contact force parallel to the
surface opposes the motion.
Friction is a Necessary Evil
In many situations, friction has a negative role.
1. It opposes relative motion and hence dissipates more power in the form of
heat like in a machine with different moving parts.
2. It causes wear and tear of machinery parts in contact and the tyre of
automobiles.
In many practical situations, however, friction is critically needed.
1. Brakes in machines and automobiles use friction to stop the motion of
them.
2. We can not walk without sufficient friction.
3. It is impossible for a car to move on slippery roads.
4. On an ordinary road, the friction between the tyre and the road provides
the necessary external force to accelerate the car.
Methods of reducing friction
1. Solid (e.g. graphite), semisolid (e.g. grease) and liquid (e.g. oil) lubricants
can be used to reduce the friction.
2. Ball-bearings can be used to reduce the friction since the rolling friction
is less.
3. A thin air cushion can be used between the solid surfaces to reduce the
friction.
4. A proper combination of alloy surfaces can reduce the friction.

Lubricant Air Jet

 Centripetal Force
A force required to make a body move along a circular
path with uniform speed is called centripetal force.
Experssion for centripetal force :
When a body is in uniform circular motion, its velocity
changes continuously due to change in the direction of
motion. Hence it undergoes and acceleration which acts
radially inwards. This is called centripetal acceleration
and is given by
ac = v2/r = r2
According to Newton's second law, the centripetal force
required to move a body of mass m along a circular path
of radius ‘r’ is given by
F = mass x acceleration
F = mv2/r = m r2

Contents
Examples of Centripetal Force

1. A stone rotated in a circle gets the necessary centripetal

force from the tension in the string.
2. The centripetal force for the motion of the planet
around the sun is provided by the gravitational force
exerted by the sun on planet.
3. For a car taking a circular turn on a horizontal road, the
centripetal force is provided by the force of friction
between the tyres and the road.
4. For an electron revolving around the nucleus, the
centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic
attraction between the electron and nucleus.
CIRCULAR MOTION
N cos
Bending of a cyclist N
While negotiating a curve a cyclist
bends towards the centre of the curve 
to keep a safe balance. 
The angle  through which the cyclist Fcp N sin
bends can be calculated as given
below: O r
The weight of the cyclist plus the cycle
(W = mg) acts in the vertically downward v
direction. W = mg
The Normal Reaction (N) acts in the direction as shown in the figure, due to
bending through the angle .
The centripetal force Fcp = mv2/r acts towards the centre of the curve.

The Normal Reaction (N) is resolved into the components N cos and
N sin as shown in the figure.
N cos and mg are equal and opposite and balance each other.
N sin provides the necessary centripetal force mv2/r to the cyclist.
Circular motion of a car on a level road


Banking of banking of curve Road –
The large amount of friction between the tyres and the road
produces considerable wear and Tear of the tyres to avoid this the curved
roads is given an inclination sloping upwards towards the outer
circumference. This reduces wearing of the tyres because the horizontal
component of the normal reaction provides the necessary centripetal force.
Banking of banking of curve Road -
The system of raising the outer edge of the road above the inner edge
is called banking of curve Road . The angle through which the outer edge of
the curved road is raised above the inner edge is called angle of Banking

SOLVING PROBLEMS IN MECHANICS
Newton’s three laws of motion are the foundation of mechanics.
More often, we may come across an assembly of different of different bodies.
Each body in the assembly experiences force of gravity.
While solving a problem, we can choose any part of the assembly and apply the
laws of motion to that part provided we include all forces on the chosen part
due to the remaining parts of the assembly.
The chosen part of the assembly is called ‘system’ and the remaining part of
the assembly (including other agencies of forces) as the ‘environment’.
To handle a typical problem in mechanics, the following steps should be used.
i) Draw a diagram showing schematically the various parts of the assembly of
bodies, the links, supports, etc.
ii) Choose a convenient part of the assembly as one system.
iii) Draw a separate diagram which shows this system and all the forces on the
system by the remaining part of the assembly.
Include also the forces on the system by other agencies.
Do not include the forces on the environment by the system.
Such a diagram is called ‘a free-body diagram’.
iv) In a free-body diagram, include information about forces (their magnitudes
and directions) that are either given or you are sure of.
The rest should be treated as unknowns to be determined using laws of
motion.

v) If necessary, follow the same procedure for another choice of the system.
In doing so, employ Newton’s third law. i.e. if in the free-body diagram of
A, the force on A due to B is shown as F, then in the free-body diagram of
B, the force on B due to A should be shown as –F.
Pulling a Lawn Roller is Easier than to Push it
It is easier to pull a body than to push it.
Suppose a force F is applied to pull a
lawn roller of weight W. The force F has
two rectangular components :
(i) Horizontal component F cos  helps
to move the roller forward fk f’k
(ii) Vertical component F sin  acts in
the upward direction.
If R is the normal reaction, then
R + F Sin  = W
R = W – F Sin 
Force of kinetic friction,
fk = k R = k (W – F sin ) …..(1)
As shown, if a force F is applied to push a roller of weight W, then the normal reaction
is R’ = W + F Sin 
Force of kinetic friction
f ’k = k R’ = k (W + F sin ) ……..(2)
Comparing (1) and (2) we find f ’k > f k
i.e. the force of friction is more in case of push than in case of pull. So it is easier to
pull a body than to push it.
Numericals
1. Give the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on
(a) a drop of rain falling down with a constant speed,
(b) a cork of mass 10 g floating on water,
(c) a kite skillfully held stationary in the sky,
(d) a car moving with a constant velocity of 30 km/h on a rough road,
(e) a high-speed electron in space far from all material objects, and free of
electric and magnetic fields.
Ans. (a) As the drop of rain is falling with constant speed, in accordance with
first law of motion, the net force on the drop of rain is zero.

(b) As the cork is floating on water, its weight is being balanced by the upthrust
(equal to weight of water displaced). Hence net force on the cork is zero.

(c) Net force is zero on a kite skillfully held stationary in sky because it is at
rest.

(d) Since car is moving with a constant velocity, the net force on the car is zero.
(e) As no field (gravitational, electrical or magnetic) is acting on the electron,
the net force on electron is zero.
Numericals
2. A pebble of mass 0.05 kg is thrown vertically upwards. Give the direction
and magnitude of the net force on the pebble,
(a) during its upward motion, .
(b) during its downward motion,
(c) at the highest point where it is momentarily at rest. Do your answers
change if the pebble was thrown at an angle of 45° with the horizontal
direction 1 Ignore air resistance.
Ans. (a) When the pebble is moving upward, the acceleration g is acting
downward, so the force is acting downward is equal to F = mg
= 0.05 kg x 10 ms-2 = 0.5 N(downwards)
(b) Net force on the pebble, F = mg = 0.05 x 10 = 0.5 N. (downwards).
(c) Net force on the pebble, F = mg = 0.05 x 10 = 0.5 N. (downwards).

The direction and magnitude of the net force on the pebble will not alter even if
it is thrown at 45° because horizontal component of velocity remains constant
and no other acceleration except ‘g’ is acting on pebble.
Numericals
3. Give the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on a stone of mass 0.1kg,
(a) just after it is dropped from the window of a stationary train,
(b) just after it is dropped from the window of a train running at a constant
velocity of 36 km/ h,
(c) just after it is dropped from the window of a train accelerating with 1 ms-2,
(d) lying on the floor of a train which is accelerating with 1 m s-2, the stone being
at rest relative to the train. Neglect air resistance throughout.
Solution : (a) Mass of stone = 0.1 kg
Net force, F = mg = 0.1 x 10 = 1.0 N. (vertically downwards).
(b) When the train is running at a constant velocity, its acceleration is zero. No force acts
on the stone due to this motion. Therefore, the force F = 1.0 N downwards.
(c) The stone will experience an additional force F’ (along horizontal) i.e.,
F ’ = ma = 0.1 x l = 0.1 N along horizontal
As the stone is dropped, the force F’ no longer acts and the net force acting on the stone
F = mg = 0.1 x 10 = 1.0 N. (vertically downwards).
(d) As the stone is lying on the floor of the train,
thus its acceleration equal to the acceleration of train (= 1ms-2)
Therefore force acting on the stone, F = ma = 0.1 x 1 = 0.1 N. (along horizontal).
Numericals
4. A constant retarding force of 50 N is applied to a body of mass 20 kg moving
initially with a speed of 15 ms-1. How long does the body take to stop?

Solution : Here m = 20 kg, F = – 50 N (retardation force)

As F = ma  a = F/m = -50/20 = - 2.5ms-2
Using equation v = u+at
0 = 15 + (-25)t
t=6s
5. A constant force acting on a body of mass 3.0 kg changes its speed from 2.0 ms-
1 to 3.5 ms-1 in 25 s. The direction of the motion of the body remains unchanged.

What is the magnitude and direction of the force?

Solution : Given m = 3 kg, u = 2 m/s , v = 3.5 m/s , t = 25 s
F = ma = m (v-u)/t = 3(3.5 – 2)/25 = 0.18 N
F is along the direction of motion
Numericals
6. A bullet of mass 0.04 kg moving with a speed of 90m/s enters a heavy wooden
block and is stopped after distance of 60 cm. What is the average resistive force
exerted by the block on the bullet?

Solution : Here m = 0.04 kg, u = 90 m/s

v = 0 , s = 60 cm = 0.60m
As v2 – u2 = 2aS
0 – (90)2 = 2a x 0.60
or a = - 6750 ms-2 i.e. Retardation = 6750 ms-2
7. A driver of a three wheeler moving with a speed of 36km/h sees a child standing
in the middle of the road and brings his vehicle to rest in 4 s just in time to save the
child. What is the average retarding force on the vehicle? Given Mass of three
wheeler = 400 kg and mass of driver = 65 kg
Solution : Given u = 36km/h = 10m/s, t = 4s , m = 400+65 = 465 kg
Using , v = u + at
0 = 10 +a x 4  a = - 2.5 m/s2
From F = ma = 465 x - 2.5 = - 1162.5 N
Magnitude of retarding force on the vehicle = 1162.5 N
Numericals

Numericals
9. A stream of water flowing horizontally with a speed of 15 ms-1 pushes
out of a tube of cross sectional area 10-2 m2, and hits at a vertical wall
nearby. What is the force exerted on the wall by the impact of water,
assuming that it does not rebound?
Solution: Given u = 15 m/s , v = 0 , t =1s, A = 10-2 m2
In one second, the distance travelled is equal to the velocity v.
Mass of water hitting the wall per second = (Volume x density )/ time
=(Area x Distance x density )/ Time
= 15 x 10-2 x 103 kg s-1 = 150 kg s-1 , [density of water = 1000 kg m-3]
Force exerted by the wall on water , F = ma = m(v-u)/t = 150 x (0-15)/1
= - 2250 N
Force exerted on the wall by the impact of water , F’ = - F = 2250 N.
 OBJECTIVE TYPE OF QUESTIONS

1.A block of mass 10 kg is sliding downwards on a

inclined plane of angle 30° with horizontal. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and
surface is .5. Find the acceleration of the block (take
g=9.8 m/s2)
a. .571 m/s2
b. .511 m/s2
c. .657 m/s2
d. .651 m/s2
Answer: c. .657 m/s2
 2. A ball is travelling with uniform translator motion. This means
that
a) it is at rest
b) the path can be a straight line or circular and the ball travels with
uniform speed
c) all parts of the ball have the same velocity and the velocity is
constant
d) the centre of the ball moves with constant velocity and the ball
spins about its centre uniformly Answer:
The correct option is c) all parts of the ball have the same velocity and
the velocity is constant
3: The mass of a lift in 2000 Kg. When the tension in the
supporting cable in 28000 N, than its acceleration is:
1)14 ms–2 upwards
2)30 ms–2 downwards
3)4 ms–2 upwards
4)4 ms–2 downwards
Answer: 2] 30 ms–2 downwards
4: A bomb of mass 30kg at rest explodes into two pieces of
masses 18kg and 12kg. The velocity of 18kg mass is 6ms–
1. The kinetic energy of the other mass is:
1) 324 J
2) 486 J
3) 256 J
4) 524 J
Answer: 3] 256 J
5. A force of 12N gives an object an acceleration
of 4ms–2. The force required to give it an
acceleration of 10ms–2 is

1) 15 N 2) 20 N 3) 25 N 4) 30 N

ANS-4
6. A stream of water flowing horizontally with a speed of 15 ms–1
rushes out of a tube of cross - sectional area 10–2 m2 and hits a
vertical wall near by. What is the force exerted on the wall by the
impact of water, assuming that it does not rebound ? (Density of
water =1000kg m–3)

1) 2500 N 2) 2250 N
3) 2000 N 4) 1500 N

ANS-2
7. 'P' and 'Q' horizontally push in the same direction a 1200
kg crate. 'P' pushes with a force of 500 newton and 'Q'
pushes with a force of 300 newton. If a frictional force
provides 200 newton of resistance, what is the acceleration
of the crate?

ANS-4
]

Acknowledgement
1. Physics Part I for Class XI by NCERT

Contents
End
Thank you