NAME: EUNICE ALONZO
DROPPER, small tubes with narrow tips
COURSE, YEAR AND SECTION: BSCPE 1-1
MODULE 1
COMMON LABORATORY
EQUIPMENT/APPARATUS IN CHEMISTRY
Performing laboratory experiments
in chemistry give a student an opportunity
to learn and to understand its concepts and
principles by observing them at work.
Here are some common
equipment/apparatus in chemistry:
a. BEAKER, spouts and lips around the rim
used in mixing, stirring and heating
chemicals.
b. ERLENMEYER FLASK, has a narrow neck
and expands towards its base for mixing.
c. TEST TUBE, is a glass tube with one end
and the other end closed.
d. WATCH GLASS, round pieces of glass that
is slightly concave/convex, used for
evaporation.
e. CRUCIBLE, ceramic vessel with a lid that
is used to heat solid chemical substances.
f. FUNNEL, plastic or glass and have either
short stem or long stem. Used to channel
liquid or fine-grained substances.
g. GRADUATED CYLINDER, come in many
sizes with several markings. Used as tool for
the volume of a liquid.
h. VOLUMETRIC FLASK, round flask with a
long neck and flat bottom. Measure exact
volume liquid.
I.
on one end and a rubber bulb on the other.
It is use to suck up liquid.
j. BURETTE, tube that is open at the top and
comes to a narrow-pointed opening and the
bottom. Used for titration in volumetric
analysis.
k. BUNSEN BURNER, mechanical apparatus.
Source of heat.
l. PLATFORM BALANCE¸ used for weighing
objects.
m. TONGS, forceps used for grabbing
things.
n. SPATULA, for scooping solid chemicals.
o. PIPETTE, measures exact volume of
liquid.
p. WIRE GAUZE, a sheet of thin metal that
has net-like thin metal. Support ring,
support the beakers, flask and other
glassware.
q. CLAY TRIANGLE, wire and ceramic
triangle used to support a crucible.
r. MORTAR AND PESTLE, for grinding
objects.
s. PIPETTE BULB, help to control the flow of
liquid.
t. CONDENSER, used to condense a gaseous
substance into a liquid.
u. TEST TUBE HOLDER, hold the test tube.
v. FLORENCE FLASK, boiling flask used as a
container to hold liquids.
w. CERAMIC SQUARE, used to check
machines allignments.
x. RUBBER STOPPER, ideal for plugging
joints or holes in laboratory glassware.
MODULE 2
CHEMICAL SAFETY
Chemical Safety is the application of the
best practices for handling chemical and
chemistry processes to minimize risk
whether to a person, facility or community.
1. Chemical safety is the protection
against accidents. It is achieved by
undertaking all activities involving
chemicals.
• Safety of human health and the
environment.
• Assists to identify the chemical
hazards leading to observe
carefulness in handling chemicals
and controls accidents that may
happen.
• Assurance of quality chemicals and
equipment.
• Environmentally friendly laboratory
protocol.
2. Chemical hazards refer to the risks
that surround using a chemical.
b. CORROSIVE HAZARDS, materials
that cause visible destruction. E.g.
Acetic acid, Photographic Fixer,
Sodium Hydroxide.
c. REACTIVE HAZARDS, liable to
explode or react violently on contact
with air, water or other chemicals.
d. TOXIC HAZARDS, cause harm
when they enter the body. E.g.
carcinogens, mutagens and poisons.
e. IRRITANTS, cause harm by
irritating the eyes and /or skin and
cause allergic reactions, drowsiness,
lack of coordination and/or organ
damage.
f. ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS,
materials that are toxic and or cause
to the environment at large
particularly aquatic animals.

• Chemicals are a hazard

HAZARD: Potential to cause harm.
RISK: likelihood that harm will rise
Depends on exposure.
-Minimize EXPOSURE and
reduce the RISK.
• TYPES OF CHEMICAL HAZARD:

a. FLAMMABLE HAZZARD, materials

that burn or ignite. E.g. Acetonitrile,
Methanol, Diesel fuel.
-beware of this sign posted among these
bottles of chemicals.
3. Work hazards and its classification.
Six categories of hazard in the work place:

• Biological hazards. Involves viruses,

bacteria, insects and others which
have adverse to health.
• Chemical hazards. Threaten to
employees whose role expose to
dangerous liquids, solvents, and
flammable gases.
• Physical hazards. Affect work with
extreme weather condition, harmful
e environment thus expand loud
noise, radiation, sunrays and
ultraviolet light.
• Ergonomic hazard. Affect the
individual whose work put a strain in
the body.
• Workload hazard. Concerns on the
issues that causes stress and • Prepare SSD safety data sheets and
workload violence or aggression. MSDS medical safety data sheets.
4. Managing the hazardous chemicals SDS PROVIDES INFORMATION OUTLINED
is provided by STOREMASTA methodology. ALL OF THE FOLLOWING CATEGORIES:
These are to identify, asses, control and
sustain. 1. Identification
2. Hazards Identifications
3. Composition /Information on
ingredients
4. First Aid measures
5. Handling and storages
6. Exposure controls/personal
protection
7. Physical and chemical properties
8. Stability and reactivity
9. Toxicological information
10. Ecological Information
11. Disposal Consideration
12. Transport Information
 13. Regulatory Information
14. Other Information
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS
INCLUDES 8 SECTIONS:
1. Manufacturer Information.
2. Hazard ingredients/ Identity
Information.
3. Physical/Chemical Characteristics.
4. Fire and Explosion Hazard Data.
5. Reactivity Data.
6. Health Hazard Data.
7. Precautions for Safe Handling and
Use.
8. Control Measures.
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSDT)
• It is a technical document which
provides detailed and
comprehensive information on a
controlled product related to.
o Health effects of exposure to
the product.
o Hazard evaluation related to
the product’s handling
storage or use.
o Measure to protect workers
at risk of exposure.
o Emergency procedures.
THE CONTENT OF MSDS:
1. IDENTIFICATION
2. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
3. COMPOSITION
4. FIRST-AID
5. FIRE-FIGHTING
6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE
7. HANDLING STORAGE
8. EXPOSURE CONTROLS AND
PERSONAL PROTECTION
9. PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES.
10. STABILITY AND REACTIVITY.
11. TOXILOGICAL.
12. ECOLOGICAL.
13. DISPOSAL.
14. TRANSPORT.
15. REGULATORY.
16. OTHER INFORMATION.
• TECHNICAL LABELS
DANGERS
1. Highly flammable liquid and vapor.
2. Keep away from heat/sparks/ open
flames/hot surfaces.
3. If in eyes Rinse cautiously with water
in several minutes.
CERAMIC AS ENGINEERING MATERIALS
CERAMICS
• Ceramics are generally made by
taking mixtures of clay, earthen
elements, powder and water and
shaping them into desired forms.
• Is a material that is neither metallic
nor organic. It may be crystalline,
glassy or both crystalline and glassy.
• Ceramics are more than pottery and
dishes: clay, bricks, tiles, glass and
cement.
• Hard, brittle resistant and corrosion
resistant materials.
CHARACTERISTICS:
• Bending resistance
• High hardness
• High degree resistance to moisture
• Resistance to impact and abrasion
• Excellent resistance to chemical
attack
PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS:
• Best known as brittle solids
particularly suited for with standing
high temperatures but, in fact, the
different material used in ceramics
can gives them a wide range of
properties.
• The classic properties of ceramics
include durability, strength and
brittleness, high electrical and
thermal resistance, and an ability to
withstand the damaging effects of
acids, oxygen, and other chemicals
because of their chemicals because
of their chemical unreactive.
FOUR TYPES OF CERAMICS:
• Porcelain
• Stoneware
• Earthenware
• Bone China
TYPES OF CERAMIC
1. STONEWARE
• Special type of clay either or grey, to
which kaolin (a white firing stiff clay)
and white China stone (finely
decayed granite, washed and
prepared as small white blocks) is
added.
• Primary components – clays,
feldspar or flint and silica.
4. BONE CHINA
Advantages of Ceramic
• Durable. Extremely hard. Last 10-20
years and longer. Handle extremes
of heat and cold very well.
• Easy to clean. Stain resistant.
Hygienic, not absorb liquids, does
not retain the residues and smells of
chemicals, foods or beverages.
Simply vacuum and use damp mop.
• Design options. Modern
manufacturing techniques allows
ceramic producers to make
materials which can b printed in
numerous ways.

• Stoneware is a vitreous(glass) or Advantages of Ceramic (Cont’)

semi-vitreous ceramic made
• Cost. Relatively inexpensive.
primarily from stoneware clay or
• Can be installed in nearly any
non-refractory fire clay.
application.
• Fired at high temperatures and it is
• High scratch resistance.
nonporous.
• Resistance to burns.
2. EARTHENWARE
Application of Ceramics
• Low fired clay because it is normally
• Used in electronics.
matured at low temperature.
• Used to make objects as diverse as
• Finer than stoneware.
spark plugs, fiber optics, artificial
There are two main types of glazed
joints, space shuttle tiles, cooktops,
earthenware:
race car brakes.
a. Creamware b. Tin-glazed
3. PORCELAIN
 MODULE 3A
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
The substance which is useful in the field of
engineering is called an engineering
material.
1. Engineering materials, the
materials that are used as raw
material for any sort of construction
or manufacturing in an organized
way of engineering application.
2. PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS.
• Mechanical Properties:
o Strength - ability of materials
to sustain load without
distortion
o Stiffness - ability of a
material to resist
deformation
o Elasticity - the property of a
material regains its shape
and size after the removal of
an externally applied force;
o Malleability - property that
can be deformed into thin
CERAMIC
sheets
Engineering ceramics are used to
o Ductility - property due that
fabricate components for application in
shows the extent to which a
many industrial sectors, including ceramic
material can be drawn into
substrates for electronic devices, turbo
wires
changer rotors, and tappet heads for use in
o Toughness - measure of the
automotive engines.
amount of energy a material
CERAMIC MEMBRANE: ULTRAFILTRATION can absorb before failure
takes place
Widely used for filtration in
o Weldability - property of the
industrial areas of food, beverage,
material which indicates the
pharmaceutical, chemical, petrochemical
ease with two similar or
and environment-protecting.
dissimilar to get welded.
o Hardness - property of
material due to which it
 offers resistance to o Paramagnetic - weakly
penetration and scratching. attracted by magnetic field in
o Brittleness - property of the same direction
materials due to which it o Ferromagnetic - attracted
breaks without too much strong by a magnetic field.
permanent distortion
3. The classification of engineering
o Creep - slow plastic
materials includes metals, plastic, ceramics
deformation of metal under
and composite.
constant loads.
o Resilience - capacity to • Metal:
absorb energy elastically. Usually characterized by a
• Physical Properties: well-defined crystal structure.
o Appearance, shape, weight, o Luster
boiling point, melting point, o Hardness
freezing point, density and o Thermal and electrical
permeability. conductivity
• Electrical Properties: o Malleability
o A substance which • Ceramic:
determine its response to an Amorphous or complex
electric field such as crystalline structure with strong
dielectric constant or ionic bonds.
conductivity. o Brittleness
• Chemical Properties: o High thermal and electrical
o Chemical composition, resistance.
atomic bonding, corrosion, o Opaque
resistance, acidity or o High Temperature SA
alkalinity. Stability.
• Thermal Properties:
SAMPLES OF CERAMICS
o Thermal conductivity,
sensitivity, thermal strength, • POLYMERS
resistance. They are usually long chain
• Magnetic Properties: organic macromolecules with
o Response to externally covalent bonds.
applied magnetic field as o Ductile soft.
diamagnetic, paramagnetic o Translucency.
or ferromagnetic. o Low Thermal Stability.
o Diamagnetic - weakly o Light weight.
repelled by a magnetic field o Poor conductor.
in opposite direction • COMPOSITES
These are macro-physical
 combination of different phases
where the aim is to combine
beneficial properties of the
constituent materials.
o E.g. are formed by combining
material together, plywood.
• CONCRETE
Artificial composite
consisting of loose stone (aggregate)
held on with a matrix of Cement.
4. The four components that involve in
the design of production and utilization of
materials are:
o Structure
o Property
o Processing
o Performance
The following shall be considered
while selecting the materials:
o Availability of the materials.
o Suitability of materials for the
working condition.
o The cost of the materials.
5. Why study Engineering materials?
o To be able to select a material for a
given use base on consideration of
cost and performance.
o To understand the limits of
materials and the chance to their
properties with uses.
o To be able to create a new material
that will have some desirable
properties.
6. Role of crystal structure to the
engineering materials.
In Crystallography, which is the
experimental science of the arrangement of
atoms in solids.
• A crystal structure is a unique
arrangement of atoms in a crystal.
• A crystal structure is composed of
unit of cell.
• E.g. The graphite and diamond.
o Both the graphite and
diamond are made up only
element carbon.
o Graphite is compound of
carbon.
o Diamond is a carbon atom
stacked tightly together.
7. Application of Engineering
Materials:
• Steel. Make screws, universal
beams, gears medium carbon steel-
used as hammers, axe saw plates
high carbon steel used for cutting
steel.
• Iron. Grey cast iron machine tool
structure, frames for electric
motors, cylinder blocks and heads
for IC engine, drilling machine.
• Copper. Used to make household
utensils.
• Aluminum. Used to make reflectors.
MODULE 3B
METALS AS ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Metals materials build progress in
economy not only in constructions,
manufacturing, several industries and the
like.
1. A metal from Greek word metallic, color, recyclable, good conductors of
mine (quarry metal) is a material that when electricity.
freshly prepared, polished or fractured, • Examples: mild steel, carbon steel,
shows a lustrous appearance and conducts stainless steel, cast iron and
electricity and heat relatively well. wrought iron
Examples are gold, silver, aluminum,
NON-FERROUS METAL
copper, iron calcium, gold.

General Properties: • Properties: high corrosion

• PHYSICAL PROPERTY: Metals are
hard, non-adhesive, cold and
smooth.
• CHEMICAL PROPERTY: Metals react
with oxygen in water and air.
• ECOLOGICAL PROPERTY:
resistance, easy to fabricate-
machinability, casting, welding,
great thermal conductivity, great
electrical conductivity, low density
(less mass), colorful, non-magnetic.
high ductility.
• Examples: copper, aluminum, lead,
zinc, nickel.

3. Metal Alloys are formed by

combining a metal with one or more other
metallic / and or non-metallic materials.
Combination occurs through:

o Melting
o Mixing
o Cooling
• Among aluminum metal alloys are:
o Nickel alloys have high
temperature and corrosion
resistance
o Copper alloys described as
electrically conductive,
having good corrosion
2. Metals can be divided into two main resistance.
groups: o Titanium alloys are light,
FERROUS METAL strong and high corrosion
resistance.
• Properties: durable, great tensile o Aluminum alloys is soft and
strength, usually magnetic, low weak but if alloyed it
resistance to corrosion, silver-like increased its strength and
 utilized as aerospace
industry.
4. Phase Diagram its importance in
metallurgy.
• Phase Diagram are useful to
Metallurgists for selection of alloys
with a specific composition and
design and control of heat
treatment procedure that will
produce specific properties. They
are used to troubleshoot quality
problems.
• has its own distinct physical,
mechanical, electrical and
electrochemical properties.
• E.g. Carbon. steel, ferrite is a
relatively soft phase and cementite
is hard, brittle phase when they
are present together.
MODULE 3C
POLYMERS AS ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Polymers are long chain giant
organic molecules are assembled from
many smaller molecules called monomers.
Polymers consists of many repeating
monomers units in long chains.
CHARACTERISTICS
• Can be resistant to chemicals some
plastics provide safe, non-breakable
for aggressive solvent.
• Can be both thermal and electrical
insulators. E.g. pot and pan handles,
the coffee pot handles, microwave
cookware
• Very light in weight with significant
degrees of strength.
• Can be processed in various ways
like plastic.
• Materials with a seemingly limitless
range of characteristics and colors.
• Usually made of petroleum but not
always.
• Can be made into clear, water proof
films, PVC used to make medical
tubing and other medical devices to
permit effective functioning.
STRUCTURE
Polymers are made up of
hydrocarbons compounds of carbon and
hydrogen. These hydrocarbons are a long
chain of linked to carbon and hydrogen
atoms, the backbone of polymers the
polymer with only carbon and hydrogen
atoms are of polypropylene, polybutylene
and polystyrene.
PROPERTIES
Physical Properties
• As chain length and cross-linking
increases the tensile strength of the
polymer increase.
• Polymers do not melt, they change
state from crystalline to semi-
crystalline.
Chemical Properties
• enabled with hydrogen bonding and
ionic bonding resulting in better
cross-linking strength.
• Dipole-dipole bonding, enable the
polymer for high flexibility.
• Van der Waals forces linking chains
are known to be weak, but give the
polymer a low melting.
Optical Properties
• Due to their ability to change their
refractive index with temperature.
Polymers as engineering materials includes
the following properties
Good Mechanical properties of
strength, stiffness, creep and dimensional
stability which are further complemented
by good thermal characteristics superior
thermal stability, flame, good chemical
resistance and resistance to wear, corrosion
resistance, transparency, lightness, self-
lubrication.
Classification of Polymers
Based on source of availability
a. Natural polymers, found in plants and
animals such as proteins, starch, cellulose
rubber, biodegradable polymers.
b. Semi-Synthetic Polymers, derived from
naturally occurring polymers and further
modification like cellulose nitrate and
cellulose acetate.
c. Synthetic Polymers, man-made polymers
like nylon and polyesters.
Based on the structure of monomers,
a. Linear polymers
The structure contains long and
straight chains like the PVC poly
–vinyl chloride used for making
pipes and electric cables
b. Branched-chain Polymers
Characterized as linear chains form
branches like low-density polythene
c. Cross-linked Polymers
They are composed of bi functional and tri
functional monomers, with strong
covalent.
Based on Polymerization
a. Addition Polymerization
b. Condensation Polymerization
Based on Molecular Forces
a. Elastomers, these are rubber-like solids
weak interaction forces are present like
rubber.
b. Fibers, strong, tough, high tensile
strength and strong forces of interaction
are present like nylon.
c. Thermoplastics, these are intermediate
forces of attraction like polyvinyl chloride.
d. Thermosetting polymers, provides
enhanced chemical and heat resistance like
epoxide.
Types of Polymers
On the basis of the type of the backbone
chain:
• Organic polymers.
• Inorganic Polymers.
On the basis of their synthesis:
 • Natural polymers, found in nature
and manufactured in laboratories.
• Synthetic polymers, rubber and
plastics.
MODULE 3D
NANO ENGINEERING MATERIALS
The Nano materials in principle, the
materials of which a single unit small sized
(in at least one dimension) between 1 and
100 nm.
Characteristics of Nano materials
Nano materials are developed to
exhibit novel characteristics compared to
the same material without Nano scale
features, such as increased strength,
chemical reactivity or conductivity.
• Have various shape and structure
such as spherical, needlelike, tubes,
platelets and others.
• Tend to stick together and form
aggregate and agglomerates which
have various forms.
Properties
Nano materials have unique,
optical electronic, or mechanical
properties
Mechanical properties of Nano
include hardness, elastic modulus,
interfacial adhesion and friction
movement law as well as their size-
dependent effects.
Chemical properties of the Nano
materials have unique structure,
composition. reactivity, stability,
water solubility, octanol-water
partition
Optical properties of Nano materials
have nonlinear optical properties,
enhanced optical emission.
Nano materials are classified as the
following:
• Nanoparticles size less than 100
nanometers, these are Nano
powder, Nanocrystal, and Nano
clusters. Example: Nano silica
particles used in epoxy resin for 3 m.
• Nano fibers, have diameters less
than 100 nanometers and high ratio.
Example: metals, ceramics, polymers
and natural materials such as
cellulose and chitin.
• Nano platelets are 2D stacks of Nano
materials that can be made from
metals, ceramics and grapheme.
Technology engineering contributes to
economic growth in industries
• Carbon Nanotube Body Armor
The functional bulletproof materials
are essential for law enforcement
 officers and military personnel for
safety reasons.
• Solar Panels
Solar power is used to harness
electricity from the sun, researchers
introduced the nanotechnology
engineering of lower the cost of
producing efficient solar cells.
Gratzel cell, uses a layer of material
coated with highly porous titanium.
• Food products and Packaging
Nano scientists are developing new
techniques to precisely tailor the
smallest particles of food to provide
a specific taste, texture and
nutrients density.
• Medical and Healthcare
Applications
Nano Technology to Better imaging
and diagnostic tools treatment.
• Energy Applications
Nano technology improving the
efficiency of fuel.
• Environmental Remediation
Nanotechnology for affordable,
clean drinking water low cost
detection and treatment.
• Future Transportation Benefits
Nanotechnology offers developing
multifunctional materials which will
make contribute to building and
maintaining lighter, safer, smarter
and more efficient aircraft and ships,
improved transportation
infrastructure.
• Surface Protection Materials
Nano surface protection materials
use nanomaterials to create
ultrathin protective layers that
fortify surfaces to which they are
applied.
MODULE 4
CHEMICAL ENERGY AS FUELS
Chemical energy is a type of
stored energy. It stored in certain
substances. Some substances such
as fuel matches and foods, store a
lot chemical energy which can be
released easily.
1. FOSSIL FUELS
• Formed from the remains of
organisms.
• Fossil Fuels are made of
Hydrocarbons.
• Three types of fossil fuels which can
be used for energy provision:
a. COAL, solid fossil fuel formed over
millions of years by decay of land
vegetation, when layers are compacted
and heated overtime.
b. OIL, a thick, black, liquid fossil fuel.
When oil is pumped from the ground, it
is called crude oil.
Petroleum is another name for oil.
Petrochemicals are chemical
compounds made from oil.
c. NATURAL GAS, is a gaseous fossil fuel
that is versatile. It is mainly consisting of
methane.
2. FOSSIL FUEL IN CHEMICAL
ENERGY
• Fossil Fuels are burned to
produce energy. The energy
conversion goes from chemical
energy stored in the fuels.
 • Chemical energy is stored in the
bonds that hold the atoms of the
substance together.
For example, in fuels, the bonds
between the hydrogen atoms
and the carbon atom Stores
energy.
3. COMBUSTION
• Combustion or burning is a high
temperature exothermic, a chemical
process of a reaction between Fuel
(Hydrocarbon) and oxygen.
• COMBUSTION REACTION IS
Hydrocarbon + oxygen →carbon
dioxide +water+ Heat Energy.
• Combustion of an organic fuel in air
is always exothermic because the
double bond in oxygen(O2) is much
weaker than the other double bond
or pairs of single bonds.
Types of Combustion
• In complete combustion, the carbon
dioxide is the product that includes
carbon.
• In incomplete combustion, carbon
monoxide and carbon dust that are
formed as products.
MODULE 4B
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION AND FUEL
Transformation of energy has been
occurring once energy is formed out of
reactions of fuel, the hydrocarbons with
oxygen through combustion. The energy
stored in the fuels can be released by
combustion.
1. Energy transformation and fuels
• An energy transformation is a
change from one form of energy of
another.
• An energy transformation is also
called energy conversion.
Transformation to be driven forward by
several factors
• The continued impact of
digitalization.
• Subsequent improvements in asset
utilization.
• Advances in key technologies.
• Further improvements in solar
photovoltaic systems.
Energy Transformation its importance
• Energy Efficiency, enables economic
growth with lower energy inputs.
• Growth of renewables, the main
renewable energy sources are
bioenergy, geothermal,
hydropower, ocean, solar and wind.
solar energy and wind power.
 • Electrification, Electricity has been
the fastest growing segment of final
energy demand, growing 2/3 faster.
MODULE 5
THERMOCHEMISTRY
Thermochemistry is a branch of
thermodynamics which focuses on the
study of heat given off or absorbed in a
chemical reaction.
• Study of energy or heat in chemical
reaction and or physical
transformation
o Exothermic reactions release
heat.
o Endothermic reaction
absorbs heat.
o Spontaneous if change occur
3.
on its own.
o Non-spontaneous does not
occur on its own.
• An electrolysis reaction in which
4.
electricity is passed through water
thermodynamics.
to dissociate in into hydrogen and
oxygen is not considered
spontaneous, because the reaction
stops if the electricity is removed.
• It also focuses on the energy
changes.
• relation between chemical reactions
and thermal energy
2. History of Thermochemistry
Thermochemistry rests on two
generalizations which lead to the formation
of First Law of Thermodynamics.
• Lavoisier and Laplace ‘s Law (1780).
The energy change in
transformation is equal and
opposite to energy change in the
reverse process.
• Hess’ Law (1840).
The energy change in any
transformation is the same whether
the process occurs in one step or
many.
• Development of latent energy
changes.
• Calorimetry. Heat absorbed or
liberated by a chemical reaction can
be determined by calorimeter.
• Variation of heat reaction. Gustav
Kirchhoff showed in 1858 that the
variation of the heat reaction is
given by the difference of heat
capacity between products and
reactants.
Importance of Thermochemistry
• It helps to determine if a particular
reaction
Thermochemistry is a branch of
• The First law of Thermodynamics
states that energy cannot be created
nor destroyed but can converted or
transferred.
• This energy cannot be transferred if
there is no interaction of heat, work
and internal energy.
• ∆U = q + w
o ∆U is the total change in
internal energy of a system.
o q is the heat exchanged
between a system and its
surroundings and;
 o w is the work done by or on involves a change in oxidation state
the system. of one or more elements.
o E.g. ∆U = (62J) + (474) = 536 J
2. ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL
• Hess’s Law. Reactants →Products.
o If a reaction is reversed.
∆H is also reversed
2 CH4 + O2 → 2 CH3OH
∆Hrxn = -328 k J

2 CH3OH → 2 CH4 + O2
∆Hrxn = +328 kJ

THERMODYNAMIC IN EVERYDAY
LIFE
• cars, motorcycles, trucks,
ships, aero planes.
• air-conditioning system,
refrigerators, deep
freezers, industrial
refrigeration, heat pumps.
• air and gas compressors,
blowers and various
• Heart of electrochemistry.
thermodynamics cycles.
• It consists of two electronic
MODULE 6 conductors (also called electrodes)
ELECTROCHEMISTRY metal electrodes.
Electrochemistry is the branch of chemistry • An ionic conductor (called
that examines the phenomena resulting electrolyte).
from combined chemical and electrical
effects.

• Electrochemistry is the study of

chemical processes that cause
electrons to move.
• movements of electrons from one
element to another in a reaction
known as oxidation-reduction
reaction.
• Oxidation-reduction reaction or
redox reaction is a reaction that
 • To continually provide continuous
flow of electrons (the source of
electricity) the electrode solutions
must remain electrically neutral
through salt bridge.
MODULE 7
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRYAND ENERGY
Chemistry is the study of the
structure and behavior of matter and most
understanding of such phenomena comes
from the understanding of the gain, loss
and sharing of electrons. Nuclear Chemistry
is the branch of chemistry deals on the
study of changes that occurs within the
nuclei of an atom.
Nuclear reactions
It is semantically considered to be
the process in which two nuclei on a
nucleus and an external substance particle
collide to produce one or more new
nuclides.
3 types of radiation are produced from
nuclear reactions: alpha, beta, and gamma
- Alpha: Positive
- Beta: Negative
- Gamma: No charge
Main Nuclear Reactions
1. Nuclear decay, or radioactive decay is the
process by which unstable atomic nucleus
loses energy by radiation.
2. Nuclear transmutation, conversion of one
element or an isotope into another
chemical element.
3. Nuclear Fusion, a type of nuclear reaction
where two atomic nuclei collide or fuse
together to create a large nucleus and in
the process release energy.
4. Nuclear Fission, a process in which the
nucleus or an atom splits into two or
smaller, lighter nuclei.
THE NUCLEAR DECAY REACTIONS
Nuclear Decay Process
Radioactive or nuclear decay
involves the emission of a particle and/or
energy as one atom changes into another.
1. Alpha decay/emission
Alpha () decay involves the release of
helium ions from the nucleus of an atom.
This is consisting of two protons and the
two neutrons and has 2+ charge release.
2. Beta Emission
The emission of an electron by a
radionuclide. Beta decay is a more
complicated process, it involves the
transmission of a neutron in the nucleus to
a proton and an electron.
3. Gamma Decay
The release of stored energy from the
nucleus. Simple energy. It may be released
by itself of more commonly association with
other radiation events.
4. Positron Emission
A positron is a positive electron. This rare
type of emission occurs when a proton is
converted to a neutron and a positron in
the nucleus with ejection of the positron.
The nuclear transmutation
• Rutherford discovered that during
the radioactive process, atoms of
one element are change into atoms
of a different element –
Transmutation.
• It is the process that involves the
nucleus of an atom. When the
number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom changes, the identity of
that atom changes as is turned into
another elements or isotope
Natural or spontaneous transmutation
It occurs in unstable, radioactive
elements. These elements will be
transformed into a stable element over a
series of decays or decay chain.
Artificial or Induced Transmutation
It occurs when atoms of one
element are struck with the particles in a
linear accelerator, cyclotron, or
synchrotron.
MODULE 7B
NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR FUSION
1. NUCLEAR FISSION
• Refers to a nuclear reaction in which
a very heavy nucleus splits into two
smaller nuclei, each with higher
nuclear binding energies.
• Nuclear fission was first discovered
by the German Chemists Otto Hahn
and Fritz Strassman in the year
1938.
TYPES OF NUCLEAR FISSION
a. Chain Reaction b. Fission Reaction
Chain Reaction
• When one single nuclear reaction,
causes one or more subsequent
nuclear reactions
2. NUCLEAR FUSION
• Nuclear Fusion is the process by
which nuclei with low mass fuse to
form heavier more stable nuclei
with higher binding energies.
• Takes place when two low mass
isotopes, typically isotopes of
hydrogen, unite under conditions of
extreme pressure and temperature.