READING AND WRITING SKILLS
(Handout)
A. TEXT AS A CONNECTED DISCOURSE
Discourse - comes from the word “discursus,” in
medieval Latin means “argument” while in late Latin
means “conversation”
- the way that language is used to convey
meanings or to propel action or provoke a specific
response
Types of Discourse:
a) Argumentation - aims to persuade the audience or
readers by presenting valid claims or counterclaims;
appeals to logic or reason
b) Description - aims to transmit that impression
through concrete, colorful, and vivid language;
triggers the senses of readers
c) Exposition - aims to inform about, clarify, and
explain a phenomenon
d) Narration - recalls events chronologically and aims
to relate a series of events
e) Literary Discourse - creative works such as poetry,
short stories, novels, plays, and even nonfiction
 Poetic Discourse - creative works like
poems, novels, short stories, and plays
 Expressive Discourse - found in academic
journals, letters, diaries, and blogs; a
personal narrative and can also referred to
as creative nonfiction
 Transactional Discourse - commonly
found in instructional materials,
advertisements, and editorial articles;
encourages the reader to do something or
to take action
f) Academic Discourse - presents an individual’s
insights regarding a concept or method in a
scholarly way; includes academic journals and
essays
B. TECHNIQUES IN SELECTING & ORGANIZING
INFORMATION
a) Brainstorming – thinking of ideas based on the topic
and making a list
b) Graphic Organizer - visually organize information
that shows how ideas relate to one another.
 Mind Map - represent knowledge of a
concept or idea
 Venn Diagram - show the similarities and
differences
 Flow Chart - show the different steps in a
process
 Hierarchical Topical Organizer - shows the
order of ideas
c) Topic Outline - a list of ideas arranged in a specific
order, and it shows how information is presented in
writing; it is divided into two levels: the headings
and the subheadings
d) Sentence Outline - more specific outline technique
because it already states the main idea and the
supporting ideas in full sentences
C. PATTERNS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT IN
WRITING ACROSS DISCIPLINES
a) Narration - gives an account of an incident or
reports a series of events leading to a conclusion or
ending
b) Description - provides information on what a
person, an object, a place, or a situation is like;
appeals to the reader’s senses
c) Definition - clarifies the meaning of a word or an
idea in a simple and understandable language
d) Exemplification & Classification – [exemplification]
explains the main idea by giving an extended
example or a series of detailed examples;
[classification] sorting or arrangement of subjects
(e.g., persons, places, things, ideas) into groups or
categories according to their common or shared
characteristics
e) Comparison & Contrast – has a unifying idea or
purpose; [comparison] illustrate how people, things,
places, events, situations, or even ideas are similar
to each other; [contrast] illustrate how people,
things, places, events, situations, or ideas are
different from each other
f) Cause & Effect - helps the writer explain how an
event or action leads to another
g) Problem-Solution - used to deal with topics that
logically pose problems and present solutions
h) Process Analysis - discusses the steps taken in a
given process
D. PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT
a) Organization – consistent development and
completeness of ideas in a text
b) Coherence & Cohesion – reinforced by transitional
devices; [coherence] connection of ideas at the idea
level; [cohesion] connection of ideas at the
sentence level; focuses on the “grammatical”
aspects of writing
Logical Order of Coherence:
 Chronological Order - tells what happened
first, second, third, and so on
 Spatial Order - arranged according to how
things fit together in a physical space
 Order of Importance - arranged from the
least important idea to the most important
one, or vice versa
 Compare and Contrast - arranged
according to how two or more things are
similar to and different from one another
 Topical Order - arranged according to
different subtopics within a larger topic, or
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 the “types” of things that fall within a larger
category
c) Language Use
 Informal/Personal – slang, local
expressions, text messaging that is usually
used in writing for family, friends, and
colleagues
 Standard/Academic – widely accepted
words and phrases found in books,
magazines, and newspapers
 Business/Technical – scientific terms,
jargons, and special expressions
d) Mechanics
 Spelling
 Punctuation - system of symbols used to
give structure to a text
 Capitalization - writing the first letter of a
word in uppercase while the rest of the
letters of the word are in lowercase
 Use of Boldface, Italics, and Underline -
ways to emphasize words in writing
E. CLAIMS
- a statement that an author discusses, explains, or
proves in his/her writing
- often explicitly or directly stated (explained and
justified using evidence)
- sometimes implicitly stated too (only implied in a
text, often made in narrative or descriptive texts)
Thesis – the central claim; determines and limits the
scope of the topic
a) Claim of Fact - affirms or asserts that a statement is
true or untrue
b) Claim of Value - states whether the author thinks
the idea is good or bad, right or wrong, ethical or
unethical, or just or unjust
c) Claim of Policy – proposes an action that should be
undertaken as a solution to a particular problem
F. CONTEXT
a) Hypertext - a non-linear way to present information
and is usually accomplished using “links”; coined by
Theodore “Ted” H. Nelson in 1963
Common Examples:
 Static Hypertext – prepared, encoded, and
stored in advance [ex. historical articles &
online encyclopedias]
 Dynamic Hypertext – changes
continuously depending on and in
response to user’s input [ex. blogs & social
media platforms]
Other Related Terms:
o Hyperlinks - typically activated by a mouse
click, keypress set or by touching the
screen
o Hypermedia - forms of multimedia such as
pictures, sounds, and videos that stimulate
more senses
o World Wide Web (www) - a global
hypertext system of information residing
on servers linked across the internet
o Uniform Resource Locator (URL) -
colloquially termed a web address, is a
reference to a web resource that specifies
its location on a computer network and a
mechanism for retrieving it
b) Intertext or Intertextuality - a process of text
development that merges two more processes such
as imitation and creation in doing a text; has its
roots in the work of a Swiss linguist Ferdinand de
Saussure (1857-1913) but the term itself was first
used by Bulgarian-French philosopher and
psychoanalyst Julia Kristeva in the 1960s
Common Examples:
 Deliberate Intertextuality – intertextuality is
the result of an author’s choice
 Latent Intertextuality – when author isn’t
deliberately employing intertextuality
Methods:
 Retelling - restatement of a story or re-
expression of a narrative
 Quotation - directly lifting the exact
statements or set of words from a text
another author has made
 Allusion - a writer or speaker explicitly or
implicitly pertains to an idea or passage
found in another text without the use of
quotation
 Pastiche - copies the style or other
properties of another text without making
fun of it unlike in a parody
G. CRITICAL READING AS REASONING
Critical Reading - engaging in analytic activity which
involves the reader by asking questions about the text
and the author’s claim
Reasoning - an act of giving statements for justification
and explanation; the ability of someone to defend
something by giving out reasons
Steps Used in Critical Reading As Reasoning
by Maxine Rafaella C. Rodriguez and Marella Therese
A. Tiongson
1) Identifying assertions
2) Formulating counterclaim
3) Determining evidence
H. EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS
- a statement that states one's sound judgement
about something through writing which is supported
by reasons and evidence
Assertion - declarative sentences that give one’s belief
about something else as if it is true though it may not be;
expressed as an argument
Four Types Assertion:
a) Fact - a statement that can be proven
objectively by direct experience, testimonies of
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 witnesses, verified observations, or the results o Main Body
of research o Conclusion
b) Convention - a way in which something is done o References
similar to traditions and norms Strategies of Literature Review:
c) Opinion - based on facts but is difficult to  Summary - state briefly the argument and
objectively verify because of the uncertainty of main points of relevant research
producing satisfactory proofs of soundness  Analysis - examine closely the elements or
d) Preference - states a personal choice in which structure of the research
the writer is under no obligation to support or  Synthesis - combine ideas to form an
prove the truthfulness of the statement integrated theory or system
Counterclaims - claims made to rebut a previous claim;  Evaluation - assess the research based on
[rebut] means to contradict someone’s statement the criteria or rubric that you choose, state,
through a formal argument and explain
Four Elements of Argument: c) Research Report - a long, formal essay, usually five
a) Claim - asserts facts based on one’s to fifteen pages in length, which presents the
understanding about a particular topic or issue writer’s views and findings on a chosen subject
b) Counterclaim - opposite of claim; contradicts Components of a Research Report:
one’s claim and is usually proven and o Title
supported by both reasons and evidence o Abstract
c) Reason - offers an explanation behind a party’s o Introduction
claim
o Methodology
d) Evidence - proves the truth of a claim and
o Results
generally leads to the conclusion of an
o Discussion
argument
I. TEXTUAL EVIDENCE o References
- the details given by the author in order to support d) Project Proposal - a document that is written for
his/her claims problem solving, service provision, event planning,
Ways to Present Textual Evidence: or equipment selling. An informal proposal is about
a) Paraphrasing - restating the text in your own words, 2-4 pages long. Meanwhile, a formal proposal has 5
b) Summarizing - stating in a shorter way the text or more pages.
c) Referencing - mentioning a specific section in the Standard Parts of a Project Proposal:
text 1) Introduction
d) Quoting - directly restating a part of the text a. Rationale
J. COMPOSING ACADEMIC WRITING b. Objectives
a) Book Review - describes and evaluates a work of c. Benefits
fiction or nonfiction and offers the book’s overall 2) Project Description
purpose, structure, and style of narration to the a. Methodology
unknown readers b. Schedule
- the length of the review depends upon the c. Budget
length of the book itself, and a review should e) Position Paper - a composition that highlights an
not be less than 100 words opinion of an author or specified entity about an
- book review title should be based on your total issue
impression of a book [strong title] “A Night Owl that Supporting Evidence Used in a Position Paper:
Seldom Sleeps even during Daytime” [weak title] 1) Factual knowledge - valid and verifiable
“Five Stars” information
o describe the content of the pages 2) Statistical inferences - conclusions drawn
o analyze how the book achieved its from data gathered
3) Informed opinions - based on knowledge
purpose
of the facts and carefully considered
o express your most personal comments,
principle, and rely on evidence instead of
reactions, and suggestions
limited personal experience
b) Literature Review - a type of academic essay that
4) Personal testimony - personal or first-hand
examines what has already been written about a
experience of the writer or knowledgeable
topic; summarizes and synthesizes the conducted
party
research driven by guiding principles
Components of a Position Paper:
Components of Literature Review:
a) Introduction
o Introduction
b) Body
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 c) Conclusion
K. COMPOSING PROFESSIONAL CORRESPONDENCE
a) Resume - originated from the French word résumé
which means, “summary”; a concise document that
highlights your education, work experiences, and
other qualifications such as your skills and
strengths
Parts of a Resume:
1) Personal Details (includes name, address,
contact info)
2) Career Objective/Summary (goals)
3) Education (all educational attainment
starting w/ the most recent first)
4) Work Experience (uses action verbs for
descriptive phrases and starts w/ the most
recent first)
5) Additional Information (optional part; could
be languages, awards, achievement,
skills, etc.)
6) References (2-3 reliable people to
endorse you; could be former professor or
employer)
b) Application Letters
College Admission Letter - known as the "letter of
intent"; a brief discussion of your intention to be
admitted in a specific course in college
Employment Application Letter - widely known as a
"cover letter"; used to introduce yourself to a
prospective employer
Three Letter Formats:
 Block - most common layout for business
letter; all parts of the letter are aligned to
the left
 Modified Block - the heading, date,
complimentary close, and signature are
placed slightly to the right of the center of
the paper
 Semi-block - similar with modified block
except that the paragraphs of the body are
indented
Parts of an Application Letter:
1) Heading (sender’s mailing address)
2) Date (date when the letter is written)
3) Inside Address (receiver’s name, job title,
and address)
4) Salutation (usually begins w/ “dear” and
uses colon at the end)
5) Body (consists of opening, middle, and
closing paragraphs)
6) Complimentary Close (polite way of
ending a letter; ends with a comma)
7) Signature (signature over printed name)
c) Various Forms of Office Correspondence
Office/Business Correspondence - a written
interchange of internal (communication between
company departments) and external communication
(communication between a company to another
firm) to assist the flow of business processes
Business Letter - traditional way of communicating
information from one company to another or used in
external correspondence
Examples of Business Letters:
o sales letter
o order letter
o complaint letter
o inquiry letter
o adjustment letter
o acknowledgement letter
o follow-up letter
o cover letter
o letter of recommendation
o letter of resignation
Business Memorandum (memo) - a written
communication strictly between the company’s
offices to another or used in internal
correspondence; has its title line and series number
Parts of a Business Memorandum:
1) Heading of a Business Memo
 TO (name of recipient/s)
 FROM (name of sender)
 DATE (complete and current
date)
 SUBJECT (what the memo is
about)
2) Body (has 2 parts: the purpose statement
and the explanation)
3) Special Notation (used to indicate specific
thing to the reader like attachment or
enclosure)
Business E-mail - an office correspondence that
can either be internal or external; no required
format in writing e-mail correspondence, but it is
expected that the writer maintains a professional
tone
Parts of a Business E-mail:
1) Header
 From (contains name and email
of sender)
 To (contains name and email of
recipient)
 Cc (means carbon copy or
courtesy copy to be sent to other
email address)
 Bcc (means blind carbon copy
because the other recipients
won’t be able to see that
someone else has been sent a
copy of the email)
2) Salutation
3) Body

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4) Complimentary Close
5) Signature

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