The Journal of Leadership Studies, 1996, Vol. 3, No.

The Making
The Making ofof Leaders:
Leaders:
A Review
A Review ofof the
the
Research in
Research in Leadership
Leadership
Development and
Development and Education
Education
Curt
CurtBrungardt
Brungardt
Fort
FortHays State
Hays StateUniversity
University

Executive
Executive Summary
Summary
Are leaders
Are leaders born or made?
born or made? IfIf the made, then
answer isis made,
the answer leadershipbe
can leadership
then can be
taught and learned? These and other similar questions are the focus
taught and learned? These and other similar questions are the focus of this of this
article
article which
which reviews the research
reviews the research inin both
both leadership development and
leadership development and
education. In addition to the literature review, a clear distinction is drawn
education. In addition to the literature review, a clear distinction is drawn
between developmentand
leadership development
between leadership and education;
education;current theory-buildingefforts
currenttheory-building efforts
are illustrated; and the paper concludes by proposing future directions in
are illustrated; and the paper concludes by proposing future directions in
leadership development and
leadership development and education
education research.
research.

About the Author: Curt Brungardt is the Director of Leadership Studies at Fort Hays State
About the Author: Curt Brungardt is the Director of Leadership Studies at Fort Hays State
University Mr. serves as the administrator and one of the instructors in
(Hays, KS).
University (Hays, KS). Mr. Brungardt
Brungardt serves as the administrator and one of the instructors in
the four-year Leadership Studies program. He is currently completing his Ph.D. in Curriculum
the four-year Leadership Studies program. He is currently completing his Ph.D. in Curriculum
and Instruction at Kansas State University. His research interests include leadership program
and Instruction at Kansas State University. His research interests include leadership program
assessment and evaluation.
assessment and evaluation.
82 The Journal of Leadership Studies Brungardt

Introduction
Introduction

"Are leaders
&dquo;Are leaders born
born or or made?&dquo;
made?" has has beenbeen one oneof ofthethemost mostdebated
debatedquestions
questionsininthethe
field
field of of leadership
leadership studies.
studies. However,
However, today today most most scholars
scholars active
active ininthe
thefield
field
believe that
believe that leaders
leaders are are both
both &dquo;born&dquo;
"born" and and &dquo;made.&dquo;
"made." Many Manyleaders
leadersare areborn
bornwith
with
qualities and
qualities and attributes
attributes thatthat assist
assistthem them inin leadership
leadershipeffectiveness. Whileatatthe
effectiveness.White the
same time
same time early childhood
early childhood development,
development, education, education, and later ’on-the-job
and later on-the-job
experiences encourage
experiences encourage and nurture leadership.
and nurture ·1eadership abilities abilities (Bass, 1990; and
(Bass, 1990; and
Conger, 1992).
Conger, If some basic characteristics
1992). If some basic characteristics of leaders of leaders are made,
are then
made, then thethe
second critical
second question becomes
critical question becomes &dquo;how"howdoes doesone onelearn learntotolead?&dquo;
lead?"Concurrently,
Concurrently,
ifif leadership
leadership can can be be learned,
learned, cancan itit be taught? Can
be taught? Can we we asas educators
educatorsteach
teach
leadership? If so,
leadership? how and under what conditions will it
so, how and under what conditions will it be successful?(McDade, be successful? (McDade,
1994)..
1994).
The purpose of
The purpose of this
this paper to review
paper isis to reviewthe the research
researchon onwhat knownabout
whatisisknown abouthowhow
leaders developed, educated,
leaders are developed,
are and trained.
educated, and trained. Thestudy The of
study ofleadership has been
leadership has been
a scholarly activity
major scholarly
a major over the
activity over the last
last 100 years. The
100 years. latestedition
The latest edition ofof The
The
Nandbook
Handbook of Leadership (Bass,
of Leadership (Bass, 1990) list
1990) listnearly 8,000 citations and references.
nearly 8,000 citations and references.
In addition, Rost’s
In addition, (1991) research
Rost's (1991) research showed showed aadramatic
dramaticincrease thenumber
increaseininthe number
of
of published books and articles over the last several years. As a resultofofthis
published books and articles over the last several years. As a result this
research,
research, we we have much better
have aa much understanding of
better understanding ofleaders
leadersand andthe
theleadership
leadership
.

However, aa review
process. However,
process. review of of this literature also
this literature reveals that
also reveals that the field ofof
the field
leadership studies is &dquo;riddled
leadership studies is "riddled with paradoxes, with inconsistencies, and
paradoxes, inconsistencies, and
contradictions&dquo; (Klenke, 1993,
contradictions" (Klenke, 1993, p. 112). p. 112).
_
There probably few
are probably
There are areas of
few areas inquiryand
ofinquiry and practical importance
practicalimportance
which have produced more divergent, inconsistent,
which have produced more divergent, inconsistent, overlapping overlapping
theories, and
definitions, theories,
definitions, and educational
educational models
models than
than leadership.
leadership.
Contributing to the messy state of the art are controversies about
Contributing to the messy state of the art are controversies about
theoretical
theoretical and methodologicalissues
and methodological issuesasaswell astensions
wellas tensionsbetween
between
the disciplines contributing to leadership studies (Klenke 1993,
the disciplines contributing to leadership studies (Klenke 1993,p.p.
’i112).
’i 2). - ·

To illustrate
To illustrate this point, the
this point, study of
the study leadership has
of leadership witnessed theoretical
has witnessed theoretical
explanations that have shifted from model another and
explanations that have shifted from one model to another and then backagain.
one to then back again.
Most approaches deal with only one or two narrow aspects of leadership,each
Most approaches deal with only one or two narrow aspects of.leadership, each
with its own distinct patterns. Nearly all theories can be classified into five
with its own distinct patterns. Nearly all theories can be classified into five
and
general approaches: trait,
general approaches: trait, behavioral,
behavioral, situational,
situational, power-influence,
power-influence, and
transformational. The trait approach emphasizes the personal attributes of
transformational. The trait approach emphasizes the personal attributes of
leaders. Early theories attributed a leader’s success to certain personality traits
leaders. Early theories attributed a leader's success to certain personality traits
and extraordinary abilities. Behavior theories emphasize what leaders &dquo;actually
’ and extraordinary abilities. Behavior theories emphasize what leaders "actually
do&dquo; and identify different styles on group performance. Research under the
do" and identify different styles on group performance. Research under the
power-influence in terms of the and
power-influence approach
approach explains
explains leadership
leadership in terms of theamount,
amount,type,
type, and
use of power and influence tactics. And the transformational approach
use of power and influence tactics. And the transformational approach
emphasizes the leader’s role in the creation of culture .and revitalization of
emphasizes the leader's role in the creation of culture and revitalization of
organizations. The newest and most in the field
organizations. The newest and mostexciting development in thescholarly
exciting development scholarly field
has been an effort to integrate the different approaches.
has been an effort to integrate the different approaches.·
The Making of Leaders Volume 3, Number 3, 1996 8383

While each
While each of of these
these approaches
approaches providedprovided us us with
with new
newperspectives
perspectiveson onthe
the
explanation of
of leadership,
explanation leadership, the
the extensive
extensive research
research has
has failed
failed toto adequately
adequately
address
address thethe issues
issues of of leadership
leadership development
development and and education.
education. Although
Although
leadership development,
leadership development, education,
education, and
and training
training have
have been
been with
with us
us since
since the
the
time of
time of Plato,
Plato, only
only recently have
recently have scholars and educators began
scholars and educators began toask
to askthe
the
questions of
questions how aa leader
of how leader isis developed.
developed. IsIs leadership
leadership learned?
learned? How How isis itit
learned?
learned? Can leadership be
Can leadership taught? IfIf so,
be taught? so, how
how can can itit be taught?All
be taught? Allthese
these
questions at the
are at
questions are root of
the root ofthe
the current leadershipeducational
currentleadership movement.What
educationalmovement. What
makes these
makes these questions difficult to answer is the fact that
questions difficult to answer is the fact that nogeneral no universal
general or universal
or
theory of
theory of leadership developmenthas
leadership development emerged(Prince,
hasemerged 1993).ItIthas
(Prince, 1993). onlybeen
hasonly been
the fast
in the last several years
in several that "learning leadership&dquo;
years that &dquo;learning has become
leadership" has become a serious a serious
research
research topic. Although this
topic.· Although new feld
this new field isis inin its
its infancy, there isis an
infancy, there an ever-
ever-
body of
increasing body ofknowledge
knowledge on on the
the issue (Conger, 1992;
issue(Conger, 1992;Donnithorne,
Donnithorne,1993; 1993;
Gardner,
Gardner, 1990;
1990; McDade,
McDade, 1987; 1987; andand_others).
others).

ItIt is important from

is important from thethe outset
outset to distinguish and
to distinguish and define
define the critical and
the critical and
sometimes confusing terminology
sometimes confusing the
terminology inin the field of
field ofleadership developmentand
leadershipdevelopment and
education. The terms leadership
education. The terms development,
leadership development, leadership education,
leadership education, and and
leadership- training
leadership. training are often used
are often used interchangeably
interchangeably toto explain explain thethe same
same
phenomenon. However, each has its own distinct definition and role to playinin
phenomenon. However, each has its own distinct definition and role to play
the leadership development
the leadership development process process (Bass,(Bass, 1990;1990; Green
Green & & McDade,
McDade, 1991;
1991; ·
Jacobs & Jacques, 1987; &
Jacobs & Jacques, 1987; Palus & Drath, 1993; and Roberts, 1981). For
Palus Drath, 1993; and Roberts, 1981). For
example,
example, &dquo;leadership development" refers
"leadership development&dquo; refers toto almost everyform
almostevery formofofgrowth
growthoror
stage
stage.of of development
development in the life
in the cycle that
life cycle that promotes, encourages,and
promotes,encourages, andassists
assists
in one’s leadership potential. This includes learning activities
in one's leadership potential. This includes learning activities that are both formal that are both formal
and
and structured
structured as as well
well as as those
those that are informal
that are informal and and unstructured
unstructured (from(from
childhood
childhood development, education, and adult life experiences to participatinginin
development, education, and adult life experiences to participating
formal programming design
formal programming design to to enhance
enhanceleadership capabilities).Roberts
leadershipcapabilities). Roberts(1981,
(1981,
p. 22), says development &dquo;involves those
p. 22), says leadership development "involves those activities designedtoto
leadership activities designed
provide
provide an an interactionist
interactionist environment
environment which developmentininan
encourages development
which encourages an
ordered hierarchical sequence of increasing complexity.&dquo;
ordered hierarchical sequence of increasing complexity." Therefore, leadership Therefore, leadership
development isis aa continuous
development continuous learning process that
learning process spans an
thatspans an entire
entire lifetime;
lifetime;
where knowledge and experience builds and allows
where knowledge and experience builds and allows for even more advanced for even more advanced
learning and
learning and growth.
growth.

"Leadership education&dquo;
&dquo;Leadership onthe
education" on theother hand,isisusually
otherhand, usuallydefined narrowlythan
morenarrowly
definedmore than
leadership development. It includes those learning activities and
leadership development. It includes those learning activities and educational educational
environments and abilities. A
environments that that are intended
intended to enhance
enhance and foster
to
fosterleadership
are
leadership abilities. A
formal college course on leadership or a professional seminar designed to teach
formal college course on leadership or a professional seminar designed to teach
a particular leadership skill are examples of leadership educational activities.
a particular leadership skill are examples of leadership educational activities.
is one of the of
Leadership education, therefore,
Leadership education, components of leadership
therefore, is one of the components leadership
development. Usually, leadership education is the more formal and structured
development. Usually, leadership education is the more formal and structured
environment that seeks to intervene
learning purposely seeks to intervene(enhance,
learning environment that purposely (enhance,alter,
alter,create,
create,
or speed-up) the development of leaders. Palus and Drath (1993, p. 113) define
or speed-up) the development of leaders. Palus and Drath (1993, p. 113) define
as the &dquo;evolution of the to make more
leadership development as the "evolution of the capacity
leadership development capacity to make more
and in collective while
encompassing
encompassing and adaptive meaning in collectiveexperience,&dquo;
adaptive meaning experience," whileleadership
leadership
education is the &dquo;intervention designed to support the evaluation of the capacity
education is the "intervention designed to support the evaluation of the capacity
to make more encompassing and adaptive meaning in collective experience.&dquo;
to make more encompassing and adaptive meaning in collective experience."
 84 The Journal of Leadership Studies Brungardt

.
Finally, &dquo;leadership
Finally, "leadership training&dquo;
training" isis narrower
narrower yet,yet, and
and usually
usually refers
refers toto learning
learning
activities for
activities for aa specific
specific leadership
leadership role role or
orjob.
job. Leadership
Leadershiptraining
trainingactivities
activitiesare
are
considered components
considered components of of leadership
leadership education.
education.Again,
Again, Roberts
Roberts(1981,
(1981,p.p.19)
19)
says leadership
says leadership training
training &dquo;involves
"involves thosethose activities ... directed
activities ... directedatathelping
helpingthe
the
individual
individual being
being trained
trained toto translate
translate some some newly
newly learned
learned skill, piece ofof
skill, oror piece
information, to aa real
information, to real and
and immediate
immediate situation.&dquo;
situation."

Although the
Although the scholarly field of
scholarly field of leadership development and
leadership development and education
education isis
relatively
relatively new
new and
and lacks
lacks aa great
great deal
deal of
ofsound
sound research,
research, this
thisdoes
does not
not meanwe
mean we
know
know nothing about the
nothing about the subject. This
subject. This paper will show that
paper will show thatpromising research
promising research
has
has been
been done
done andand isis continuing.
continuing. Most Most of
of this
this research
research falls
falls into twobasic
intotwo basic
models
models or theory-building avenues: leadership
or theory-building avenues: leadershipdevelopment and
theory andleaming
developmenttheory learning
leadership
leadership fheory.
theory. Leadership
Leadership development research looks
development research acrossthe
looksacross theentire
entire
of leader
spectrum of leader development
spectrum to
development to identify and
identify andexplain the variables involved.
explain the variables involved.
Whereas,
Whereas, learning
learning leadership theory searches
leadership theory searches more narrowly for
more narrowly the role
for the role
leadership education
leadership education plays in the
plays in the development of leaders. This
development of leaders. Thispaper will focus
paper will focus
its literature review
its literature review onon both inquirytracks.
both inquiry tracks.
’

Leadership Development Research

Leadership Development Research

Studying the
Studying multiple factors
the multiple factors that
that influence
influencethe developmentand
thedevelopment andperformance
performance
of leaders is job. As investigate
of leaders is an enormous job. As we investigate the various stages
an enormous we the various stages ofof
development in the life
development in the life cycle, almost
cycle, almost every experience could be
activity or experience
every activity or could be
credited to having some role to play in the development
credited to having some role to play in the development of our personal of our personal

leadership behavior
leadership behavior and style. InIn addition,
and style. addition, because
because much much ofof leadership
leadership
development is continuous and often not deliberate, characteristics criticaltotothis
development is continuous and often not deliberate, characteristics critical this
growth
growth areare hard
hard to identify and
to identify measure. Even
and measure. Evenwith
withthese obstacles,however,
theseobstacles, however,
the literature
the literature shows
shows us us that
that scholars havebeen
scholars have pursuingaabetter
beenpursuing betterunderstanding
understanding
of leadership development. Most of
of leadership development. Most of this research is found ininfour
this research is found fourcategories:
categories:
early childhood and adolescent development, the role of formal
early childhood and adolescent development, the role of formal education,adult education, adult
and
and on-the-job experiences, and
on-the-job experiences, and specialized leadershipeducation.
specialized leadership education.
Studies
Studies show show thatthat early experiences inin life
early experiences impactadult
life impact leadershippotential.
adultleadership potential.
Child
Child psychologists Robert and Pauline Sears
psychologists Robert and Pauline Sears found thatpersonal found that personaltraits
traitslike:
like:the
the
ability to understand and deal with others, the need for achievement, and
ability to understand and deal with others, the need for achievement, and
confidence
confidence and and assertiveness
assertiveness are are influenced
influenced substantially
substantially by childhood and
bychildhood and
adolescent experiences and parental support (Gardner, 1990). Studies by Cox
adolescent experiences and parental support (Gardner, 1990). Studies by Cox
and on such
(1926),
(1926), Jennings
Jennings (1943), (1943), and Barton (1984) credit
Barton (1984) "familyinfluences&dquo;
credit&dquo;family influences" on such
characteristics as intelligence, self-confidence, assertiveness, achievement
characteristics as intelligence, self-confidence, assertiveness, achievement
and Other studies showed that &dquo;treatment and
orientation, and reliability.
orientation, reliability. Other studfes showed that "treatmentby byparents&dquo;
parents" and
standards&dquo; influenced the of leaders. Anderson
"parental standards" influenced the development
&dquo;parental development of leaders. Anderson(1937), (1937),
Bishop (1951), and Bass (1990) found that children who were raised with
Bishop (1951 ), and Bass (1990) found that children who were raised with
positive, rather than
positive, rather than negative parental interaction,
negative parental interaction, were moreactive, active,socially
were more
socially
and life that
outgoing, constructive,
outgoing, constructive, and attempted attempted more leadership.
leadership. Family
more
Family life that
work educational and
emphasized
emphasized a strong strong work ethic, high educationalstandards,
ethic, high standards, andresponsibility
a
responsibility
related directly to young people who sought leadership roles and social success
related directly to young people who sought leadership roles and social success
Rosen &
(Bass, 1960;
(Bass, 1960; Day, Day, 1980; Gibbons, 1986;
1980; Gibbons, 1986; Hoffman,
Hoffman, Rosen & Lippitt, Lippitt, 1960).
1960).
Finally, &dquo;opportunities&dquo; in childhood and adolescence allowed young people to
Finally, "opportunities" in childhood and adolescence allowed young people to
practice activities. School and out-of-the-classroom activities
practice leadership
leadership activities. School and out-of-the-classroom activities
The Making of Leaders Volume 3, Number 3, 1996 8585

encourage social
encourage social proficiencies,
proficiencies, cooperation,
cooperation, competition,
competition,and
andinfluence
influencetactics
tactics
(Bass, 1960;
(Bass, 1960; and Murphy,
and Murphy, 1947).
1947).

As
As the
the child
child grows older, the
grows older, the school
schoolsetting setting (teachers,
(teachers,coaches
coachesandandpeer
peergroups)
groups)
begins
begins to replace the
to replace the influence
influence of family life.
of family life.Different
Differentinterests
interestsand
andpreferences
preferences
impact these
impact stages of
these stages development. For
ofdevelopment. Formany
manyyoung peoplethis
youngpeople thisisisthe
thefirst
firsttime
time
they have the
they have opportunity to
the opportunity "try out&dquo;
to &dquo;try leadership. Social
out" leadership. Social and
and school
school clubs,
clubs,
athletic teams, and
athletic teams, and other group situations
other group situations allow allowindividuals
individualstotoplan,
plan,organize,
organize,
make decisions, take
make decisions, take responsibility,
responsibility, delegate, delegate, and perform other
and perform other basic
basic
leadership
leadership functions.
functions. Also,
Also, at
at this
this time
time they begin observe, recognize, and
they begin toto observe, recognize, and
distinguish between
distinguish between effective
effective andand ineffective
ineffective adult
adult leaders.
leaders.These
Thesementoring
mentoring
relationships also
relationships also impact the
impact the young young person, and thus influence
person, and thus influence potential potential
leadership behavior
leadership (Clark & & Clark,
behavior (Clark Clark, 1994). 1994).

At
At the collegiate level,
the collegiate scholars believe
many scholars
level, many thataaliberal
believethat liberalarts educationisisthe
artseducation the
best preparation for
best preparation potential leaders.
for potential leaders.With highereducation’s
Withhigher movementtoward
education'smovement toward
specialization, onlythe
specialization, only the liberal artsbackground
liberal arts providesthe
backgroundprovides thebroader
broadereducational
educational
experience essential
experience essential toto leadership 1990).At
(Gardner, 1990).
leadership (Gardner, Atthis
thistime
timehowever,
however,veryvery
little research has been conducted
little research has been conducted tostudy to the role formal education
study the role formal educationmight mightplay
play
in development. The
leadership development.
in leadership The research that isis available
research that availableshows thatformal
showsthat formal
education does
education positively correlate
does positively correlatewith
with achievement
achievementof recognizedleadership
ofrecognized leadership
positions.
positions.Generally, the higher the level of
Generally, the higher the level ofeducation directlyrelates
educationdirectly relatestotohigher
higher
levels of
levels of managerial positions (Bass, 1990). However, it is important toto
managerial positions (Bass, 1990). However, it is important
recognize that
recognize that this
this positive
positive relationship betweeneducation
relationship between educationand leadershipdoes
andleadership does
not reflect or support causation. The central question remains unanswered
not reflect or support causation. The central question remains unanswered - how - how
does
does formal
formal education
education influence
influenceandand contribute leadershipperformance?
contributetotoleadership performance?

As
As we move into
we move into adulthood,
adulthood, on-the-job
on-the-job experiences providevaluable
experiencesprovide valuablelearning
learning
for leadership. Recent studies talk about the importance of challenging jobsand
for leadership. Recent studies talk about the importance of challenging jobs and
opportunities
opportunities as source for
as aa source for learning
learning leadership skills. Gardner
leadership skills. Gardner (1990)
(1990)
expresses that
expresses that most leadership isis not
most leadership notdeveloped
developedby designtraining
specificallydesign
byspecifically training
sessions, rather, obtained through the context of
sessions, but rather, obtained through the context of the normalwork
but the normal workday.
day.
.

Learning
Learning on on the job isis enhanced
the job enhanced by thefact
bythe factthat anyworkplace
thatany workplace
generates a certain amount of
generates a certain amount of pressure, and ambitious
pressure, and ambitiousyoung young
people generate inner pressures of their own. Seeking recognition,
people generate inner pressures of their own. Seeking recognition,
fearing failure,
fearing failure, working
working against deadlines, experiencing
against deadlines,
the
experiencing the
of life in the real learn lessons do not
urgencies of life in the real world,
urgencies they learn lessonsthey
world, they they do not
soon forget (Gardner, 1990, p. 174).
soon forget (Gardner, 1990, p. 174).
from experience occurs environments that
through twodevelopmental
two
Learning from experience
Learning occursthrough developmental environments that
allows almost any work situation to serve as an opportunity for growth. Learning
allows almost any work situation to serve as an opportunity for growth. Learning
from the &dquo;people you work with&dquo; and the &dquo;task itself’ provide the situations for
from the "people you work with" and the "task itself' provide the situations for
leaders to enhance their potential (Hughes, Ginnett & Curphy, 1993; Kouzes &
leaders to enhance their potential (Hughes, Ginnett & Curphy, 1993; Kouzes &
and co-workers
1989).Supervisors
and Lombardo &
Posner, 1987;
Posner, 1987; and Lombardo & Eichinger, Eichinger, 1989). Supervisors and co-workers
can assist in the development of individual skills and abilities. A supervisor can
can assist in the development of individual skills and abilities. A supervisor can
serve as either a positive or negative role model for leadership. In addition,
serve as either a positive or negative role model for leadership. In addition,
the interaction of who
through the interaction ofpeople
also contribute to
colleagues developmentthrough
colleagues also contribute to development people who
have different
may have different agendas
may and
agendas and perspectives.
Furthermore, supervising
perspectives. Furthermore, supervising
86 The Journal of Leadership Studies Brungardt

subordinates allows
subordinates allows the
the leader
leader toto test
test different
different leadership
leadership styles
styles on
on group
group
performance. (Hughes,
performance. (Hughes, Ginnett
Ginnett & & Curphy, 1993;
Curphy, 1993; and
and Lombardo
Lombardo & & Eichinger,
Eichinger,
1989).
1989).
In addition
In to human
addition to human relations,relations, task-oriented functions also
task-oriented functions also contribute
contributetotothe
the
developmental process.
developmental process. Tasks Tasks that
that are
are complex
complex and and ambiguous
ambiguous serve
serve toto
enhance development. Work
enhance development. Work assignments
assignmentsthatthatare
areconstantly changingand
constantlychanging andare
are
unpredictable provide
unpredictable provide challenging opportunitiesfor
challenging opportunities newand
fornew innovativesolutions
andinnovative solutions
(Lombardo && Eichinger,
(Lombardo Eichinger, 1989). 1989). Kouzes
Kouzes andand Posner’s
Posner's(1987) researchshowed
(1987)research showed
that
that the
the best opportunity for
best opportunity for professional occurredwhen
leadershipoccurred
growth inin leadership
professional growth when
individuals
individuals &dquo;stretched&dquo;
"stretched" themselves themselves inin difficult
difficultand challengingtasks.
andchallenging tasks.

Does
Does experience
experience always produce learning?
always produce learning? Obviously
Obviouslynot, buthow
not,but howdoes
doesoneone
the
separate the commonplace
separate and routine
commonplace and routine experiences from those that
experiences from those thatimprove improve
leadership? Research
leadership? Research by McCall, Lombardo
by McCall, Lombardo and and Morrison (1988)reminds
Morrison(1988) remindsus us
that the
that the key to
key to maximizing
maximizing our leadership
our leadership potential is to make the most
potential is to make the most of our of our
experiences. In
experiences. addition, Kolb
In addition, Kolb (1983) says that
(1983) says that&dquo;extracting lessons"from
"extracting lessons&dquo; fromour
our
experiences further foster
experiences further fosterdevelopment. development.Therefore, it is
Therefore, it isimportant not
important notonly to act,
only to act,
but to &dquo;observe&dquo;
but to "observe" and and &dquo;reflect&dquo;
"reflect" as as well. developmentisis advanced
Leadership development
well. Leadership advanced
when leaders take time to
when leaders take time to think deeply think about their successful and unsuccessful
deeply about their successful and unsuccessful
actions (Hughes, Ginnett
actions (Hughes, Ginnett & & Curphy,Curphy, 1993).
1993).

One
One ofof the
the most popular studies
most popular studies inin the "learningfrom
the&dquo;learning experience"literature
fromexperience&dquo; literaturewas
was
conducted by McCall, Lombardo and Morrison (1988) as part
conducted by McCall, Lombardo and Morrison (1988) as part of a project with of a project with
the
the Center
Center forfor Creative
Creative Leadership.
Leadership. By Fortune500
surveyingFortune
Bysurveying companies,these
500companies, these
researchers were able to identify lessons learned from challenging assignments.
researchers were able to identify lessons learned from challenging assignments.
These lessons include
These lessons include the importance of
the importance establishing and
of establishing and implementing
implementing
agendas, relationship building, executive temperament, and personal
agendas, relationship building, executive temperament, and personalawareness awareness
and discipline. Their
and discipline. Their study also identified
study also identified the experiences that
the experiences teach, for
that teach, for
example:
example: early
early supervisory
supervisory experiences,
experiences, startingstarting a project
a from scratch, and
project from scratch, and
personal and
personal and professional
professional hardships.
hardships. Finally,
Finally, McCall, Lombardo,and
McCall,Lombardo, andMorrison
Morrison
conclude that
conclude that significant
significant learning in the midst
learning occurs in the midst of high
occurs of pressure and
high pressure and
challenging jobs. Under these circumstances, people are likely to observe and
challenging jobs. Under these circumstances, people are likely to observe and
reflect on what
reflect on works and
what works and what
what does
does not.not.
Similar research conducted
Similar research conducted by by Lombardo (1986) of
Lombardo (1986) nearly 400
of nearly 400 executives,
executives,
identified 286 career events and over 500 lessons learned. One of the most
identified 286 career events and over 500 lessons learned. One of the most
important mentioned was the of from mistakes. Successful
important mentioned was the value value of learning
learning from mistakes. Successful
leaders typically understand what went wrong, avoid repeating the same actions,
leaders typically understand what went wrong, avoid repeating the same actions,
and accept the responsibility. Whereas, unsuccessful executives usually deny
and accept the responsibility. Whereas, unsuccessful executives usually deny
their failures. In addition, the research showed that successful executives
their failures. In addition, the research showed that successful executives
utilized lessons from their experience as compared to other managers. Those
utilized lessons from their experience as compared to other managers. Those
most mentioned include
experiences
experiences most mentioned includestart-up assignments,specialized
start-upassignments, specializedprojects,
projects,
line-to-staff shifts, problem solving situations, and managing change. Ruderman,
line-to-staff shifts, problem solving situations, and managing change. Ruderman,
Ohlott, and executives from successful
Ohlott, and McCauley
McCauley (1989) surveyed executives from successfulcompanies
(1989) surveyed companies
to identify experiences that provided development opportunities for leadership.
to identify experiences that provided development opportunities for leadership.
Respondents mentioned the of a the
Respondents mentioned the importance supportive supervisor,
importance of a supportive supervisor, the
opportunity build and situations with intense
opportunity to build credibility,
to
pressure.Copeman
credibility, and situations with intensepressure. Copeman
(1971 ) and Davies and Easterby-Smith (1984) found that job experiences were
(1971) and Davies and Easterby-Smith (1984) found that job experiences were
The Making of Leaders Volume 3, Number 3, 1996 8787

the key
the key source
source ofof development
development for for many
many leadership
leadership skills
skills and
and abilities
abilities like
like
communication, conflict resolution,
communication, conflict resolution, delegation,
delegation, motivation,
motivation, decision
decision making,
making,
problem solving,
problem solving, and
and task
task related
related duties.
duties. Finally,
Finally, ininseparate
separatestudies,
studies,Johnson
Johnson
(1980), Roche
(1980), Roche (1979),
(1979), Zey
Zey (1984),
(1984), Shapiro
Shapiro(1985),
(1985), and andKram
Kram(1983)
(1983)confirmed
confirmed
the
the importance
importance placed
placed on
on having
having anan on-the-job
on-the-jobmentor
mentorinindeveloping
developingleadership
leadership
potential.
potential. In
In each
each case,
case, potential
potential leaders
leaders which
which could
could turn
turn to
to aa mentor
mentor forhelp,
for help,
felt
felt that
that their careers had
their careers had benefitted from the
benefitted from theexperience.
experience.

Leadership Education
Leadership Education Research
Research z

While most researchers

While most researchers inin the
thefield
field of leadershipstudies
ofleadership agreethat
studiesagree thatexperience
experience
plays
plays a
a critical
critical role
role in
in leadership development, many
leadership development, many also
also recognize the
recognize the
importance
importance specialized
specialized leadership education and
leadership education and training training can play
can in that
play in that
process. As
process. As mentioned
mentioned earlier, leadershipeducation
earlier, leadership educationisisonly onecomponent
onlyone componentoror
aspect of
aspect of the
the leadership developmentpuzzle.
leadership development Leadershipeducators
puzzle. Leadership believeinin
educatorsbelieve
the
the basic assumption that
basic assumption much of
that much whatmakes
ofwhat makesaaleader successfulisisteachable.
leadersuccessful teachable.
Skills and abilities utilized
Skills and abilities utilized by leaders such
by leaders such ascommunicating,
as problemsolving,
communicating,problem solving,
visioning, decision
visioning, making and
decision making and so so on, are learnable
on, are learnablebehaviors.
behaviors.

Over
Over the
the last
last 20 years, there
20 years, there has
has been
been considerable
considerable interest
interest inin leadership
leadership
programming at all levels. This interest has resulted in a proliferation ofof
programming at all levels. This interest has resulted in a proliferation
educational
educational activities designed for
activities designed elementaryschool
forelementary schoolstudents
studentsas aswell
wellas assenior
senior
citizens. Although
citizens. Although definitely not a new phenomenon, it has only
definitely not a new phenomenon, it has only been recently been recently
that
that aa growing industry has
growing industry emerged to
has emerged to meet
meet an interested and
an interested andenthusiastic
enthusiastic
public. A review of the effectiveness of these
public. A review of the effectiveness of these programs illustrate aa positive
programs illustrate positive
impact
impact onon leadership
leadership development
development(Burke (Burke & &Day, 1986).InInmost
Day, 1986). caseswhere
mostcases where
assessment data is available, these specially designed
assessment data is available, these specially designed educational activitieseducational activities
seem to enhance the development of leaders. When scanning the leadership
seem to enhance the development of leaders. When scanning the leadership
educational frontier, itit isis also
educational frontier, apparent that
also apparent that these programs differ
these programs greatlyinin
differgreatly
content and
content pedagogy (depending
and pedagogy (depending largely
largelyon onthe audience).Content
targetaudience).
thetarget Contentmaymay
include anything from a general overview of leadership
include anything from a general overview of leadership theories to strategic theories to strategic
planning training. While
planning training. While at atthe
the same time, utilizing
sametime, methodsfrom
utilizingmethods fromprofessionally
professionally
proven practices to popular fads (Hughes, Ginnett
proven practices to popular fads (Hughes, Ginnett & Curphy, 1993). & Curphy, 1993).
To trace the
To trace beginning of
the beginning leadershipeducation
of leadership educationininthis
thiscountry,
country,one onlyneeds
oneonly needs
to look at the founding of American colleges. A primary goal of those institutions
to look at the founding of American colleges. A primary goal of those institutions
was to train a new generation of young people to lead a new nation. In fact,
was to train a new generation of young people to lead a new nation. In fact,
&dquo;education for
"education for leadership
has.
leadership has always
been
always been aa direct
or indirect
direct or indirect purpose
purpose of
of
education&dquo; (Clark & Clark, 1994, p. 103). Today, there are large-scale efforts
education" (Clark & Clark, 1994, p. 103). Today, there are large-scale efforts
underway to deliver education and to both and
underway to deliver leadership
leadership education andtraining
training to bothelementary
.

’ elementary and
like the the
scouts, 4-H,
students. and
secondary,
secondary. age age students. Programs boys and girls
Programs like the boys girls scouts, 4-H, the
American Management Association, and many others are providing activities
American Management Association, and many others are providing activities
intended to foster leadership development.
intended to foster leadership development.
Research on the effectiveness of leadership education first appeared in
Research on the effectiveness of leadership education first appeared in
elementary and school Fretwell found that when
elementary and secondary
secondary schoolsettings. (1919) found that whenhigh
settings. Fretwell(1919) high
school juniors were given additional responsibilities to manage their own
school juniors were given additional responsibilities to manage their own
activities, it an excellent for
activities, it provided leadership development.
opportunity for leadership
provided an excellent opportunity development.
Mayberry (1925) also recognized that students involved in student government
Mayberry (1925) also recognized that students involved in student government
88 The Journal of Leadership Studies Brungardt

received leadership
received leadership training
training that
that included
included cooperation
cooperation and andtaking
takinginitiative.
initiative.InIn
addition to
addition to these
these early
early studies,
studies, aa number
number of of controlled
controlled experiments
experiments were were
conducted in
conducted in the
the 1930s
1930s and and 1940s.
1940s. Eichler
Eichler and
and Merrill
Merrill (1933)
(1933) provided
provided
specialized leadership
specialized leadership lectures
lectures and
and activities
activities to
to several
several experimental groups
experimental groups and and
found
found they scored
they scored slightly
slightly higher
higher than control groups
than control groups on ratings
on ratings ofleadership.
of leadership.
Thompson (1944)
Thompson (1944) also
also found
found aa notable
notable leadership
leadershipdifference
differenceininyoung
youngchildren
children
who had the
who had the opportunity to take an active role
opportunity to take an active role in their classroomsetting
in their classroom settingas as
compared to
compared to others.
others. McCandless (1942) and
McCandless (1942) and Zeleny
Zeleny(1940,
(1940, 1941, 1950)also
1941,1950) also
recorded
recorded differences
differences in in leadership capabilities when
leadership capabilities when comparing
comparing program
program
participants to
participants to non-participants.
non-participants.

More recently, Ruhm

More recently, (1991)found
Ruhm (1991) found that
thatwhile manyyouth
whilemany youthprograms
programsare arebelieved
believed
to
to impact
impact leadership development, itit isis safe
leadership development, safe to say that
to say mosteducators
that most educatorsare are
of what is
unsure of what is actually
unsure actually happening. He reminds that
happening. He reminds us that we lacklarge-scale
us we lack large-scale
research
research thatthat examines
examines the the effectiveness
effectiveness of ofthese programs.Ruhm
theseprograms. Ruhmstudied
studiedover over
200 Wisconsin
200 Wisconsin scouting,
scouting, high school
high school curricula, athletic and vocational
curricula, athletic and vocationalprograms programs
training for
on training
on leadership skills.
for leadership Although results
skills. Although results of ofthe show&dquo;that
studyshow
the study "thatallall
programs were operating
programs were well below their maximum
operating well below their maximum potential&dquo; potential" (1991,
(1991, p.p. ix),
ix),
athletic, vocational
athletic, vocational andand scouting programs proved
scouting programs provedmore moreeffective
effectivethan
thancurricular
curricular
activities. Finally, McNeill
activities. Finally, (1995) studied
McNeil! (1995) studied adolescent leadership training
adolescent leadership training
programs in Kansas and found that
programs in Kansas and found that mostprograms most programs have somebasic
have some basicsimilarities.
similarities.
having different
Although having purposes, high
different purposes, highschool
schoolstudent
studentorganization
organizationprograms,
programs,
youth development and
programs and community
development programs communitydevelopment programs,all
developmentprograms, allinclude
include
the role of leadership development as part of their mission. In most cases,those
the role of leadership development as part of their mission. In most cases, those
students
students who participated in
who participated leadership education
in leadership education were were inin current
currentschool
schooloror
social positions and
leadership positions
social leadership and had strong academic
had aa strong academicrecord.
record.And
Andlastly,
lastly,goal
goal
attainment,
attainment, group dynamics, self-awareness,
group dynamics, civic responsibility, and
self-awareness, civic responsibility, and
understanding leadership were the preferred topics; and simulationlrole playing,
understanding leadership were the preferred topics; and simulation/role playing,
lectures, and
lectures, group discussion
and group discussionwere werethe mostutilized
themost methods.What
utilizedmethods. Whatboth
bothRuhm
Ruhm
and McNeill illustrate is that we know very little about youth leadership
and McNeill illustrate is that we know very little about youth leadership education education
and even less
and even less about
about thethe effectiveness
effectiveness of ofsuch programsininfostering
such programs fosteringleadership
leadership
-

potential.
potential.

In addition
In addition to primary and
to primary secondary schools,
and secondary schools, higher education has
higher education has also
also
endorsed the
endorsed concept of
the concept leadership education.
of leadership leadershiphas
Althoughleadership
education.Although hasalways
always
been
been atat least
least anan indirect goal of
indirect goal education, itithas
highereducation,
ofhigher onlybeen
hasonly recentlythat
beenrecently that
colleges and universities have made efforts in that direction.
colleges and universities have made major efforts in that direction. Studiesby
major Studies by
& and 500 and
Gregory & Britt
Gregory Britt (1987),
(1987), and Spitzberg (1987) estimated
Spitzberg (1987) estimatedthat thatbetween
between 500 and
600 colleges and universities offer programs designed to develop students for
600 colleges and universities offer programs designed to develop students for
leadership. Even more
leadership. Even more recent,
the 1987, 1990,
recent, the 1987, 1990, 1992-93,
and 1994-95 editions
1992-93, and 1994-95 editions
of the Leadership Education: A Source Book by the Center for Creative
of the Leadership Education: A Source Book by the Center for Creative
list an number of institutions
Leadership,
Leadership, list an increasing
increasing number of institutions beginning beginning leadership
leadership
courses and programs. Schools like Ripon College, Colorado College, Duke,
courses and programs. Schools like Ripon College, Colorado College, Duke,
Princeton, North Carolina and the of San
Princeton, North Carolina State, State, Purdue,
Purdue, and theUniversity
University of SanDiego
now
Diego now
offer extensive leadership opportunities. In addition, some traditional programs
offer extensive leadership opportunities. In addition, some traditional programs
and disciplines (most notably MBA and Educational Administration programs)
and disciplines (most notably MBA and Educational Administration programs)
are adding major leadership development components.
are adding major leadership development components.
The Making of Leaders Volume 3, Number 3, 1996 8989

Leadership education
Leadership education in in higher
higher education
education isis usually
usuallyfound
found inineither
eitheracademic
academic
classroom settings
classroom settings or
or inin extracurricular
extracurricularactivities
activitiesand
andprograms.
programs.Administered
Administeredby by
student
student develvpmentlaffairs
development/affairs offices, offices, co-curricular
co-curricularand andextracurricular
extracurricularprograms
programs
are the
are the most
most common
common (Simonds,
(Simonds, 1988; 1988; andand Spitzberg,
Spitzberg, 1987).
1987).Whereas
Whereas&dquo;the
"the
academic
academic courses
courses may may be looselydivided
be loosely divided into
intotwo categories:those
twocategories: thosethatthatdraw
draw
mainly
mainly on
on social
social psychological
psychological and
and management
management studies
studies literature,
literature, the
the traditional
traditional
homes
homes of of leadership studies; and
leadership studies; and liberal artsacademic
liberal arts academiccourses
coursesthatthatplace
placethe the
study of
study leadership in
of leadership in the contextof
the context boththe
ofboth thehumanities
humanitiesand andsocial
socialsciences...&dquo;
sciences ... "
(Spitzberg, 1987,
(Spitzberg, 1987, p.p. 4). As with
4). As with other typesof
othertypes ofleadership
leadershipeducation,
education,leadership
leadership
training formats in
training formats highereducation
in higher education also vary.On
alsovary. Onthe
theco-curricular
co-curricularside,side,half-day
half-day
workshops conferences for student leaders
workshops or conferences for student leaders and the use of challenge
or and the use of challenge
(wilderness)
(wilderness) courses
courses are are typical. Foracademic
typical. For coursesand
academiccourses programs,content
andprograms, content
from
vary from conceptual
can vary
can in nature to
conceptual in nature to practical skills
practical skills training and
training and teaching
teaching
techniques from
techniques from formal
formal lecture
lectureto tofeedback
feedbackand androle playexercises
roleplay (Bass,1990).
exercises(Bass, 1990).

Over
Over the
the last
last 40 years, aa number
40 years, numberof ofstudies
studieshave beenconducted
havebeen conductedtotolearn
learnmore
more
about training for
leadership training
about leadership college students.
for college students. One
Oneof thefirst
ofthe majorresearch
firstmajor research
projects in
projects in this
this area was produced
area was produced by the National
bythe TrainingLaboratories
NationalTraining Laboratories(NTL)
(NTL)
in
in 1947.
1947. Later, surveys by
Later, surveys by Write (1967), Breen
Write (1967), Breen (1970), and Simonds
(1970), and Simonds(1988)
(1988)
looked
looked for
for the
the most
most common leadership training
common leadership training practices.
practices.Although
Althoughnonenoneofof
these studies
these provide a comprehensive
studies provide a look at
comprehensive look atleadership in
development inhigher
leadershipdevelopment higher
education,
education, they do show
they do showvariety in
variety inprogram purpose, content,methodology,
programpurpose, content, methodology,size,
size,
and complexity. Again,
and complexity. the most notable
Again, the most notable issue, with
issue, as withleadership
as educationinin
leadershipeducation
other
other areas, the lack
areas, isis the lack of
ofscientific
scientific research
research on evaluatingthe
onevaluating effectivenessofof
theeffectiveness ’

programs.
programs.

The
The latest
latest trend
trend in higher education
in higher education has has been
been the the establishment
establishment ofof
four-year academic
comprehensive four-year
comprehensive leadershipstudies
academic leadership programs.Schools
studiesprograms. Schoolslike like
Albertson College (Idaho),
Albertson College Marietta College(Ohio),
(Idaho), MariettaCollege State
Washington StateUniversity,
(Ohio),Washington University,
Fort Hays State
Fort Hays State University
University (Kansas), University of
(Kansas), University of Richmond (Virginia), and
Richmond (Virginia), and
others, have
others, have made major institutional
made major institutional commitments
commitmentstotodevelopdevelopand anddeliver
deliveraa
leadership studies curriculum.
leadership studies curriculum. In In 1992
1992the Universityof
the University ofRichmond
Richmondbecamebecamethe the
first university to
first university to offer
offer an undergraduate degree
an undergraduate degree inin leadership.
leadership. TheTheJepson
Jepson
School
School of Leadership's commitment
of Leadership’s commitment &dquo;to educate for
"to educate for and
and about
about leadership,&dquo;
leadership,"
illustrates its emphasis to both the science and art of the leadership
illustrates its emphasis to both the science and art of the leadershipprocess process
(Prince,
(Prince, 1993).
1993). Finally, assessmentdata
early assessment
Finally, early dataon effectivenessofofthe
theeffectiveness
onthe theFort
Fort
Hays State University program show a significant increase
Hays State University program show a significant increase in both knowledgein both knowledge
of behaviors
leadership and
of leadership and self-reported leadership behaviorsby
self-reported leadership byparticipants.
participants.
In addition to educational institutions providing leadership education and training
In addition to educational institutions providing leadership education and training
for their students, other leadership type training programs have been developed
for their students, other leadership type training programs have been developed
for leaders and managers in both the private and public sectors. In fact, reports
for leaders and managers in both the private and public sectors. In fact, reports
from the training industry say that nearly $50 billion is spent annually on
from the training industry say that nearly $50 billion is spent annually on
and 60% of the nation’s
corporate training
corporate development. Furthermore,
training and development. Furthermore, 60% of the nation'slargest
largest
offer some of for their
corporations
corporations offer sometype type ofleadership
leadershiptraining employees(Stephan,
training for theiremployees (Stephan,
Mills, & In some these are similar in both
Mills, Pace, Ralphs, 1988).
Pace, & Ralphs, ways, theseprograms
1988). In someways, programs are similar in both
content and methodology to the university programs mentioned earlier.
content and methodology to the university programs mentioned earlier.
the most notable difference is that these
However, the most notable difference is that these leadership
However, leadership training
training
workshops usually operate on a much shorter time frame (one day to a week).
workshops usually operate on a much shorter time frame (one day to a week).
90 The Journal of Leadership Studies Brungardt

Whether conducted
Whether conducted by
by the
the organization
organization itself
itselfor
oraatraining
trainingcenter,
center,the
thecontent
contentofof
these workshops
these workshops is usually
is usually more
morefocused
focused onon one
oneorortwo
twoleadership
leadershipbehaviors
behaviorsoror
functions
functions asas compared
compared to to aa comprehensive
comprehensive university
university program.
program. While
While
methodology usually
methodology usually remains
remains constant
constant (lectures,
(lectures, role
roleplaying
playingandandcase
casestudies
studies
format), the content varies
the content varies depending
depending on on the
the level
level of
of the
the employees.
employees. For
For
example, training
example, for
training for middle mangers
middle mangers usually includes
usually includes improving
improvingsupervisory
supervisory
skills,
skills, interpersonal and oral
interpersonal and oral communication abilities,and
communication abilities, andgeneral
generalmanagement
management
and
and leadership practices. Whereas
leadership practices. training for
Whereas training forCEOs
CEOsand andother topexecutives
othertop executives
usually concentrates
usually concentrates on interpersonal abilities,
on interpersonal abilities, public relations, and
public relations, andstrategic
strategic
planning (Hughes,
planning (Hughes, Ginnett
Ginnett & & Curphy, 1993).
Curphy, 1993).
Numerous
Numerous scholars
scholars have have also investigatedthe
also investigated theeffectiveness
effectivenessof ofthese
theseshort-term
short-term
leadership training
leadership training workshops at the adult level. Some believe
workshops at the adult level. Some believe thatleadership that leadership
training is
training is nothing
nothing more more than popularfad,
than aa popular lackingtheoretical
fad, lacking groundingand
theoreticalgrounding and
sound
sound empirical
empirical supportsupport (Rice, (Rice, 1988). Others
1988). Othersdisagree, Latham
disagree, Latham(1988) (1988)says that
says that
the
the leadership training literature
leadership training literature isis grounded
grounded inintheory
theoryand anddoes
doeshave haveaastrong
strong
scientific
scientific background. While
background. While acknowledging that evaluation work
acknowledging that evaluation work ison-going,is on-going,the
the
research does show that
research does show that these programs these stand
programs stand up to evaluation.
empirical evaluation.Other
up toempirical Other
scientific comparisons of
scientific comparisons oftrained
trained participants versusnon-trained
participantsversus participantsalso
non-trainedparticipants also
confirms that &dquo;trained&dquo;
confirms that "trained" employees employees are more likely
are more to show changesininbehavior
likely to showchanges behavior
and abilities. While
and abilities. While the the evaluation
evaluation research
research maymaybe relativelysmall
berelatively smallas ascompared
compared
to the amount of
to the amount of training training actually
actually taking
taking place, Bass (1990) believesthat
place, Bass (1990) believes thatthe
the
data should
data should allow
allow us to us to feel
feel confident
confidentabout the of
impact ofsuch
about theimpact suchtraining.
training.

Research
Research indicates,
indicates, not unexpectedly, that
not unexpectedly, that the effectivenessofof
the effectiveness
training
training depends
depends on on the trainee, the
thetrainee, trainer,the
thetrainer, compositionofofthe
thecomposition the
training group, follow-up
training group, reinforcement and
follow-up reinforcement and feedback, feedback, and and
particularly whether
particularly there isis congruence
whetherthere congruencebetweenbetweenthe trainingand
thetraining and
the organizational environment for which the trainee isis being
the organizational environment for which the trainee being
prepared. In
prepared. In all, meta-analyses of
all, meta-analyses of available
available evaluative
evaluative studies
studies
have evidence that
provided evidence thatleadership
have provided and managementtraining,
leadership andmanagement training,
education, and
education, and development
developmentare usuallyeffective
are usually (Bass, 1990,
effective(Bass, 1990,p.p.
856).
856).

Finally, some researchers

Finally, some researchers have investigated the
have investigated impact ofof leadership
the impact leadership
programming on senior citizens. A number of leadership programs havebeen
programming on senior citizens. A number of leadership programs have been
developed for
developed people in
for people in the
the retirement stageof
retirementstage oflife.
life. InInmost cases,the
mostcases, thepurpose
purpose
is
is to
to develop pool of
develop aa pool seniorvolunteers
ofsenior volunteers for
forlocal communityservice
localcommunity serviceprograms.
programs.
Researchers Chetkow-Yanoov (1986, 1990), Cusack (1991) and Cusack &
Researchers Chetkow-Yanoov (1986, 1990), Cusack (1991) and Cusack &
found that leadership programs with this
(1992) found that leadership
Thompson (1992)
Thompson programs are popular
are
popular with thisage
age
group, and the evaluation data clearly shows that trained participants were more
group, and the evaluation data clearly shows that trained participants were more
confident and pursued additional leadership roles.
confident and pursued additional leadership roles.
As we look across the entire spectrum of leadership education, other scholars
As we look across the entire spectrum of leadership education, other scholars
have attempted to identify and explain the different types of leadership
have attempted to identify and explain the different types of leadership
programs. Most of the work focuses on both the and content of the
programs. Most of the work focuses on both the purpose
purpose and content of the
educational program as well as its general approach or methodology. Jay
educational program as well as its general approach or methodology. Jay
to Lead that
Conger's Leaming
Conger’s Leaming to Lead(1992) developed afour-part
(1992) developed taxonomy thatprovided
four-parttaxonomy
a
provided
a framework for us to analyze various leadership development activities. These
a framework for us to analyze various leadership development activities. These
The Making of Leaders Volume 3, Number 3, 1996
6 9191

categories include:
categories include: personal
personal growth,
growth, feedback,
feedback, conceptual
conceptualunderstanding
understandingand and
awareness, and
awareness, and skills
skills building.
building. Bass
Bass (1990)
(1990} recognized
recognizedthat thatmost
mostleadership
leadership
programs focus
programs focus on on either
either improving
improving leaders’
leaders' attitudes,
attitudes, skills,
skills, knowledge,
knowledge,
personal styles,
personal styles, oror aa combination
combination of of these.
these. Finally,
Finally, there
there hashas also
also been
been
extensive research in the area of leadership
extensive research in the area of leadership education methodology.
education methodology. Most
Most
popular methods
popular methods of of delivering
delivering leadership
leadership education
education include:
include: lectures
lectures and
and
discussion,
discussion, role
role playing, simulation,
playing, simulation, case
case studies,
studies, behavioral
behavioral modeling,
modeling,
sensitivity (lab)
sensitivity training, and
(lab) training, mentoring. InInsummary,
and mentoring. summary,the theresearch
researchimplies
impliesthat
that
experiential approaches
experiential approaches and
and structured
structured behavioral
behavioral modeling appear
modeling appear to
to be
be the
the
most successful in
most successful in meeting the desired
meeting the desiredtraining
trainingobjectives
objectives(Bass,
(Bass,1990).
1990).

Conclusion
Conclusion

All
All those
those who who have
have studied
studied and and researched
researched leadership development and
leadership development and
education
education realize
realize that
that wewe still
still know
knowveryverylittle aboutthe
littleabout subject.As
thesubject. Asweweoperate
operate
today,
today, we we function more of
function inin more ofaaclarification
clarification mode ratherthan
moderather treatmentmode.
thanaatreatment mode.
IfIf we are serious
we are serious about developing and
about developing and educating
educatingpeoplepeoplefor leadershiproles,
forleadership roles,
we must move from our current status that is
we must move from our current status that is characterizedby characterized uncertaintyand
byuncertainty and
confusion
confusion and begin to
and begin to identify, develop and
identify, develop and embrace
embrace ways ways ofof &dquo;teaching
"teaching
leadership&dquo;
leadership" (Clark(Clark & & Clark, 1994). As
Clark, 1994). our society
As our larger and
grows larger
society grows and more
more
complex, the need for
complex, the need for increasing increasing numbers of leaders at all levels ofof our
numbers of leaders at all levels our
institutions will continue to Thus, our task is clear: to create
institutions will continue to grow. Thus, our task is clear: to create far-reaching
grow. far-reaching
developmental and
developmental and educational environments that
educational environments truly foster
that truly foster leadership
leadership
capabilities.
capabilities.

Although related,
Although related, leadership
leadership development
developmenttheorytheoryand andlearning leadershiptheory
learningleadership theory
focus on different components of the leadership development
focus on different components of the leadership development process (Figure process (Figure
11).}. Leadership
Leadership development
development theorytheory concentrates
concentrates on on how leadership isis
how leadership
developed throughoutthe
developed throughout span of
the span ofaalifetime. Thisline
lifetime.This lineofofinquiry
inquiryfocuses
focuseson on&dquo;how
"how
leadership is developed," including
leadership is developed,&dquo; both the &dquo;natural influences&dquo; like
including both the "natural influences" like childhood childhood
and
and adult
adult experiences
experiences as as well
well asas the
the intervention leadership education
intervention ofof leadership education
(McDade,
(McDade, 1994). This
1994). This approach is all encompassing, including
approach is all encompassing, includingall allexperiences
experiences
and
and lifetime
lifetime developmental stages, and
developmental stages, thus isis both
and thus comprehensive and
both comprehensive and
complex. On
complex. On thethe other
other hand,
hand, leaming
learningleadership theorylooks
leadership theory narrowlyatatthe
looksnarrowly the
role leadership education plays in that leadership
role leadership education plays in that leadership development process. development process.
Questions that
Questions that define
definethis generalfocus
this general focus include: Doesthis
include: Does interventionmake
thisintervention makeaa
difference in developing people
difference in developing for
people forleadership? What
leadership? Whattopics or
topics orprogram content
program content
most addresses the needs of potential leaders? What approaches and methods
most addresses the needs of potential leaders? What approaches and methods
influence
influence longlong term growth and
term growth and development?
development?
As mentioned and education are not
As mentioned early,
early, leadership
leadership development
development and education are not new, new,
however, scholarship on the topic is in its emphasy. The literature on both
however, scholarship on the topic is in its emphasy. The literature on both
is in its
theory is in itsearly
and
leadership
leadership development theory and leaming
development theory leadership theory
learning leadership early
stages. Both fields are in the process of clearly defining themselves and their
stages. Both fields are in the process of clearly defining themselves and their
research domains. The research needs to move from merely explaining what is
research domains. The research needs to move from merely explaining what is
models for intervention. Not
only are leadership
to
happening proposing models for intervention. Not only
happening to proposing
are
leadership
activities well do understand
development activities not well documented,
development not not
documented, wesimply
we
simply do not understandvery very
much about their impact. While exciting research is underway, it may be years
much about their impact. While exciting research is underway, it may be years
before we begin to benefit from that sound empirical research.
before we begin to benefit from that sound empirical research.
92 The Journal of Leadership Studies Brungardt

Figure --1
Figure ’1

LIFE SPAN OF LEADER DEVELOPMENT

Childhood & AduH&

Adolescent Educational
On-the-Job
Experiences Experiences E,cperiences

. Leadership
Development

}
Theory
Youth College Professional I.urning
Leadership Leadership Leadership Leadership
Programs Programs Training n.o,y

LEADERSHIP EDUCATION
Intervention

...When
...When aa sufficient amount of
sufficient amount ofdocumentation existsininthe
documentationexists thearena
arena
of public discussions that we can compare and
of public discussions that we can compare and synthesize synthesize
experiences and
experiences efforts, researchers
programmates efforts,
and programmates willbe
researcherswill beable
able
to move on to the next level of discourse... (McDade, 1994, p.
to move on to the next level of discourse ... (McDade, 1994, p.
218).
218).
Our
Our eventual
eventual hope the literature
that the
hope isis that literature inin the
the field
field ofof both
both leadership
leadership
development theory and leaming leadership theory will
development theory and learning leadership theory will move from simply move from simply
identifying key variables
identifying key variables to the creation
to the creation of of models, frameworks and
models, frameworks finallytoto
andfinally
comprehensive
comprehensive theorytheory building. Leadership development
building. Leadership developmenttheory needs
theory needstotonotnot
only recognize
only experiences inin this
single experiences
recognize single this development process,but
developmentprocess, butalso
alsobegin
begin
to link the variables together for a more comprehensive and accurate view.
to link the variables together for a more comprehensive and accurate view.
Leaming leadership
Leaming theory needs
leadership theory needs toto document
documentsuccessful programsand
successfulprograms andcreate
create
various models for intervention.
various models for intervention. Finally, the cornerstone in the
Finally, the cornerstone in thegrowth growthofofthese
these
two fields includes the development and utilization of assessment
two fields includes the development and utilization of assessment instruments instruments
to measure leadership growth. Such instruments should provide us with the data
to measure leadership growth. Such instruments should provide us with the data
we need to begin the search for effective leadership development experiences
we need to begin the search for effective leadership development experiences
Assessment information is needed to measure and
(McDade, 1994). Assessment information is needed to measuregrowth
(McDade, 1994). growth and
before and after and education. As researchers
change before and after leadership
change leadership experiences
experiences and education. As researchers
apply quantitative evaluation measures (and share their results), progress in
apply quantitative evaluation measures (and share their results), progress in
model and theory building can go forward. And thus, provide the practitioner with
model and theory building can go forward. And thus, provide the practitioner with
the tools and knowledge needed to develop and educate a future generation of
the tools and knowledge needed to develop and educate a future generation of
leaders.
leaders.
The Making of Leaders 1 Volume 3, Number 3, 1996
6 9393

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