The University of Zambia

in Association with
Zambia ICT College

Bachelor of Engineering in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering

EEE4040 - POWER ELECTRONICS

(Lesson Notes)

Ray Mulenga, MEng, BEng, PGDp MEIZ;

rmulenga@zictcollege.edu.zm; +260978678700, +260955889589

©2022

1
Disclaimer

This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for
prescribed textbooks. The information presented here is merely a collection by the
committee members for their respective teaching assignments. Various sources as
mentioned at the end of the document as well as freely available material from internet
were consulted for preparing this document. The ownership of the information lies with
the respective authors or institutions. Further, this document is not intended to be used
for commercial purpose and the committee members are not accountable for any issues,
legal or otherwise, arising out of use of this document. The committee members make
no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the
contents of this document and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.

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 EEE4040-POWER ELECTRONICS

Course Objectives

The power electronics course gives an overview of different types of power

semiconductor devices and their switching characteristics. It will enable the leaner to
understand the operation, characteristics and performance parameters of controlled
rectifiers. The student will also study the operation, switching techniques and basics
topologies of DC-DC switching regulators and learn about the different modulation
techniques of pulse width modulated inverters and to understand harmonic reduction
methods. The course will introduce the operation of AC voltage controller and various
configurations.

Course Outline

a) Unit 1 Power Semi-Conductor Devices

 Study of switching devices

 Diode, SCR, TRIAC, GTO, BJT, MOSFET, IGBT
 Static and Dynamic characteristics
 Triggering and commutation circuit for SCR
 Design of Driver and snubber circuit.

b) Unit 2 Phase-Controlled Converters

 2-pulse,3-pulse and 6-pulseconverters

 Performance parameters
 Effect of source inductance
 Gate Circuit Schemes for Phase Control
 Dual converters.

c) Unit 3 DC TO DC Converter
 Step-down and step-up chopper
 control strategy
 Forced commutated chopper
 Voltage commutated
 Current commutated
 Load commutated
 Switched mode regulators
 Buck
 boost
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  buck- boost converter
 Introduction to Resonant Converters.

d) Unit 4 Inverters

 Single phase and three phase voltage source inverters

 Voltage& harmonic control
 PWM techniques
 Sinusoidal PWM
 Modified sinusoidal PWM
 Multiple PWM
 Introduction to space vector modulation
 Current source inverter.

e) Unit 5 AC TO AC Converters

 Single phase and Three phase AC voltage controllers

 Control strategy
 Power Factor Control
 Multistage sequence control
 Single phase and three phase cyclo converters
 Introduction to Matrix converters.

Text Books

1. M.H.Rashid, ‗Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and Applications‘, Pearson

Education, PHI Third Edition, New Delhi, 2004.
2. P.S.Bimbra, Power Electronics‖ Khanna Publishers, third Edition, 2003.
3. L. Umanand, Power Electronics Essentials and Applications‖, Wiley, 2010.

References:

1. Joseph Vithayathil,‘ Power Electronics, Principles and Applications‘, McGraw

Hill Series, 6th Reprint, 2013.
2. Ashfaq Ahmed Power Electronics for Technology Pearson Education, Indian
reprint, 2003.
3. Philip T. Krein, Elements of Power Electronics‖ Oxford University Press, 2004
Edition.
4. Ned Mohan, Tore. M. Undel and, William. P. Robbins,‗ Power Electronics:
Converters, Applications and Design‘, John Wiley and sons, third edition,2003.
5. Daniel.W.Hart, Power Electronics‖, Indian Edition, Mc Graw Hill, 3rd Print, 2013.

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1.0 SWITCHING AND SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHES

The flow of electrical energy between a fixed voltage supply and a load is often
controlled by interposing a controller, as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 power flow diagram

Viewed from the supply, the apparent impedance of the load plus controller must be
varied if variation of the energy flow is required. Conversely, seen from the load, the
apparent properties of the supply plus controller must be adjusted. From either
viewpoint, control of the power flow can be realized by using a series-connected
controller with the desired properties. If a current source supply is used instead of a
voltage source supply, control can be realized by the parallel connection of an
appropriate controller.

1.1 ATTRIBUTES OF AN IDEAL SWITCH

The attributes of an ideal switch may be summarized as follows:

1.1.1 PRIMARY ATTRIBUTES

1. Switching times of the state transitions between ‘‘on’’ and ‘‘off’’ should be zero.
2. ‘‘On’’ state voltage drop across the device should be zero.
3. ‘‘Off’’ state current through the device should be zero.
4. Power–control ratio (i.e., the ratio of device power handling capability to the control
electrode power required to effect the state transitions) should be infinite.
5. ‘‘Off’’ state voltage withstand capability should be infinite.
6. ‘‘On’’ state current handling capability should be infinite.
7. Power handling capability of the switch should be infinite.

1.1.2 SECONDARY ATTRIBUTES

1. Complete electrical isolation between the control function and the power flow
2. Bidirectional current and voltage blocking capability
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1.2 ATTRIBUTES OF A PRACTICAL SWITCH

Power electronic semiconductor switches are based on the properties of very pure,
mono-crystalline silicon. This basic material is subjected to a complex industrial process
called doping to form a wafer combining a p-type (positive) semiconductor with an n-
type (negative) semiconductor. The dimensions of the wafer depend on the current and
voltage ratings of the semiconductor switch. Wafers are usually circular with an area of
about 1mm 2 A . A 10A device has a diameter of about 3.6 mm, whereas a 500 A device
has a diameter of 25 mm (1 in.). The wafer is usually embedded in a plastic or metal
casing for protection and to facilitate heat conduction away from the junction or
junctions of both the p-type and n-type materials. Junction temperature is the most
critical property of semiconductor operation.

Practical semiconductor switches are imperfect.

1. They possess a very low but finite on-state resistance that results in a conduction
voltage drop.
2. The off-state resistance is very high but finite, resulting in leakage current in both
the forward and reverse directions depending on the polarity of the applied
voltage.

Fig. 1.2 switch

3. Switching-on and switching-off (i.e., commutation) actions do not occur

instantaneously.
4. Each transition introduces a finite time delay.
5. Both switch-on and switch-off are accompanied by heat dissipation, which
causes the device temperature to rise.

In load control situations where the device undergoes frequent switching, the switch-on
and switch-off power losses may be added to the steady-state conduction loss to form
the total incidental dissipation loss, which usually manifests itself as heat. Dissipation
also occurs in devices due to the control electrode action.

Every practical switching device, from a mechanical switch to the most modern
semiconductor switch, does not possess features of an ideal switch.

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1.3 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR CONVERTERS

Semiconductor switching converters may be grouped into three main categories,

according to their functions.

1. Transfer of power from an alternating current (AC) supply to direct current (DC)
form. This type of converter is usually called a rectifier.
2. Transfer of power from a direct current supply to alternating current form. This type
of converter is usually called an inverter.
3. Transfer of power from an AC supply directly into an AC load of different
frequency. This type of converter is called a cyclo-converter or a matrix converter.
4. Transfer of power from a direct current supply directly into a direct current load of
different voltage level. This type of converter is called a chopper converter or a switch-
mode converter.

1.3.1 RECTIFIERS

The process of electrical rectification is where current from an AC supply is converted

to a unidirectional form before being supplied to a load (Fig. 1.3). The ac supply current
remains bidirectional, while the load current is unidirectional. With resistive loads the
load voltage polarity is fixed. With energy storage loads and alternating supply voltage
the load current is unidirectional but pulsating, and the load voltage in series-connected
load inductance elements may vary and alternate in polarity during the load current
cycle.

Fig. 1.3 Rectifier block diagram

In order to investigate some basic properties of certain rectifier circuits, it is convenient

to consider single-phase circuits separately from three-phase circuits. Additional
classifications that are helpful are to consider diode (uncontrolled rectifier) circuits
separately from thyristor (controlled rectifier) circuits and to also separate resistive load
circuits from reactive load circuits.

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1.3.2 INVERTERS

The process of transferring power from a direct current (dc) supply to an AC circuit is
called a process of inversion (Fig. 1.4). Like rectification, the operation takes place by the
controlled switching of semiconductor switching devices.

Fig. 1.4 Inverter block diagram

1.3.3 CYCLOCONVERTERS

Power can be transferred from an AC supply to an AC load, usually of lower frequency,

by the direct switching of semiconductor devices (Fig. 1.5). The commutation takes
place by natural cycling of the supply-side voltages, as in rectifiers.

Fig.1.5 Cyclo-converter block diagram

1.3.4 DC-DC CONVERTERS

DC-dc converters are used to convert unregulated dc voltage to regulated or variable dc

voltage at the output. They are widely used in switch-mode dc power supplies and in
dc motor drive applications. In dc motor control applications, they are called chopper-
controlled drives. The input voltage source is usually a battery or derived from an AC
power supply using a diode bridge rectifier. These converters are generally either hard-
switched PWM types or soft-switched resonant-link types. There are several dc-dc
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converter topologies, the most common ones being buck converter, boost converter, and
buck-boost converter.

1.4 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHES

The various semi-conductor devices can be classified into these categories with respect
to the way they are controlled:

1. Uncontrolled; Diodes. It’s on and off state is controlled by the power circuit.
2. Semi-controlled; the thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is controlled by a
gate signal to turn on.
3. Fully controlled; this category includes the main types of transistors such as the
bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and the metal oxide semiconductor field effect
transistor (MOSFET). New hybrid devices such as the insulated gate bipolar junction
transistor (IGBT), the gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) and the mos-controlled thyristor
(MCT).
The main types of semiconductor switches in common use are;
1. Diodes
2. Power transistors
i. Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
ii. Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)
iii. Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
iv. Static induction transistor (SIT)
3. Thyristor devices
i. Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
ii. Static induction thyristor (SITH)
iii. Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO)
iv. MOS controlled thyristor (MCT)
v. Triac

1.4.1 DIODES

Diodes are voltage-activated switches. Current conduction is initiated by the

application of forward voltage and is unidirectional. The diode is the basic form of
rectifier circuit switch. It is regarded as an uncontrolled rectifier in the sense that it
cannot be switched on or off by external signals. During conduction, the forward
current is limited only by the external circuit impedance. The forward voltage drop
during conduction is of the order 1–2 V and can be ignored in many power electronics
calculations.

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Fig 1.6 Power diode: (a) symbol; (b) and (c) types of packaging

The application of reverse voltage cuts off the forward current and results in a very
small reverse leakage current, a condition known as reverse blocking. A very large
reverse voltage would punch through the p-n junction of the wafer and destroy the
device by reverse avalanching.

1.4.2 POWER TRANSISTORS

Power transistors are three-terminal rectifier devices in which the unidirectional main
circuit current has to be maintained by the application of base or gate current at the
control electrode. Removal of the gate or base drive results in current extinction.

Fig 1.7 Circuit symbols (a) NPN transistor; and (b) PNP transistor

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal silicon switch. If the base
terminal B and collector terminal C are both positively biased with respect to the emitter
terminal E, switch-on occurs. Conduction continues until the base current is removed,
so that the BJT is a current controlled device. It will only reverse block up to about 20 V
and needs to be used with a series diode if higher reverse blocking is required.

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Fig.1.8 Transistor characteristic curve

The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is a very fast acting,

three-terminal switch. For conduction the drain voltage VD and gate voltage VG must
both be greater than the source voltage V S . The device is voltage controlled, whereby
removal of the gate voltage results in switch-off. MOSFETs can be operated in parallel
for current sharing. Ratings of 500 V and 50 A are now (1999) available.

A compound device known as the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) combines the
fast switching characteristics of the MOSFET with the power handling capabilities of
the BJT. Single device ratings in the regions 300–1600 V and 10–400 A mean that power
ratings greater than 50 kW are available. The switching frequency is faster than a BJT
but slower than a MOSFET. A device design that emphasizes the features of high-
frequency switching or low on-state resistance has the disadvantage of low reverse
breakdown voltage. This can be compensated by a reverse-connected diode.

The static induction transistor (SIT) has characteristics similar to a MOSFET with higher
power levels but lower switching frequency. It is normally on, in the absence of gate
signal, and is turned off by positive gate signal. Although not in common use, ratings of
1200 V, 300 A are available. It has the main disadvantage of high (e.g., 15 V.) on-state
voltage drop.

1.4.3 THYRISTORS

The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) member of the thyristor family of three terminal
devices is the most widely used semiconductor switch. It is used in both AC and DC
applications, and device ratings of 6000 V, 3500 A have been realized with fast
switching times and low on-state resistance. An SCR is usually switched on by a pulse
of positive gate voltage in the presence of positive anode voltage. Once conduction

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begins the gate loses control and switch-on continues until the anode–cathode current is
reduced below its holding value (usually a few milliamperes).

Fig 1.9 Simple cross section of a typical thyristor and the associated electrical schematic
symbols

In addition to gate turn-on, conduction can be initiated, in the absence of gate drive, by
rapid rate of rise of the anode voltage, called the dv dt effect, or by slowly increasing the
anode voltage until forward break over occurs. it is important to note that a conducting
SCR cannot be switched off by gate control. Much design ingenuity has been shown in
devising safe and reliable ways of extinguishing a conducting thyristor, a process often
known as device commutation.

The TRIAC switch is the equivalent of two SCRs connected in inverse parallel and
permits the flow of current in either direction. Both SCRs are mounted within an
encapsulated enclosure and there is one gate terminal. The application of positive anode
voltage with positive gate pulse to an inert device causes switch-on in the forward
direction. If the anode voltage is reversed, switch-off occurs when the current falls
below its holding value, as for an individual SCR. Voltage blocking will then occur in
both directions until the device is gated again, in either polarity, to obtain conduction in
the desired direction. Compared with individual SCRs, the TRIAC combination is a low
voltage, lower power, and low-frequency switch with applications usually restricted
below 400 Hz.

Certain types of thyristor have the facility of gate turn-off, and the chief of those is the
gate turn-off thyristor (GTO). Ratings are now available up to 4500 V, 3000 A. with
switching speeds faster than an SCR. Turn-on is realized by positive gate current in the
presence of positive anode voltage. Once ignition occurs, the anode current is retained if
the gate signal is removed, as in an SCR. Turn-on by forward break over or by dv dt
action should be avoided. A conducting GTO can be turned off, in the presence of
forward current, by the application of a negative pulse of current to the gate. This
usually involves a separate gating circuit of higher power rating than for switch-on. The

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facility of a high power device with gate turn-off is widely used in applications
requiring forced commutation, such as dc drives.

Fig. 1.10 Thyristor characteristic curves

The static induction thyristor (SITH) acts like a diode, in the absence of gate signal,
conducting current from anode (A) to cathode (K). Negative gate voltage turns the
switch off and must be maintained to give reverse voltage blocking. The SITH is similar
to the GTO in performance with higher switching speed but lower power rating.

The MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT) can be switched on or off by negative or positive

gate voltage, respectively. With high-speed switching capability, low conduction losses,
low switching losses, and high current density it has great potential in high-power,
high-voltage applications. The gating requirements of an MCT are easier than those of
the GTO, and it seems likely that it will supplant it at higher power levels. A peak
power of 1 MW can be switched off in 2 ns by a single MCT.

2.1 DIODE AS A SWITCH

A diode is a two terminal device, and with terminal A known as the anode and terminal
K known as the cathode. If terminal A experiences a higher potential compared to
terminal K, the device is said to be forward biased and a forward current ( I F ) will flow
through the device. This causes a small voltage drop across the device (<1 V), which
under ideal conditions is usually ignored. By contrast, when a diode is reverse biased, it
does not conduct and the diode then experiences a small current flowing in the reverse
direction called the leakage current. Both forward voltage drop and leakage current are
ignored in an ideal diode. In Power Electronics applications a diode is usually
considered to be an ideal static switch.

13
From the forward and reverse-biased condition characteristics, one notices that when
the diode is forward biased, current rises rapidly as the voltage is increased. Current in
the reverse biased region is significantly small until the breakdown voltage of the diode
is reached. Once the applied voltage is over this limit, the current will increase rapidly
to a very high value limited only by an external resistance.

The most important DC diode parameters are the following:

 Forward voltage VF is the voltage drop of a diode across A and K at a defined

current level when it is forward biased.
 Breakdown voltage VB is the voltage drop across the diode at a defined current
level when it is beyond reverse-biased level. This is known as avalanche.
 Reverse current I R is the current at a particular voltage, and which is below the
breakdown voltage

The AC diode parameters are the following:

 Forward recovery time t FR is the time required for the diode voltage to drop to a
particular value after the forward current starts to flow.
 Reverse recovery time t RR is the time interval between the application of reverse
voltage and the reverse current dropped to a particular value as shown in Fig.
2.1. Parameter t a is the interval between the zero crossing of the diode current
and when it becomes I RR . On the other hand, t b is the time interval from the
maximum reverse recovery current to  0.25 of I rr . The ratio of the two
parameters t a and t b is known as the softness factor SF. Diodes with abrupt
recovery characteristics are used for high-frequency switching.

14
Fig. 2.1 DC and AC characteristics of a diode

As a rule of thumb, the lower t rr is, the faster the diode can be switched.

t rr  t a  t b

If t b is negligible compared to t a (which commonly occurs), then the following

expression is valid:

2QRR
t rr 
di / dt

From which the reverse recovery current

di
I rr  2QRR
dt

Where Qrr is the storage charged, and can be calculated from the area enclosed by the
path of the recovery current.

3.0 AC-DC CONVERTERS (RECTIFIERS)

The various semiconductor devices can be classified in three categories with respect to
the way they can be controlled;

1. Uncontrolled; diodes. It’s on or off state is controlled by the power circuit.

2. Semi-controlled; the thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is controlled by the
gate signal to turn on. However, once it is on, controllability of the device is lost and
the power circuit controls when the device will turn off.

15
3. Fully-controlled; this category includes devices such as Bipolar junction transistors
(BJT), insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), metal oxide semiconductor field effect
transistors (MOSFET) and the gate turn-off thyristor (GTO).

3.0 UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

3.1.1 SINGLE-PHASE DIODE RECTIFIERS
There are two types of single-phase diode rectifier that convert a single-phase ac
supply into a dc voltage, namely, single-phase half-wave rectifiers and single-
phase full-wave rectifiers.
3.1.1.1 SINGLE-PHASE HALF-WAVE RECTIFIERS
The simplest single-phase diode rectifier is the single-phase half-wave rectifier. A
single-phase half-wave rectifier with resistive load is shown in Fig. 3.1. The
circuit consists of only one diode that is usually fed with a transformer secondary
as shown. During the positive half-cycle of the transformer secondary voltage,
diode D conducts. During the negative half-cycle, diode D stops conducting.
Assuming that the transformer has zero internal impedance and provides perfect
sinusoidal voltage on its secondary winding, the voltage and current waveforms
of resistive load and the voltage waveform of diode D are shown in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.1 A single-phase half-wave rectifier with resistive load

16
 Fig. 3.2 Voltage and current waveforms of the half-wave rectifier with resistive
load

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

1. The average value of the load voltage V L is Vdc and it is defined as;

2
1
2 0
Vdc  Vm sin tdt

Vdc  Vm sin t ,0  t   Vdc  0,   t  2

But and

1
2 0
Vdc  Vm sin tdt


Vm
Vdc 
2 
0
sin tdt

Vdc 
Vm
2
cost 

Vdc  0.318Vm

Vrms
2. The RMS value of the output voltage


1
2 0
Vrms  (Vm sin t ) 2 dt

17
 
Vm2
2 0
Vrms  sin 2 tdt

Vrms  0.5Vm

3. Form factor, FF

Vrms 0.5Vm
FF    1.57
Vdc 0.318Vm

4. Ripple factor, RF
Vac
RF 
Vdc

Vac  Vrms
2
 Vdc2
But
2
Vrms  Vdc2
RF 
Vdc
2
V 
RF   rms   1
 Vdc 
RF  1.572  1
RF  1.21
5. Transformer utilization factor (TUF)
P V I
TUF  dc  dc dc
Vs I s Vs I s
Is
The RMS value of the transformer secondary current is the same as that for the
V
IL  m
load current 2R
V
Vdc  dc
TUF  R
Vm Vm

2 2R

0.318Vm
0.318Vm 
TUF  R
Vm Vm

2 2R
0.3182
TUF 
0.707  0.5
TUF  0.286

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3.1.1.2 SINGLE-PHASE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS
a) There are two types of single-phase full-wave rectifier, namely, full-wave
rectifiers with center-tapped transformer and bridge rectifiers. A full-wave
rectifier with a center-tapped transformer is shown in Fig. 3.2. It is clear
that each diode, together with the associated half of the transformer, acts
as a half-wave rectifier. The outputs of the two half-wave rectifiers are
combined to produce full-wave rectification in the load. As far as the
transformer is concerned, the dc currents of the two half-wave rectifiers
are equal and opposite, such that there is no dc current for creating a
transformer core saturation problem. The voltage and current waveforms
of the full-wave rectifier are shown in Fig. 3.4.

Fig.3.3 Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer

19
 Fig 3.4 Voltage and current waveforms of the full-wave rectifier with center-
tapped transformer

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

1. The average value of the load voltage Vdc is and it is defined as;

1
Vdc 
 V 0
m sin tdt

But Vd  Vm sin t ,0  t   and Vd  Vm sin t ,   t  2

Vdc  0.636Vm

Vrms
2. The RMS value of the output voltage

1

Vrms  (V m sin t ) 2 dt
0

Vrms  0.707Vm
3. Form factor, FF
Vrms 0.707Vm
FF    1.11
Vdc 0.636Vm

20
4. Ripple factor, RF
Vac
RF 
Vdc

Vac  Vrms
2
 Vdc2

RF  0.482

5. Transformer utilization factor (TUF)

Pdc Vdc I dc
TUF  
Vs I s Vs I s
TUF  0.572
b) Employing four diodes instead of two, a bridge rectifier as shown in Fig.
3.5 can provide full-wave rectification without using a center-tapped
transformer. During the positive half-cycle of the transformer secondary
voltage, the current flows to the load through diodes D1 and D2. During
the negative half cycle, D3 and D4 conduct. The voltage and current
waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown in Fig. 3.6. As with the full-
wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer, the Peak Repetitive
Forward Current ( I FRM ) rating of the employed diodes must be chosen to
be higher than the peak load current Vm R . However, the peak inverse
voltage (PIV) of the diodes is reduced from 2Vm to Vm during their
blocking state.

Fig 3.5 Bridge rectifier

21
 Fig 3.6 Voltage and current waveforms of the bridge rectifier

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

1. The average value of the load voltage Vdc is and it is defined as;

1
Vdc 
 V
0
m sin tdt

But Vd  Vm sin t ,0  t   and Vd  Vm sin t ,   t  2

Vdc  0.636Vm

Vrms
2. The RMS value of the output voltage

22
 
1
Vrms 
  (V
0
m sin t ) 2 dt

Vrms  0.707Vm
3. Form factor, FF
Vrms 0.707Vm
FF    1.11
Vdc 0.636Vm
4. Ripple factor, RF
Vac
RF 
Vdc

Vac  Vrms
2
 Vdc2

RF  0.482

5. Transformer utilization factor (TUF)

The bridge rectifier has the highest TUF in single-phase rectifier circuits because the
currents flowing in both the primary and secondary windings are continuous sine-
waves.

0.6362
TUF   0.81
0.707 0.707

3.1.2 THREE-PHASE DIODE RECTIFIERS

The basic three-phase star rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 3.7. This circuit can be
considered as three single-phase half-wave rectifiers combined together.
Therefore, it is sometimes referred to as a three-phase half-wave rectifier. The
diode in a particular phase conducts during the period when the voltage on that
phase is higher than that on the other two phases. The voltage waveforms of each
phase and the load are shown in Fig. 3.8. It is clear that, unlike the single-phase
rectifier circuit, the conduction angle of each diode is 2 3 , instead of  . This
circuit finds uses where the required dc output voltage is relatively low and the
required output current is too large for a practical single-phase system.

23
 Fig. 3.7 Three-phase star rectifier

Fig. 3.8 Waveforms of voltage and current of the three-phase star rectifier as
shown in Fig. 10.7

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

1. The average value of the load voltage is Vdc and it is defined as i.e. taking phase R as
an example, diode D conducts from  6 to 5 6 .

5 6
3
Vdc 
2 V
 6
m sin tdt

Vd  Vm sin t ,  6  t  5 6
But
24
 5 6
3Vm
Vdc 
2 
 6
sin tdt

Vdc 
3Vm
2
cost 5 6

 6

Vdc  0.827Vm
2. The RMS value of the output voltage Vrms
5 6
3
Vrms 
2 
 (V
6
m sin t ) 2 dt

Vrms  0.84Vm

3. Form factor, FF
Vrms 0.84Vm
FF    1.016
Vdc 0.827Vm
4. Ripple factor
Vac
RF 
Vdc

Vac  Vrms
2
 Vdc2

RF  0.182

Note that, as with a single-phase half-wave rectifier, the three-phase star rectifier
shown in Fig. 3.7 has direct currents in the secondary windings that can cause a
transformer core saturation problem. In addition, the currents in the primary do not
sum to zero. Therefore, it is preferable not to have star-connected primary windings.

3.1.3 THREE-PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIERS

Three-phase bridge rectifiers are commonly used for high power applications
because they have the highest possible transformer utilization factor for a three-
phase system. The circuit of a three-phase bridge rectifier is shown in Fig. 3.9.
The diodes are numbered in the order of conduction sequences and the
conduction angle of each diode is 2 3 .

25
 Figure 3.9 Three-phase bridge rectifiers

Figure 3.10 Voltage and current waveforms of the three-phase bridge rectifier

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
1. The average value of the load voltage is Vdc and it is defined as i.e. taking phase R as
an example, diode D conducts from  6 to 5 6 .

2 3
6
Vdc 
2 
 3
3Vm sin tdt

2 / 3
6 3Vm
Vdc 
2  sin tdt
 /3

V dc 
6 3V m
2
cos t  2 3

 3

26
 3 3
Vdc  Vm

2. The RMS value of the output voltage Vrms
2 3
6
Vrms 
2  (
3
3Vm sin t ) 2 dt

2 3
9Vm2
Vrms   sin tdt
2

  3

3 9 3
Vrms  Vm 
2 4

4.1 CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

4.1.1 SINGLE PHASE THYRISTOR RECTIFIERS
The single-phase half-wave rectifier uses a single thyristor to control the load
voltage. The thyristor will conduct, ON state, when the voltage vT is positive
and a firing current pulse iG is applied to the gate terminal. Delaying the firing
pulse by an angle  does the control of the load voltage. The firing angle  is
measured from the position where a diode would naturally conduct. In Fig. 4.1
the angle  is measured from the zero crossing point of the supply voltage v S .
The load is resistive and therefore current id has the same waveform as the load
voltage. The thyristor goes to the non-conducting condition, OFF state, when the
load voltage and, consequently, the current try to reach a negative value.

Figure 4.1 Single thyristor rectifier with resistive load

27
 Figure 4.2
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
1. The average value of the load voltage Vdc with a resistive load is defined as;

1
2 
Vdc  Vm sin tdt


V
Vdc  m
2 

sin tdt

Vm
Vdc 
2
cos  t 



Vdc  m cos  cos 
V
2

Vdc  m cos  (1)

V
2

Vdc  m 1  cos 
V
2
Hence, it can be seen that changing the firing angle a controls both the load average
voltage and the power flow.
2. The RMS value of the output voltage Vrms


1
2 
Vrms  (Vm sin t ) 2 dt


Vm2
Vrms 
2  sin 2 tdt

Vm2 
4 
Vrms  (1  cos 2t )dt

28
 
Vm2  sin 2t 
Vrms 
4 t  2 


Vm2  sin 2   sin 2 

Vrms        
4  2   2 

Vm   sin 2 
Vrms  1   
2   2 

4.1.2 SINGLE PHASE THYRISTOR BRIDGE RECTIFIERS

Figure 4.3 shows a fully controlled bridge rectifier, which uses four thyristors to
control the average load voltage.

Figure 4.3 fully controlled single-phase bridge rectifier

Figure 4.4 shows the voltage and current waveforms of the fully controlled bridge
rectifier for a resistive load. Thyristors T1 and T2 must be fired simultaneously
during the positive half wave of the source voltage vs so as to allow conduction of
current. Alternatively, thyristors T3 and T4 must be fired simultaneously during the
negative half wave of the source voltage. To ensure simultaneous firing, thyristors
T1 and T2 use the same firing signal. The load voltage is similar to the voltage
obtained with the bi-phase half-wave rectifier. The input current is given by;
is  iT1  iT2
And its waveform is shown in Fig. 4.4.

29
 Fig 4.4 Waveforms of a fully controlled bridge rectifier with resistive load

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
1. The average value of the load voltage Vdc with a resistive load is defined as;

1
Vdc 
  V m sin tdt

Vdc 
Vm

cost  

Vdc 
Vm
cos  cos 


Vdc 
Vm
cos  (1)


Vdc 
Vm
1 cos 


30
2. The RMS value of the output voltage Vrms


1
 
Vrms  (V m sin t ) 2 dt


Vm2
Vrms   sin tdt
2

 


Vm2
2 
Vrms  (1  cos 2t )dt


Vm2  sin 2t 
Vrms 
2 t  2 


Vm2  sin 2   sin 2 

Vrms        
2  2   2 

 1  sin 2 
Vrms  Vm    
 2 2 4 

4.1.3 THREE-PHASE HALF-WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

Figure shows the three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier topology. To control
the load voltage, the half-wave rectifier uses three common-cathode thyristor
arrangements. In this figure, the power supply and the transformer are assumed
ideal. The thyristor will conduct (ON state), when the anode-to-cathode voltage
v AK is positive, and a firing current pulse iG is applied to the gate terminal.
Delaying the firing pulse by an angle α controls the load voltage. The firing angle
α is measured from the crossing point between the phase supply voltages. At
that point, the anode-to-cathode thyristor voltage v AK begins to be positive.
When the load is resistive, current id has the same waveform as the load voltage.
As the load becomes more and more inductive, the current flattens and finally
becomes constant. The thyristor goes to the non-conducting condition (OFF state)
when the following thyristor is switched ON, or the current tries to reach a
negative value.

31
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

1. The average value of the load voltage is Vdc and it is defined as i.e. taking phase R as
an example, Thyristor T conducts from   3   to  3   .

 3
3
Vdc 
2 V
 3
m costdt

Vdc 
3Vm
2
sin t   3

 3

32
 Vdc 
3Vm
sin( 3     sin(  3   ))
2

Vdc 
3Vm
sin( 3) cos  cos( 3) sin  (sin(  3) cos  cos(  3) sin )
2
3Vm  3 1 3 1 
Vdc   cos  sin   cos  sin  
2  2 2 2 2 

Vdc 
3 3Vm
cos 
2
Vdc  0.827Vm cos
2. The RMS value of the output voltage Vrms
5 6
3
Vrms 
2 
 (V
6
m sin t ) 2 dt

Vrms  0.84Vm

4.1.4 THREE PHASE THYRISTOR BRIDGE RECTIFIERS

Figure 4.5 shows the three-phase half-wave rectifier topology. To control the load
voltage, the half-wave rectifier uses three common-cathode thyristor
arrangements. In this figure, the power supply and the transformer are assumed
ideal. The thyristor will conduct (ON state), when the anode-to-cathode voltage
is positive, and a firing current pulse iG is applied to the gate terminal. Delaying
the firing pulse by an angle  controls the load voltage. As shown in Fig. 4.6, the
firing angle  is measured from the crossing point between the phase supply
voltages. At that point, the anode-to-cathode thyristor voltage begins to be
positive. The possible range for gating delay is between   0 0 and   1800 , but
because of commutation problems in actual situations, the maximum firing angle
is limited to  1600 .

33
 Figure 4.5 Three-phase half-wave rectifiers

Figure 4.6 Instantaneous dc voltage, average dc voltage VD , and firing angle  .

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
1. The average value of the load voltage Vdc with a resistive load is defined as;
( / 6 ) 
3
Vdc 
 
 V costdt

( / 6 ) 
m

Vdc 
3Vm

sin t  ( / 6 ) 

 ( / 6 ) 

3Vm           
Vdc  sin  cos  cos  sin   (sin  cos  cos  sin  )
  6 6  6  6 

34
 3Vm  1 3 1 3 
Vdc   cos  sin   cos  sin  
 2 2 2 2 

Vdc 
3Vm
cos 


Vdc  0.955Vm cos

2. The RMS value of the output voltage Vrms

5 / 6 
3
Vrms 
2 
 (V
/ 6
m sin t ) 2 dt

5 / 6 
3Vm2
Vrms   sin tdt
2

2  
/ 6

5 / 6 
3Vm2
Vrms 
4  (1  cos 2t )dt
 / 6 

5 / 6 
3Vm2  sin 2t 
Vrms 
4 t  2 
   / 6

3Vm2  5 sin 2(5 / 6   )    sin 2( / 6   ) 

Vrms   6     
4  6 2  6 2 

3Vm 1  5  1  10 10  1 2 2 

Vrms          sin cos 2  cos sin 2    sin cos 2  cos sin 2  
2  6 6 2 6 6  2 6 6 

3Vm 1  2 1  3 1  1 3 1 
Vrms     cos 2  sin 2    cos 2  sin 2  
2   3 2  2 2  2 2 2 


3Vm 1  2 1  3 3 
Vrms    cos 2  cos 2  
2   3 2  2 2 


3Vm 1  2 3 
Vrms    cos 2 
2   3 2 


35
 3Vm 2 3 
  
Vrms 
2  3 2 cos 2 
 

5.0 DC-DC CONVERTERS

Modern electronic systems require high-quality, small, lightweight, reliable, and

efficient power supplies. Linear power regulators, whose principle of operation is based
on a voltage or current divider, are inefficient. This is because they are limited to output
voltages smaller than the input voltage, and also their power density is low because
they require low frequency (50 or 60 Hz) line transformers and filters. Linear regulators
can, however, provide a very high-quality output voltage. Their main area of
application is at low power levels. Electronic devices in linear regulators operate in their
active (linear) modes, but at higher power levels switching regulators are used.
Switching regulators use power electronic semiconductor switches in on and off states.

High operating frequencies allow for achieving a faster dynamic response to rapid
changes in the load current and/or the input voltage.

High-frequency electronic power processors are used in dc-dc power conversion. The
functions of dc-dc converters are:

1. To convert a dc input voltage V S into a dc output voltage VO ;

2. To regulate the dc output voltage against load and line variations;
3. to reduce the ac voltage ripple on the dc output voltage below the required level;
4. To provide isolation between the input source and the load (isolation is not
always required);
5. To protect the supplied system and the input source from electromagnetic
interference (EMI); and
6. To satisfy various international and national safety standards.

36
The dc-dc converters can be divided into two main types:

 Hard-switching pulse width modulated (PWM) converters, and

 Resonant and soft-switching converters.

The output voltage of dc choppers is controlled by adjusting the on time of a switch,

which in turn adjusts the width of a voltage pulse at the output. This is called pulse
width modulation (PWM) control. The dc choppers with additional filtering
components form PWM dc-dc converters.

Four basic dc-dc converter topologies are;

1. buck,
2. boost,
3. buck-boost, and
4. Flyback.

5.1 DC-DC CONVERTERS

A step-down dc chopper with a resistive load is shown in Fig. 5.1a. It is a series

connection of a dc input voltage source V S , controllable switch S, and load resistance
R.

Figure 5.1 DC chopper with resistive load: (a) circuit diagram; (b) output voltage
waveform.

37
The switch is being operated with a duty ratio D defined as a ratio of the switch on-
time to the sum of the on and off-times. For a constant frequency operation;

t on t
D  on
t on  t off T

Where T = 1/f is the period of the switching frequency f. The average value of the
output voltage is;

VO  DVS

And can be regulated by adjusting the duty ratio D. The average output voltage is
always smaller than the input voltage, hence the name of the converter.

The dc step-down choppers are commonly used in dc drives. In such a case, the load
is represented as a series combination of inductance L, resistance R, and back-emf E
as shown in Fig. 5.2a. To provide a path for a continuous inductor current flow
when the switch is in the off state, an antiparallel diode D must be connected across
the load. Because the chopper of Fig. 5.2a provides a positive voltage and a positive
current to the load, it is called a first-quadrant chopper. The load voltage and
current are graphed in Fig. 5.2b under assumptions that the load current never
reaches zero and the load time constant   L / R is much greater than the period T.
Average values of the output voltage and current can be adjusted by changing the
duty ratio D.

Figure 5.2 DC chopper with RLE load: (a) circuit diagram; (b) waveforms.
38
The dc choppers can also provide peak output voltages higher than the input
voltage. Such a step-up configuration is presented in Fig. 5.3. It consists of dc input
source VS, inductor L connected in series with the source, switch S connecting the
inductor to ground, and a series combination of diode D and load.

Figure 5.3 the dc step-up chopper.

If the switch operates with a duty ratio D, the output voltage is a series of pulses of
duration (1  D ) / T and amplitude VS /(1  D) . Therefore, neglecting losses, the
average value of the output voltage is V S . To obtain an average value of the output
voltage greater than V S , a capacitor must be connected in parallel with the load.

5.1.1 STEP-DOWN (BUCK) CONVERTER

The step-down dc-dc converter, commonly known as a buck converter, is shown in

Fig. 5.4a. It consists of dc input voltage source V S , controlled switch S, diode D, filter
inductor L, filter capacitor C, and load resistance R. Typical waveforms in the
converter are shown in Fig. 5.4b under the assumption that the inductor current is
always positive. The state of the converter in which the inductor current is never
zero for any period of time is called the continuous conduction mode (CCM). It can
be seen from the circuit that when the switch S is commanded to the on state, the
diode D is reverse-biased. When the switch S is off, the diode conducts to support an
uninterrupted current in the inductor.

Figure 5.4 Buck converter: (a) circuit diagram;

39
1. CIRCUIT OPERATION (CCM)
1.1. On-state
During the on-state, the equivalent circuit is as shown below;

Using KVL we get the following equations;

VT  0
VD  Vin
VL  Vin  VO
Using KCL we get the following equations;
iT  iin
i L  iin
iD  0
i L  iC  iO
1.2. Off-state
During the off-state the equivalent circuit is as shown below;

Using KVL we get the following equations;

VT  Vin
VD  0
VL  VO
Using KCL we get the following equations;
iT  iin  0
i D  i L  iC  iO

40
 From the equations, the waveforms for the voltage and currents are derived as
shown below;

Fig. 5.5 waveforms

2. VO / Vin RELATIONSHIP (DUTY RATIO, D)

The relationship among the input voltage, output voltage, and the switch duty ratio
D can be derived, for instance, from the inductor voltage v L waveform (see Fig. 5.5).
According to Faraday’s law, the inductor volt-second product over a period of
steady-state operation is zero. For the buck converter;

(Vin  VO ) DT  V (1  D)T

Hence, the dc voltage transfer function, defined as the ratio of the output voltage to
the input voltage, is

41
 T

 v dt  0
0
L

But v L  Vin  Vo for 0  t  t on

v L  Vo for t on  t  Ts

ton toff

 (V
0
in  Vo )dt   (Vo )dt  0
ton

(Vin  Vo ) t 0on  (Vo ) t toff  0

t t
on

(Vin  Vo )ton  (Vo )toff  ton   0

Vinton  Voton  Votoff  Voton  0

Vinton  Votoff  0

Vinton  Votoff

Vo ton
 D
Vin toff

Vo
D 
Vin

It can be seen from the Equation above that the output voltage is always smaller that
the input voltage.

3. AVERAGE INDUCTOR CURRENT

The average inductor current is given by;

42
 Area.under.the.curve.in.cycle
I L ( av ) 
periodic.time
I L (min)Ts  0.5( I L (max)  I L (min) )Ts
I L ( av ) 
Ts
I L( av)  0.5( I L(max  I L(min) )

4. AVERAGE SWITCH CURRENT

Area.under.the.curve.in.cycle
I T ( av ) 
periodic.time
0.5( I L (max)  I L (min) )t on
I T ( av ) 
Ts
t on
But D
TS
IT ( av)  0.5( I L(max)  I L(min) ) D
IT ( av)  I L( av) D

5. AVERAGE DIODE CURRENT

Area.under.the.curve.in.cycle
I D ( av ) 
periodic.time
0.5( I L (max)  I L (min) )t off
I D ( av ) 
Ts
43
 TS  t on
But  1 D
TS
I D( av)  0.5( I L(max)  I L(min) )(1  D)
I D ( av )  I L ( av ) (1  D )
In CCM, the inductor current is assumed to be continuous.
6. PEAK-TO-PEAK LOAD CURRENT RIPPLE

The peak-to-peak ripple is determined by the inductor.

t
1
it  iL ( o )   v L dt
L0
t
1 on
I L (max)  I L (min)   (Vin  Vo )dt
L 0
(Vin  Vo ) DTs
I L (max)  I L (min) 
L
(V  Vo ) DTs
I L (max)  I L (min)  in
L
(V  Vo ) DTs
I L  in
L
But average inductor current is equal to the load current, I o
I L ( av )  I o
7. OUTPUT VOLTAGE RIPPLE
Q
Vo 
C
1 1 T
Where Q   I L  S
2 2 2
I LTs
Vo 
8C

44
 (Vin  Vo ) DTs
But I L 
L
(Vin  Vo ) DTs2
Vo 
8LC
V
But Vin  o
D
(V / D  Vo ) DTs2
Vo  o
8LC
(V  DVo )Ts2
Vo  o
8LC
2
T
Vo  s Vo (1  D)
8LC
As a fraction of Vo , Vo :
Vo T2
 s (1  D)
Vo 8LC
1
But TS 
fS
1
Similarly, TS2 
f S2
But average inductor current is equal to the load current, I o
Where f s = supply frequency
The cut-off frequency of the low pass filter is;
1
fC 
2 LC
Squaring both sides yields;
1
f C2 
4 2 LC

1
But LC 
4 2 f C2

Vo 1 1
 2 4 2 f C2 (1  D)
Vo fC 8
2
Vo  2 f 
 (1  D) C 
Vo 2  fS 

45
The dc-dc converters can operate in two distinct modes with respect to the inductor
current iL . Figure 5.5 depicts the CCM in which the inductor current is always
greater than zero. When the average value of the output current is low (high R)
and/or the switching frequency f is low, the converter may enter the discontinuous
conduction mode (DCM). In the DCM, the inductor current is zero during a portion
of the switching period. The CCM is preferred for high efficiency and good
utilization of semiconductor switches and passive components. The DCM may be
used in applications with special control requirements because the dynamic order of
the converter is reduced (the energy stored in the inductor is zero at the beginning
and at the end of each switching period). It is uncommon to mix these two operating
modes because of different control algorithms. For the buck converter, the value of
the filter inductance that determines the boundary between CCM and DCM is given
by;

(1  D) R
Lb 
2f

For D  0.5 , R  10 and f  100kHz , the boundary value of the inductance is
Lb  25H . For L  Lb , the converter operates in the CCM.

The filter inductor current iL in the CCM consists of a dc component I O with a

superimposed triangular ac component. Almost this entire ac component flows
through the filter capacitor as a current iC . Current iC causes a small voltage ripple
across the dc output voltage VO . To limit the peak-to-peak value of the ripple voltage
below a certain value Vr , the filter capacitance C must be greater than;

(1  D)VO
C min 
8Vr Lf 2

For D  0.5 , Vr / VO  1% , L  25H and f  100kHz , the minimum capacitance for

the boost converter is Cmin  25F .

Equations for determining Lb and Cmin are the key design equations for the buck
converter. The input and output dc voltages (hence, the duty ratio D), and the range
of load resistances R are usually determined by preliminary specifications.

5.1.2 STEP-UP (BOOST) CONVERTER

46
Figure 5.6 depicts a step-up or a PWM boost converter. It consists of dc input voltage
source V S , boost inductor L, controlled switch S, diode D, filter capacitor C, and load
resistance R. The converter waveforms in the CCM are presented in Fig. 5.5b.

Figure 5.5 Boost converter: (a) circuit diagram;

1. CIRCUIT OPERATION (CCM)

1.1. On-state
During the on-state, the equivalent circuit is as shown below;

During this part of the input voltage cycle, the energy from the source will
charge the inductor. The load is supplied by the energy supplied by the
capacitor.
Using KVL we get the following equations;
VT  0
VD  VO
VL  Vin
Using KCL we get the following equations;
iT  iin  i L
iO  iC
1.2. Off-state
During the off-state the equivalent circuit is as shown below;

Using KVL we get the following equations;

47
 Vin  VL  VT  0
VT  VD  VO  0
But VD  0
VT  VO  0
VT  VO
Therefore, Vin  VL  VO  0
VL  Vin  VO
Using KCL we get the following equations;
iin  i L  i D
i D  iC  iO
iT  0

From the equations, the waveforms for the voltage and currents are derived as
shown below;

Fig. 5.7 waveforms

2. VO / Vin RELATIONSHIP (DUTY RATIO, D)

Hence, the dc voltage transfer function defined as the ratio of the output voltage
to the input voltage in the steady state and is given as;

48
 T

 v dt  0
0
L

But v L  Vin for 0  t  DTs

vL  Vin  Vo for DTs  t  Ts

DTs Ts

V
0
in dt   (V
DTs
in  Vo )dt  0

 (Vin  Vo ) t DTs  0
DTs T
(Vin ) t 0
s

(Vin ) DTs  (Vin  Vo )Ts  DTs   0

Vin DTs  VinTs  VoTs  Vin DTs  Vo DTs  0

VinTs  (Vo )(1  D)Ts  0

VinTs  Vo (1  D)Ts

Vin  Vo (1  D)

Vo 1
 
Vin 1  D

It can be seen from the Equation above that the output voltage is always smaller that
the input voltage.

3. I O / I in RELATIONSHIP
Pin  Po

49
 Vin I in  Vo I o
I o Vin
  1 D
I in Vo
Io
 1 D
I in
4. AVERAGE INDUCTOR CURRENT

The average inductor current is given by;

T
1 s
I L ( av )   iL dt
Ts o
But iL  iin for 0  t  DTs
Area.under.the.curve.in.cycle
I L ( av ) 
periodic.time
I L (min)Ts  0.5( I L (max)  I L (min) )Ts
I L ( av ) 
Ts
I L( av)  0.5( I L(max  I L(min) )

5. AVERAGE SWITCH CURRENT

Area.under.the.curve.in.cycle
I T ( av ) 
periodic.time

50
 0.5( I L (max)  I L (min) ) DTs
I T ( av ) 
Ts
IT ( av)  0.5( I L(max)  I L(min) ) D
IT ( av)  I L( av) D

6. AVERAGE DIODE CURRENT

Area.under.the.curve.in.cycle
I D ( av ) 
periodic.time
0.5( I L (max)  I L (min) )(1  D )Ts
I D ( av ) 
Ts
I D( av)  0.5( I L(max)  I L(min) )(1  D)
I D ( av )  I L ( av ) (1  D )
In CCM, the inductor current is assumed to be continuous.
I L ( av )  I in and I D( av)  I o
7. PEAK-TO-PEAK LOAD CURRENT RIPPLE

The peak-to-peak ripple is determined by the inductor.

t
1
it  iL ( o )   v L dt
L0

51
 t
1 on
I L (max)  I L (min)   (Vin  Vo )dt
L 0
(Vin  Vo ) DTs
I L (max)  I L (min) 
L
(V  Vo ) DTs
I L (max)  I L (min)  in
L
(V  Vo ) DTs
I L  in
L
But average inductor current is equal to the load current, I o
8. OUTPUT VOLTAGE RIPPLE
Consider the waveforms for the capacitor current and the output voltage;
Q I o DTs
Vo  
C C
Vo
Where Io 
R
Vo DTs
Vo 
RC
Vo DTs D
 
Vo RC f s

The boost converter operates in the CCM for L  Lb where

(1  D) 2 DR
Lb 
2f

For D  0.5 , R  10 and f  100kHz , the boundary value of the inductance is
Lb  6.25H .

As shown in Fig. 5.5b, the current supplied to the output RC circuit is discontinuous.
Thus, a larger filter capacitor is required in comparison to that in the buck-derived
converters to limit the output voltage ripple. The filter capacitor must provide the
output dc current to the load when the diode D is off. The minimum value of the
filter capacitance that results in the voltage ripple Vr is given by

DVO
C min 
Vr Rf

52
For D  0.5 , Vr / VO  1% , R  10 and f  100kHz , the minimum capacitance for the
boost converter is Cmin  50F .

The boost converter does not have a popular transformer (isolated) version.

5.1.3 BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

A non-isolated (transformer less) topology of the buck-boost converter is shown in

Fig. 5.6a. The converter consists of dc input voltage source V S , controlled switch S,
inductor L, diode D, filter capacitor C, and load resistance R. With the switch on, the
inductor current increases while the diode is maintained off. When the switch is
turned off, the diode provides a path for the inductor current. Note the polarity of
the diode that results in its current being drawn from the output.

Figure 5.6 Buck-boost converter: (a) circuit diagram;

1. MODES OF OPERATION
Vo  Vin
Vo  Vin
Vo  Vin
2. CIRCUIT OPERATION (CCM)
2.1. On-state
During the on-state, the equivalent circuit is as shown below;

53
 When the switch is ON, the input and output stages are isolated. The
energy from the source charges the inductor and the capacitor discharges
through the load.
Using KVL we get the following equations;
VT  0
VL  Vin  VT
VL  Vin
VD  VL  VO  Vin  Vo  (Vin  Vo )
Using KCL we get the following equations;
iT  iin  i L
iD  0
iO  iC
2.2. Off-state
During the off-state the equivalent circuit is as shown below;

Using KVL we get the following equations;

VD  0
VL  VO
VT  VL  Vin  Vin  VO
Using KCL we get the following equations;
iT  iin  0
iL  iD
i D  iC  iO

From the equations, the waveforms for the voltage and currents are derived as
shown below;

54
Figure 5.7 waveforms

3. VO / Vin RELATIONSHIP (DUTY RATIO, D)

In the steady state, the integral of the inductor voltage over one cycle i equal
T

 v dt  0
0
L

But v L  Vin for 0  t  DTs

v L  Vo for DTs  t  Ts

DTs Ts

V
0
in dt   (V )dt  0
DTs
o

 (Vo ) t DT 0
DTs T s
(Vin ) t 0
s

55
 (Vin ) DTs  (Vo )Ts  DTs   0

Vin DTs  VoTs  Vo DTs  0

Vin D  Vo  Vo D  0

Vin D  Vo (1  D)

Vo D
 
Vin 1  D

The buck-boost converter waveforms are depicted in Fig. 6.6b. The condition of a
zero volt-second product for the inductor in steady state yields;

VS DT  VO (1  D)T

Hence, the dc voltage transfer function of the buck-boost converter is;

VO 1
MV  
VS 1 D

The output voltage VO is negative with respect to the ground. Its magnitude can be
either greater or smaller (equal at D  0.5 ) than the input voltage as the name of the
converter implies.

4. AVERAGE INDUCTOR CURRENT

The average inductor current is given by;

T
1 s
I L ( av )   iL dt
Ts o
But iL  iin for 0  t  DTs
Area.under.the.curve.in.cycle
I L ( av ) 
periodic.time

56
 I L (min)Ts  0.5( I L (max)  I L (min) )Ts
I L ( av ) 
Ts
I L( av)  0.5( I L(max  I L(min) )
5. AVERAGE SWITCH CURRENT

Area.under.the.curve.in.cycle
I T ( av ) 
periodic.time
I L (min) DTs  0.5( I L (max)  I L (min) ) DTs
I T ( av ) 
Ts
IT ( av)  I L(min) D  0.5( I L(max)  I L(min) ) D
0.5( I L (max)  I L (min) ) DTs
I T ( av ) 
Ts
IT ( av)  0.5( I L(max)  I L(min) ) D
IT ( av)  I L( av) D
6. AVERAGE DIODE CURRENT

Area.under.the.curve.in.cycle
I D ( av ) 
periodic.time
I L (min) (1  D)Ts  0.5( I L (max)  I L (min) )(1  D)Ts
I D ( av ) 
Ts
I D( av)  0.5( I L(max)  I L(min) )(1  D)

57
 I D ( av )  I L ( av ) (1  D )
7. OUTPUT VOLTAGE RIPPLE
Consider the waveforms for the capacitor current and the output voltage;
Q I o DTs
Vo  
C C
Vo
Where Io 
R
Vo DTs
Vo 
RC
Vo DTs D
 
Vo RC f s

The value of the inductor that determines the boundary between the CCM and DCM
is;
(1  D) 2 R
Lb 
2f
The structure of the output part of the converter is similar to that of the boost
converter (reversed polarities are the only difference). Thus, the value of the filter
capacitor can be obtained from the equation;
DVO
C min 
Vr Rf

58
6.0 DC –AC CONVERTERS (INVERTERS)

The main objective of static power converters is to produce a symmetrical ac outputs

voltage of desired magnitude and frequency from a DC power supply. Some of the
applications of inverters include;

 Adjustable speed drives (ASDs),

 Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS),
 Static VAR compensators,
 Active filters,
 Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), and
 Voltage compensators, which are only a few applications.

For sinusoidal AC outputs, the magnitude, frequency, and phase should be

controllable. According to the type of AC output waveform, these topologies can be
considered as voltage source inverters (VSIs), where the independently controlled
AC output is a voltage waveform. These structures are the most widely used
because they naturally behave as voltage sources as required by many industrial
applications, such as adjustable speed drives (ASDs), which are the most popular
application of inverters; see figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1 the electrical power conversion topology

Inverters can be broadly classified into two types:

 Single-phase inverters
 Three-phase inverters

These inverters generally use PWM controlled signals for producing an ac output
voltage. The inverters are classified into three types according to the input source as
follows:
59
  Voltage source inverter (VSI) if the input voltage remains constant
 Current source inverter (CSI) if the input currents are maintained constant.
 Variable dc linked inverter (VDLI) if the input voltage is controllable.

Single-phase voltage source inverters (VSIs) can be found as half-bridge and full-
bridge topologies. Although the power range they cover is the low one, they are
widely used in power supplies, single-phase UPSs.

6.1 SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTERS (VSIs)

Single-phase voltage source inverters (VSIs) can be found as half-bridge and full-
bridge topologies. Although the power range they cover is the low one, they are
widely used in power supplies and single-phase UPSs.

6.1.1 HALF-BRIDGE VSI

The half-bridge configuration of the single-phase voltage source inverters is shown

schematically in fig 6.2 below. The inverter circuit consists of two choppers. The dc
supply is center-taped. Switches S1 and S 2 are solid-state switches (SCRs or GTO
thyristor, BJTs, or MOSFETS). Diodes D1 and D2 are known as feedback diodes
because they can feedback load reactive energy.

1. CIRCUIT OPERATION
When only S1 is turned on for a time T / 2 , the instantaneous voltage across
the load vO is V dc .
If S 2 only is turned on for a time T / 2  T ,  Vdc appears across the load.
The control circuit should be designed such that S1 and S 2 are not turned on
at the same time.

60
2. OUTPUT VOLTAGE
The rms output voltage can be found by:
T /2
1
VO  V
2
dc dt
T 0

1/ 2
 2 T /2V 2  V
Vo    dc dt   dc
T 0 4  2
The instantaneous output voltage can be expressed in Fourier series as:

2.Vdc
VO  
n 1, 3, 5... n
sin t

The output of practical inverters contains harmonics and quality of an

inverter is normally evaluated in terms of the following performance
parameters:
Harmonic Factors of n th Harmonic " HFn "

Vn
HFn 
V1
Total Harmonic Distortion "THD"
The total harmonic distortion, which is a measure of closeness in shape
between a waveform and its fundamental component, is defined as:
1/ 2
1  
THD    Vn2 
V1  n  2,3 
Distortion Factor " DF "

61
 Vn
DFn 
n 2 .V1

EXAMPLE
The single-phase half bridge has a resistive load of R  2.4 and the dc input
voltage Vdc  24V . Determine the following:
a) The rms value of fundamental component,
b) The output power,
c) The average and peak current of each transistor,
d) The total harmonic distortion THD,
e) The distortion factor DF of third harmonic.
Solution
a) The rms value of the fundamental component, V1
b) The output power, Po
i. Rms output voltage, V o
T /2
1
VO  V
2
dc dt
T /2 0

T /2
2
VO   24
2
dt
T 0

T /2
1152
T 0
VO  dt

VO  t 0
1152 T / 2
T
1152  T 
VO 
T  2 

Vo  24V
ii. Power output, Po

Vo2 24 2
Po    240W
R 2.4

c) The average and peak current of each transistor,

i. The peak current, I P
Vo 24
IP    10 A
R 2.4
62
 ii. Since the transistor conducts for 50% duty cycle, the average
current of each transistor is:
I D  0.5  I P  5 A

6.1.2. FULL-BRIDGE VSI

Figure 6.5 shows the power topology of a full-bridge VSI. This inverter is similar to the
half-bridge inverter; however, a second leg provides the neutral point to load. As
expected, both switches S1 and S1 (or S 2 and S 2 ) cannot be simultaneously because a
short circuit across the dc link voltage source v i would be produced. There are four
defined (states 1, 2, 3 and 4) and one undefined (state 5) switch states as shown in table
6.6.

The undefined condition should be avoided so as to be always capable of defining the

ac output voltage. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the
undefined ac output voltage condition, the modulating technique should ensure that
either the top or bottom switch of each leg is on at any instant. It can be observed that
the ac output voltage can take values up to the dc link value v i , which is twice that is
obtained with half-bridge VSI topologies.

FIGURE 6.5 Single-phase full-bridge VSI

Several modulating techniques have been developed that are applicable to full-bridge
VSIs. Among them are the PWM (bipolar and unipolar) techniques.

TABLE 6.6 Switch states for a full-bridge single-phase VSI

State State va vb v Components conducting

1  and 2  if  0
1  and 2  are on and 1  and 2  are off 1 v/2 v/2 v 1  and 2  if  0

63
 1  and 2  if  0
1  and 2  are on and 1  and 2  are off 2 v/2 v/2 v 1  and 2  if  0
1  and 2  if  0
1  and 2  are on and 1  and 2  are off 3 v/2 v/2 v 1  and 2  if  0
1  and 2  if  0
1  and 2  are on and 1  and 2  are off 4 v/2 v/2 v 1  and 2  if  0
v/2 v/2 v 1  and 2  if  0
1  and 2  are on and 1  and 2  are off 5 v/2 v/2 v 1  and 2  if  0

64
7.0 COMPONENT TEMPERATURE CONTROL AND HEAT SINKS

Semiconductor power losses are dissipated in the form of heat, which must be
transferred away from the switching junction. The reliability and life expectancy of any
power semiconductor are directly related to the maximum device junction temperature
experienced. It is therefore essential that the thermal design determines accurately the
maximum junction temperature from the device power dissipation.
Heat can be transferred by any of, or a combination of, three mechanisms, i.e.
convection, conduction, and radiation.
Electromagnetic thermal radiation is given by;

Pd  (T14  T24 ) [1]

Where;


 is the Stefen-Boltzmann constant (5.67  108W / m 2 K 4 )

 is a surface property, termed emissivity


 is the area involved in the heat transfer

 is absolute temperature

The one dimensional model for general molecular heat transfer is given by;
 
Pd    l
l t [2]
Where
 Pd is the rate of heat transfer i.e. the power dissipated.
   1  2 or  is the temperature difference between regions of heat transfer
  is thermal conductivity
  is density of the heat-sink material
 c is specific heat capacity,   W / mc
 l is distance (thickness).
Assuming steady-state heat dissipation conditions, then  / t  0 .

65
Conduction through a solid is given by;

Pd  
l [3]
Convection heat transfer through fluid or air, under steady-state conditions, is given by;
Pd  h
[4]
The heat transfer coefficient h   / l depends on the heat transfer mechanism used and
various factors involved in that particular mechanism.
For natural vertical convection in free air the losses for a plane surface may be
approximated by the following empirical formula;

T 4
Pd  1.35 4
l [5]
Where ℓ is the vertical height in the direction of the air flow
Two cases occur for forced air flow, and the empirical losses are;
For laminar flow
v
Pd  3.9
l [6]
For turbulent flow

v4
Pd  6.0  5
l [7]
Where v is the velocity of the vertical air flow.
It is generally more convenient to work in terms of thermal resistance which is defined
as the ratio of temperature to power. From equation (4), thermal resistance R is
 1 l
R   
Pd h   [8]
The average power dissipation Pd and maximum junction temperature T j max , plus the
ambient temperature Ta , determine the necessary heat sink, according to equation (8)
T j max  Ta
Pd 
Rj a [9]

Where Rj  a is the total thermal resistance from the junction to the ambient air. The
device user is restricted by the thermal properties from the junction to the case for a
particular package, material, and header mount according to
T j max  Ta
Pd 
Rj c [10]

66
Where Tc is the case temperature, K and
Rj  c is the package junction-to-case thermal resistance, K/W.
An analogy between the thermal equations and Ohm’s law is often made to form
models of heat flow. The temperature difference  could be thought of as a voltage
drop V , thermal resistance R corresponds to electrical resistance R, and power
dissipation Pd is analogous to electrical current I i.e. [T  Pd R  V  IR ]

7.1 HEAT SINK THERMAL RESISTANCES

A general thermal radiation model or thermal equivalent circuit for a mounted

semiconductor is shown in figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1 Semiconductor thermal radiation equivalent circuit.

The total thermal resistance from the virtual junction to the open air, Rj  a
Rca ( Rc s  Rca )
Rj a  Rj c 
Rca  Rcs  Rs a
[11]
In applications where the average power dissipation is of the order of a watt or so,
power semiconductors can be mounted with little or no heat sinking, whence;
Rj a  Rj c  Rca
[12]
Generally, when employing heat sinking Rca is large compared with the other model
components and the equation can be simplified to;

Rj a  Rj c  Rcs  Rsa

[13]

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7.2.1. CONTACT THERMAL RESISTANCE, Rcs
The case-to-heat-sink thermal resistance Rcs depends on the package type, interface
flatness, mounting pressure, and whether thermal-conducting grease and/or an
insulating material is used. In general, increased mounting pressure decreases the
interface thermal resistance, and no insulation with thermal grease results in minimum
Rcs . Common electrical insulators are mica, aluminium oxide, and beryllium oxide in
descending order of thermal resistance, for a given thickness and area. Table 7.1 shows
typical contact thermal resistance values for smaller power device packages, with
various insulating and silicone grease conditions.
Table 7.2 Typical case-to-heat-sink thermal resistance value for various packages

7.2.2 HEAT-SINK THERMAL RESISTANCE, Rs a

The thermal resistance for a flat square plate heat sink may be approximated by;
3.3 1/ 4 650
Rsa  cf  cf
l A [14]

Typical values of heat-sink thermal conductance λ in W/K cm at 350 K, are shown in

Table 7.3 and
Where
 l is the thickness of the heat-sink in mm
 A is the area of the heat-sink in cm 2
 c f is a correction factor for the position and surface emissivity of the heat-sink
orientation according to Table 7.4.
Table 7.3 Thermal conductivity

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Table 7.4 Heat-sink correction factor

Table 7.5 Emissivity values

The correction factor c f illustrates the fact that black surfaces are better heat radiators
and that warm air rises, creating a ′chimney′ effect. Equation (14) is valid for one power-
dissipating device, in the center of the sink, at a static ambient temperature up to about
45°C, without other radiators in the near vicinity.
In order to decrease thermal resistance, inferred by equation (8), finned-type heat sinks
are employed which increase sink surface area. Figure 7.6 illustrates graphs of thermal
performance against length for a typical aluminium finned heat sink. This figure shows
that Rs a decreases with increased sink length. Minimal reduction results from
excessively increasing length as shown in figure 7.6b.
Unless otherwise stated, the heat sink is assumed black and vertically mounted with
negligible thermal resistance from case to sink. In accordance with the data in table 7.4,
a general de-rating of 10 to 15 per cent for a bright surface and 15 to 20 per cent in the
case of a horizontal mounting position, is usually adopted.
The effective sink thermal resistance can be significantly reduced by forced air cooling, as
indicated in figure 7.7 and equations (6) and (7). If the air flow is;
 Laminar, heat loss is proportional to the square root of air velocity;
 Turbulent, velocity to the power of 0.8.
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Figure 7.7 Variation of forced air cooled heat-sink relative thermal resistance with surface air
flow.

7.3 LIQUID COOLING

Liquid cooling can further reduce effective thermal resistance to as low as 0.1K/W and
may provide a much more compact heat-sink arrangement. Both oil and water are used
as the coolant and the heat-sink arrangement can either be immersed in the fluid, or the
fluid is pumped through the heat sink. The heat can then be dissipated remotely. Water
has the advantage of low viscosity, so can be pumped faster than oil. While oil may be
inflammable, water corrodes thus requiring the use of de-ionized water with an oxide
inhibitor, like antifreeze. Oil emersion has the added advantage of offering possibilities
of increasing the breakdown and corona voltage levels, particularly with devices rated
above a few kilovolts.

7.4 HEAT PIPES

Heat pipes are efficient, passive, thermal devices for extracting and remotely dissipating
heat. A heat pipe is a hollow metal or ceramic tube (for high voltage isolation), typically
less than 1mm diameter and a few hundred cm long, closed at each end and containing
a dielectric, non-electrical conducting transfer fluid (refrigerant such as methanol, Freon
or even water) under reduced pressure so as to reduce the fluid boiling point. The
component to be cooled is mounted on the evaporator end (the hot end), where the heat
boils and expands the liquid to the vapour phase. This vapour rises through the
adiabatic tube section to the remote condenser end of the tube (the cold end), taking the
heat within it. The vapour condenses back to the liquid phase, releasing its latent heat of
vaporization, and creating a pressure gradient which helps draw more vapour towards
the condenser. The temperature difference between the ends may only be a couple of
degrees. The remotely situated condenser end is connected to an external heat-sink or a
radiator type grill, for cooling. The condensed working fluid runs back to the
evaporator end due to gravity, or along a wick due to capillary pressure action,
depending on the physical application orientation design for the heat pump. The typical
temperature operating range is -55°C to over 200°C.
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Figure 7.6 Heat-sink typical data:
a) Cross-section view;
b) Heat-sink length versus thermal resistance for a matt black surface finish;
c) Temperature rise versus dissipation for an anodized finish and different lengths; and
d) As for (c) but with a matt black surface finish.
The heat power transfer capabilities of a heat pipe are related to its cross-sectional area
A and length ℓ according to;

A
Pk
l
(W) [15]

While the temperature difference ΔT between the hot and cold ends is;

 1 1 
T  k ' P  
 e
A Ac 
(K) [16]

Where Ae and Ac are the effective evaporator and condenser areas

7.5 MODES OF POWER DISSIPATION

For long, >1ms, high duty cycle pulses the peak junction temperature is nearly equal to
the average junction temperature. Fortunately, in many applications a calculation of the
average junction temperature is sufficient and the concept of thermal resistance is valid.
Other applications, notably switches driving highly reactive loads, may create severe
current-crowding conditions which render the traditional concepts of thermal design
invalid. In these cases, transistor safe operating area or thyristor di / dt limits must be
observed, as applicable.

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