Instrument Landing System

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Airport Ground Navigation

Systems
Dr. Arjun Singh 
(/content/book/9780070704459)
ISBN: 9780070704459
Publication Date & Copyright: 2012 McGraw-Hill Education Private Lim-
ited
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Table of Contents Figures (177) Tables (21)
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6. INSTRUMENT LANDING
SYSTEM
Introduction
The function of Instrument Landing System (ILS) is to provide guidance to and

along the surface of the runway of a landing aircraft as landing aids. This guid-
ance must be of sufficient integrity to ensure that each landing has a very high
probability of success. The basic philosophy of ILS is that ground installations
are located in the vicinity of the runway and within airports. The transmitted
coded signals to the pilot gives information indicating the position of the air-
craft with respect to the correct approach path relative to the runway centerline
and aircraft's position relative to the required descent angle and the distance
from touchdown. The latter is either available continuously or at selected
ranges. Thus three parameters essential for a safe landing, are made available
into cockpit of the aircraft for pilot. These are
a. Azimuth approach guidance.
b. Elevation approach angle.
c. Distance from the touchdown point.
The system is arranged in such a manner that elevation and azimuth data are
presented to the pilot by simple meter indicators, whilst range is presented
either by a digital readout or by a system of lights used in conjunction with au-
dio tones fed to the pilot's headset. 
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ILS consists of three components i.e., Localizer, Glide Path and Markers or Low
Power Distance Measuring Equipment (DME). The Localizer provides the azi-
muth guidance and Elevation guidance is provided by the Glide Path (GP).
Either Markers or Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) measures the dis-
tance of the landing aircraft with respect to the facility installed.
6.1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

A fixed-beam, low-approach system is defined as a means for furnishing guid-
ance in the vertical and horizontal planes to aircraft during descent from initial
approach altitudes to a point near the ground. Completion of a landing requires
guidance until touchdown by means other than approach systems. The devel-
opment of system using fan shaped radiation patterns to provide guidance for
making instrument low approaches or blind landing was first conducted by H.
Dimond and F.W. Dunmore of USA in about 1928. Work in the USA on fixed-
beam, low-approach systems continued through the years into 1942. Because
of attempts to secure very high performance, however, the United States
entered the Second World War without a nationally agreed on instrument low-
approach system. In 1932, the Lorenz Company began development of a sys-
tem based on the principles outlined by Diamond and Dunmore in Europe. The
Lorenz system was demonstrated to members of the International Conference
in Berlin in January 1933. Subsequent conferences in Europe fixed the fre-
quency for the landing beacons, and the Lorenz system was installed through-
out Europe and in some countries of South America prior to 1939 which was
later called the Standard Beam Approach system.
Early in the Second World War, the United States Army Air Corps took over the
system the CAA had been developing and produced equipment. Subsequently
it was installed throughout the world. The system was developed by the Fed-
eral Telephone and Radio Corporation, bore the nomenclature SCS-51. After the
war, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) adopted the SCS-51 as
its standard. In subsequent meetings of the communications committees of
ICAO, SARPs were developed largely with more accurate definitions and meth-
ods for adjustment of the equipment parameters. However, the basic system
originally adopted by the ICAO has continued to maintain as world standard.
6.1.1. Principles of Fixed-Beam Low-Ap-

proach System
The principle involved in using radiation fields with intensities that are not
equal in the various directions about the radio stations to describe a course.
The radiation patterns, with field strengths varying as a function of the angle in
the horizontal plane about a station, describe not a course-line but a vertical
plane. The radiation patterns describe essentially the same course line
whether determined at a distance of a few centimeters above the ground or at
a height of many kilometers. The plane is merely the locus of all identical
courses. The four-course range, therefore, is satisfactory for supplying guid-
ance in any horizontal plane and could be used for insuring that the aircraft will
fly on a course that will intersect the centerline of a runway. In the standard
fixed beam low approach system, a transmitter operating between 108 and
112 MHz is used to generate such a localizing plane, i.e., a plane contains all
courses in-line with the centerline of the runway. The equipment used for this
purpose is called a localizer. The localizer equipment is installed at the far-end
of the runway, that is, opposite from the approach end. It is usually located
such that the center of its antenna array coincides with the centerline of the
runway, although deviation by a few degrees to the right or left is permissible.
The localizer is usually located 300 m from the end of the runway as shown in
the Fig. 6.1.

Figure 6.1 Typical airfield layout for ILS equipment.
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In making an approach, the aircraft must fly along with course-line that is in-
clined from some elevation to the touchdown point on the runway. If a second
guidance plane is generated that also contains a courses which intersects the
vertical plane at right angles. The intersection of the two planes, so that it is
not only at right angles to the vertical plane but in addition to incline with re-
spect to the horizontal. The course obtained by the intersection of the two
planes is in-line to provide guidance from altitude to the touch down point. The
inclined plan is called a GP. The slope is generated by a method employing the
principles of the localizer which compares the signal strength from two radi-
ated patterns. The GP equipment, however, operates in the frequency band
from 329.3 to 335 MHz. This equipment is located at a distance of approxim-
ately 300 m from the approach end of the runway. It is located to one side of
the centerline of the runway by a distance of approximately 120 m.
To indicate progress along the approach path, use is made of 3 marker

beacons, i.e., transmitters are intended to confine their radiation largely in the
vertical dimension and over only a small area in the horizontal plane. These
markers operate at 75 MHz with low power. The power of the beacons em-
ployed with approach systems is normally of the order of 3 W. One marker is
located at a distance of 1000 feet from the approach end of the runway. This
equipment is referred to as the inner or boundary marker and is modulated at a
frequency of 3000 Hz. A second marker is located approximately 3500 feet
from the approach end of the runway. This equipment is termed the middle
marker and is modulated at a frequency 1300 Hz. The outer marker is located
at a distance of approximately 3.9 NM and is modulated at a frequency of 400
Hz. Frequently, only the outer and middle markers are employed. Figure 6.1
shows the typical airfield layout for ILS equipment installation and use of
planes to mark the approach path and also the marker patterns that indicate
progress along the path.
6.1.2. ILS Avionics

The localizer and GP signals are received in the aircraft by means of separate
antennas and receivers with common indicator. Each receiver has an output
consisting of 90 and 150 Hz tones. These tones actuate a common instrument
of the type illustrated in Fig. 6.2. The instrument has two indicating needles
i.e., one pivoted from the top and the other from the side. The position of the
vertical needle (right or left) indicates the position of the aircraft with respect
to the localizing course. The center of the instrument represents the aircraft,
while the intersection of the needles represents the approach course. The posi-
tion of the horizontal needles (up or down) indicates the position of the aircraft
with respect to the GP.

Figure 6.2 Typical ILS aircraft indicator.
The aircraft is directly on the approach course when the two needles cross the
center of the instrument. The position of the needles in the center of the instru-
ment indicates equal amounts of 90 and 150 Hz signals from both the localizer
and GP receivers, but since they are normally in this position when no signal is
present, most modern instruments incorporate additional small indicators
known as flags. These flags are small tabs on which is imprinted the word off.
Adequate amounts of 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals at the output of the receiver
will cause the flags to disappear. The pilot gets a meter display containing two
pointers in the aircraft cockpit. One pointer is aligned on the runway centerline,
which is derived from the localizer signal. The other indicates alignment on the
correct descent path, which is derived from the glide path signal. When the
pointers crossed each other the aircraft is correctly lined up for a landing.
A diagram of an aircraft meter is given in Fig. 6.2. It is noted that the meter
rests in the crossed condition so the pilot must be given some indication that
the ILS is working. This is achieved by providing the pilot with a warning, called
a 'FLAG', when the received signal is insufficient for satisfactory receiver opera-
tion. A flag is provided for the localizer and another for the glide path. Another
feature of the meter is the series of dots. Five dots are provided in each direc-
tion, i.e., five dots left, five dots right, five dots up and five dots down. The first
dot in each case is represented by the center is symmetrical and linear; the pi-
lot can determine the amount of control required to gain the correct approach
path by observing the number of 'dots' by which the pointer has deflected. It
can be seen that the ILS is analogous to a closed loop servo-system in which
the ground equipment supply the guidance signal, the crossed pointers consti-
tute the error detector and correct the guidance path till error become zero.
6.1.3. Basic Concept of Localizer

A typical localizer system is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 6.3. Instead of us-
ing two sets of 3 loops antenna systems, a single set composed of 7 loops is
employed with the localizer. Some of the systems have used 'V' type horizontal
antennas instead of loops. Some have employed 5 and others as many as 8
loops but basically the principle employed are similar. A transmitter that does
not carry any course signal modulation is connected to a transmission line
bridge at M in Fig. 6.3. The bridge arms are approximately a quarter-wave or
less in length. Because of the cross connection at H, the radio frequency en-
ergy from both arms of the bridge arrives at G out-of-phase and therefore can- 
cels. An additional stub of transmission line provides a load and the adjust-
ment at K is known as 'cross modulation.' The bridge connected to the trans-
mitter, therefore, serves to divide the total radio frequency energy into two
equal amounts suitable for modulation at the two-course determining frequen-
cies, with a minimum amount of interaction between the modulation
processes.
Figure 6.3 Localizer system employing mechanical modulation.
The modulation has been accomplished by both electronic and mechanical

methods. Figure 6.3 shows the mechanical method, which has exhibited a very
high order of stability without the use of servo stabilization of amplitude and
phase. The mechanical modulator consists simply of two quarter wave trans-
mission line sections coupled to transmission lines that lead from the lower
transmitter bridge to the upper antenna bridge. The high impedance ends of
the coupled sections terminate in capacitors. In the center of each capacitor,
there are heavy capacitor plates rotated by a motor. One of these capacitor
plates has 3 lobes and the other has 5 lobes. The coupling sections are tuned,
and thus reflect a virtual short circuit at a point in the transmission line directly
below the stationary capacitor plates. As the rotary plates are inserted
between the stationary plates, the coupling sections of the transmission lines
are detuned, and thus the short circuits in the lines between the bridges are re-
moved. It is thus seen that while the modulators do not add energy, they effect-
ively connect or disconnect the upper bridge from the lower bridge at rates cor-
responding to the modulation frequencies. The motor rotates at a constant
speed of 1800 revolutions per minute or 30 revolutions per second. Therefore,
the 3-lobe capacitor plate produces 90 Hz modulations and the 5-lobe plate de-
velops 150 Hz modulations.
The rotary capacitor plates are mounted on the motor shaft with respect to
each other so that the maxima of the 150 Hz modulation frequencies occur at
approximately the same time as the minima of the 90 Hz frequencies. This po-
sitional relation of the plates assures that the peak energy demanded from the
transmitter at any one time will not exceed the peak energy demanded separ-
ately by the 90 or 150 Hz modulations. This is a very necessary condition for if
some of the maxima of the 150 Hz modulations were allowed to coincide with
some of those for the 90 Hz modulations, the demand might exceed the trans-
mitter capability. Since the transmitter is not a zero impedance device and has
a limited power output, it would be necessary at the time of maximum demand
for both tones to divide its energy between the two modulation frequencies.
Such a division of power means that the maxima out of every 3 for 90 Hz mod-
ulation and one maxima out of every 5 for the 150 Hz modulation would have
lowered output. Thus a strong 60 Hz component would be imposed on both
types of modulation. This modulation would add to the 90 Hz to form 150 Hz
modulations, which might produce erroneous course information. Correct and
incorrect alignment of the rotary capacitor plates is shown in Fig. 6.4. The
alignment of the rotary plates of the mechanical modulator produces a max-
imum power demand for the 90 Hz and 150 Hz modulation simultaneously and
is therefore, undesirable.
Figure 6.4 Mechanical modulator alignment.
Since the length of the bridge arms from J to L via G is equal to that from J to L
via M, the bridge will be balanced if the transmitter load is equal to at K. Be-
cause of the transposition at H, the modulation energy from J should cancel at
L and that from L should cancel at J. By proper adjustment at K, therefore, in-
teraction of the modulation products is prevented.
The carrier frequency, together with the sidebands of 150 Hz, is connected to C
on the upper antenna bridge. Point B on the same bridge is connected to the
carrier frequency plus the sidebands of 90 Hz. Since the distance from C to A
is equal to that from B to A, the radio frequency carriers combine and furnish to
the central antenna of the localizer array, a carrier frequency with upper and
lower sidebands of 90 and 150 Hz. Since the distance from A to E via B is
equal to from A to E via C and there is a transposition at D, the carrier fre-
quency will cancel at E, leaving only the sidebands. Therefore, only the modula-
tion products of 90 Hz and 150 Hz signal are available at E. By adjusting the
arms of the bridge to the correct length, it will be balanced. Thus, the 90 Hz
modulations will cancel out at C and the 150 Hz modulations will cancel out at
B. It is thus noted that the modulation products correctly combine at the ter-
minals of the bridge that connect to the antennas, they do not react on each
other. The 90 Hz sideband energy at A will be in-phase with at E. However, the
150 Hz sideband energy will undergo a 180° phase reversal in traveling to E
over and above that caused by traveling the length of the transmission lines
from C to E. Thus, at E the 150 Hz sideband will differ from at A by 180°. If a
section of transmission line having an electrical length of 90° is inserted
between E on the bridge and the transmission lines connecting to the sideband
antennas, the sideband components in the sideband antennas will be 90° out-
of-phase with the corresponding components in the central antenna. A phase
reversal is employed at F in the common transmission line joining one set of 
sideband antennas; therefore, the sidebands on the right hand side of the array
will be 180° out-of-phase with the corresponding sidebands in the elements on
the left hand side of the array.
6.1.4. New Approach of ILS

Modern ILS is the result of the evolution of landing aids leading from signal
strength monitors, known as isopotential systems, through the LORENZ and
Standard Beam Approach (SBA) systems and evolution of ILS continues to de-
velop new system to overcome the short coming i.e. Microwave Landing Sys-
tem (MLS). However, the present ILS techniques are protected until 2010 by
ICAO. A diagram showing the principles of the Lorenz and SBA systems is
given in Fig. 6.5 glide path data was, in both cases, given by the isopotential
method.
Figure 6.5 Early LOREZ ILS systems.
The present system conception was developed in the USA. The carrier frequen-
cies were chosen to provide a reasonable aerial size with adequate perform-
ance. The 'state-of-the-art' technology at the time of development provided,
reasonable efficiency at these frequencies. A system of tone modulation was
chosen using 90 Hz and 150 Hz, both frequencies being directly derivable from
the US mains frequency of 60 Hz. the harmonics of these frequencies are not
interrelated until 450 Hz and the use of low modulating frequencies allows for
close channel spacing. At present ILS conforms to an International standard,
laid down by ICAO in Annex 10, Volume-1. This ensures standardization of all
the important parameters. Basic coverage patterns for the localizer and GP are
given in Fig. 6.6. In both cases the green lobe represents the carrier amplitude,
the 'Yellow' lobes indicate in the area predominance of 90 Hz tone and 'Blue'
lobes represent in the area of predominance of 150 Hz tone. It is noted that the
150 Hz tone is larger on the right hand side of the runway and below the glide
angle. The 90 Hz tone predominates to the left of the runway and above the
glide angle. The tones have equal amplitude on the runway centerline and the
glide angle.
Figure 6.6 (a) Localizer coverage (b) GP coverage.

The present system uses AM. Therefore the receiver must measure the differ-
ence in amplitude of the tones to determine the aircrafts position. This leads to
the term Difference in Depth of Modulation (DDM). When the DDM is zero, the
aircraft is correctly positioned to the centerline of the runway. When DDM ex-
ists, the pilot must correct the aircraft position until the DDM is zero. Therefore,
it follows that the pilot's meter is zero when zero DDM is received.
ILS integrates with other navigational aids to facilitate the landing aircraft. An
aircraft enroute between major airports may be monitored by radar to ensure
safe distance separation is maintained. The pilot will be able to maintain his
course by using aids such as VOR/DME. When pilot reaches within the opera-
tional region of his designated airport, he will select the ILS frequency promul-
gated for the runway in use and localizer guidance to align on the runway
centerline. This is possible up to 25 NM from the runway. The pilot will fly to-
wards the runway at constant altitude until the glide path beam is captured, at
17 NM depending on his altitude. Once both beams are captured and the pilot
has total ILS guidance, he can continue his approach, using instruments, down
to and along the runway depending on the ILS category. From this it can be
seen that ILS is one link in chain of control, but since it occurs at the point of
maximum stress it must essentially be the strongest link.
6.2. ILS WAVEFORMS GENERATION

CONCEPT
The ILS uses AM of the radio frequency carrier to provide the guidance inform-
ation to the landing aircraft in phases of the flight. The localizer works on VHF,
and the glide path works on UHF frequency. The ILS frequency generation
concept is discussed in detail in the following section.

6.2.1. Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

(DSB-SC)
After modulation by a single frequency, three discrete sine waves are produced
i.e., the carrier, the USB and LSB. No information is contained in the carrier,
since it is of constant amplitude and frequency. It follows that all the informa-
tion is contained in the sidebands i.e., 90 or 150 Hz. ILS guidance tones are
contained only in the sidebands, the carrier being included as a standard by
which the amplitude of the two tones may be measured. In ILS, the double
sideband signal is comprised a radio frequency fc, a 90 Hz upper sideband (fc +
90 Hz), a 90 Hz lower sideband (fc – 90 Hz), a 150 Hz upper sideband (fc + 150
Hz), and a 150 Hz lower sideband (fc – 150 Hz). This signal carrier and side-
bands is designated CSB. A vector representation of DSB-SC signal is given in
Fig. 6.7.
Figure 6.7 Vector presentation of the CSB signal.
Figure 6.8 CSB signal presentation.
In addition, it is necessary to produce signal, known as SBO in which the carrier

is suppressed. The amplitude modulated signal is presented as Equation (6.1). 
(6.1)
where, V is amplitude of the total signal, Vc is amplitude of the carrier signal,

Vm is amplitude of the modulating signal, ωc is angular carrier frequency and
ωm is angular modulating frequency.
If the carrier is suppressed, then
(6.2)
Equation (6.2) is the product of the carrier and modulating frequency. This ex-
pands to:
Lower sideband (LSB) i.e., cos (ωc – ωm)t
Upper sideband (USB) i.e., cos (ωc + ωm)t
Referring to Fig. 6.9, it can be seen that resolving the vector for this condition,
a wave shape is displayed which appears distorted. If this signal were applied
to a detector, then a frequency of 2fm would result. Examination of the wave-
form within each envelope reveals 180° RF phase shift at the point between al-
ternate envelopes as shown in Fig. 6.10.
Figure 6.9 Modulation and demodulation waveform.
Figure 6.10 Phase variation of SBO signal.
From the foregoing, it becomes evident that we must restore the carrier to the
SBO signal prior to detection to gain the correct information.

6.2.2. Carrier/Sideband Phasing

In some cases in ILS it is necessary to generate the sidebands and carrier sep-
arately and then combine them. It is important that the RF phase of the carrier
and sidebands are set correctly otherwise a drastically reduced modulation
depth may result. The carrier and sidebands are in-phase. So the sidebands
add to, or subtract from, the carrier as Equation (6.3).
(6.3)
The details of the amplitude modulation are discussed in the Chapter 1 (/mhe-
lookup/atom-id/d4df26bc0137e848) of this book.
(a) Modulation Depth of Localizer Signal i.e., Carrier with Sideband (CSB)
The CSB signal consists of an RF carrier, modulated with 90 Hz and 150 Hz

tones. In the case of the localizer, the percentage modulation depth of each
tone is 20%, so, assuming a perfect modulator, each sideband is modulated at
10%. Now, there are two tones applied to the localizer carrier, so the total mod-
ulation depth is 40%. The CSB signal is adjusted for zero DDM when each tone
will be at 20%.
(b) Modulation Depth of the Glide Path
In the case of the glide path, the percentage modulation depth each tone is
40%, so each sideband is modulated at 20%. Because of two tones 90 Hz and
150 Hz are applied to the glide path, the total modulation depth is 80%.
6.2.3. Basic Concept of Waveforms

Generation
The waveform used in the ILS is unique. An understanding of the development
of the ILS waveforms is essential in analyzing the performance, which also
helps in troubleshooting of an ILS. ILS system used two different audio fre-
quencies to develop space modulation.
Case-1 Addition of Two Audio Frequencies, (f0, 2f0)
The two audio sine waves are considered i.e., fundamental frequency f0, and
the other twice the fundamental frequency 2f0. They are synchronized so that
two sine waves start in phase with both signals going in the positive direction
at 0°. This relationship is depicted in Fig. 6.11 (a). In this drawing (f0 and 2f0)
have amplitude of ±1 Volt. If these signals are fed to the vertical input of an os-
cilloscope with a sweep speed of the oscilloscope will algebraically add
the two signals and produce the pattern as shown in Fig. 6.11 (b). The algeb-
raic addition of two sine waves of different frequencies, select a point on the
graphical presentation of two sine waves, determine the phase angle of both
waveforms at the selected point. This can be expressed as Equation (6.4)
(6.4)
Figure 6.11 (a), (b) and (c) Graph of (f0, + 2f0).

EXAMPLE 1
If the wave 2f0 phase is 90°, and since the wave f0 is twice the period of 2f0,
f0 is at 45° at the same point and providing f0 and 2f0 have the same start-
ing phase. Let the both waveforms have amplitude of 1 volt then
At point D
Plotting other points will reveal the graph of Fig. 6.11 (b). If the sweep time
is decreased to the oscilloscope presentation will be as shown in
Fig. 6.11 (c). This pattern is produced by the oscilloscope tracing the first
part of the pattern, superimposing it with the first part. It is observed that
the pattern is symmetrical, i.e., the pattern goes positive and negative by
the same amount and goes to 0 V at the beginning and end.
Case-2 Addition of Two Audio Frequencies (f0, –2f0)
Using the same two audio frequencies but synchronizing them so that they
start out-of-phase at point A, (f0 starts positive and 2f0 starts negative) the
relationship is graphed in Fig. 6.12 (a). Algebraically adding the two fre-
quencies produces the graph of Fig. 6.12 (b). This graph will also be the os-
cilloscope presentation with sweep speed synchronized to . If oscillo-
scope sweep speed is decreased to the pattern of Fig. 6.12 (c) is
produced. If two audio requencies are algebraically added and they have
the same or exactly opposite starting phase, they will produce symmetrical
waveforms that are related.

Figure 6.12 (a), (b) and (c) Graphs (f0, – 2f0).
Case-3 Addition of Two Audio Frequencies (f0, 2f0, –22.5°)
Using the same two audio frequencies as before, but synchronizing them
such that 2f0 starts at 22.5° later than f0 the pattern of Fig. 6.13 (a) would
result. Algebraically adding the two frequencies produces the graph of Fig.
6.13 (b). The oscilloscope presentation with sweep time synchronized to
is shown in Fig. 6.13 (c). Note that the pattern is asymmetric. The
maximum and minimum amplitudes are not equal and they never go
through 0° together. In the ILS localizer and GP two audio frequencies are
generated to modulate a common carrier. When detected, the audio wave-
forms are analyzed to determine the operation of the ILS system. If the au-
dio starting phases are not correct, then analyzing the detected waveforms
will lead to some false assumptions as to the operation of the system.
Figure 6.13 (a), (b) and (c) Graphs f0, + 2f0, – 22.5°.

6.2.4. Development of the 90 and 150 Hz

Signals
A simplified block diagram of a GP or localizer transmitting system is shown in
Fig. 6.14. The RF unit will be a VHF transmitter for a localizer or a UHF trans-
mitter for a GP. The output RF power from the RF unit is divided by bridge A ap-
plying half the input power to the carrier phaser. The other half to bridge B will
divide the power again feeding half the power to the 90 Hz sideband generator
and the other half to the 150 Hz sideband generator. These generators repres-
ent the most common types in use and have outputs as shown on Figs. 6.15
(a) and (b). Waveforms Figs. 6.16 (a) and (b) represent pure separate sideband
energy at an audio rate of 90 Hz and 150 Hz. Each lobe contains RF energy of
the same period as the fundamental carrier and reverses RF phase each half
cycle of the audio frequency. The 90 Hz and 150 Hz generators can be viewed
as RF gates opening and closing at an audio rate. Complete carrier cancella-
tion is achieved at the output of each sideband generator. The only measurable
frequencies at this point would be the USB and LSB of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz
components.
Figure 6.14 Typical ILS transmitting systems.

Figure 6.15 (a), (b), (c) and (d) Addition of (90 + 150 Hz) at different sweep
speed.

Figure 6.16 (a), (b), (c) and (d) Addition of (90–150 Hz) signals.

(a) 90 + 150 Hz Ecs Development
The output signals from the 90 Hz and 150 Hz sideband generators are applied
to opposite corners of bridge C. Bridge C acts to divide and combine the side-
band components at its output corners with the proper RF phase relationship.
Figure 6.17 (c) shows the waveform as seen at the right output corner of
Bridge C. This waveform is indicative of 90 Hz + 150 Hz energy. The 90 Hz and
150 Hz sidebands have the same audio starting phase at the output of the
sideband generators. Since they both travel the same distance to the right
corner of bridge C, they will maintain this relationship. The Ecs90 Hz + 150 Hz sig-
nal is then fed to the lower input corner of bridge D. At this corner the amp-
litude of this waveform can be adjusted with a modulation present adjustment.

This signal at the upper corner is the fundamental carrier (Ec), which is phase
adjustable with respect to the Ecs, and Ecs90 Hz + 150 Hz signal to provide max-
imum depth of modulation at bridge D output.
Figure 6.17 (a), (b), (c) and (d) carrier and sideboard development.
The carrier modulated by carrier sidebands (Ecs90 Hz and Ecs150 Hz) signal is
then fed to the carrier antenna (s) of the GP or localizer. When detected, this
signal will be the waveform shown in Fig. 6.17 (b). If the oscilloscope sweep
speed is doubled the waveform will fold-over on itself and appear as shown
Fig. 6.17 (c). This is called the 'Kissing Pattern' and can be used to verify mod-
ulation equality and modulation percentage.
(b) 90 – 150 Hz Ess Developments
The outputs of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz sideband generators applied to the input
corners of bridge C combine at the left corner to form the waveform as shown
of Fig. 6.18 (c) The path to the left side of bridge C is 180° longer for the 90 Hz
sideband signal than the 150 Hz sideband signal. As a result the audio starts
180° out-of-phase to form the 'Five Finger Pattern'.

Figure 6.18 Sideband development.
The signal shown in Fig. 6.18 (d) is referred to as a 'Five Finger Pattern' be-
cause if it is fed into a positive detector removing the negative portion, it will
indicate five position peaks or fingers. This waveform is useful in verifying au-
dio starting phase and carrier suppression. The Ess90 Hz – 150 Hz waveform is fed
through the sideband amplitude control and sideband phaser to the sideband
antenna (s). The sideband amplitude control will be used to adjust the path
width of the GP and the course width of the localizer, by adjusting the Ess to Ec
ratio. The sideband phaser will be used to set the correct phase relationship of
the Ess to Ec.
6.2.5. Modulation Equality and Percentage

The desired way of checking modulation equality is to monitor the Ecs90 Hz and
Ecs150 Hz signals in the feed-line to the carrier antenna using a Portable ILS Re-
ceiver (PIR). The PIR will convert Ecs90 Hz and Ecs150 Hz signals to proportional
DC levels and feed them to a null type meter circuit. A null indicates equal amp-
litudes of Ecs90 Hz and Ecs150 Hz. The waveform of Fig. 6.15 (c) can be used to
verify modulation equality if a PIR is not available. In Fig. 6.15 both points A
and B the 90 Hz and 150 Hz waveforms are equal and opposite, thereby can-
celing each other so that the resultant waveform Fig. 6.15 (c) is 0 V at points A
and B. The 150 Hz is the positive component at point A in Fig. 6.15 (c). If the
150 Hz were higher amplitude indicating more 150 Hz modulation, the result-
ant waveform at point A of Fig. 6.15 (c) would be some positive level. At point

B the opposite is true, the 150 Hz is the negative component, therefore, the res-
ultant level at point B will no longer be zero volts, but some negative value. If
the waveform is folded over as in Fig. 6.15 (d), the center of the waveform will
appear to 'over kiss' because at point A of Fig. 6.15 (d) the 90 Hz is the negat-
ive component and at point B the 90 Hz is the positive component. An under-
kissed waveform would have a gap at the center of Fig. 6.15 (d).
The modulation percentage is checked for a single frequency AM wave, except

then correction factor 0.54 must be applied to obtain the true modulation.
EXAMPLE 2
In Fig. 6.17, if Emax = 40 and Emin = 6, then what is the modulation factor?
Solution
This would indicate a normal GP modulation factor if audio start in phase

and modulation equality is correct. This would indicate 40% modulation
factor for each tone.
6.2.5.1. Audio Starting Phase and Carrier

Suppression
In Fig. 6.16 (c), at points G and I note that the resultant waveform peaks are
equal. These points would not be equal if the 150 Hz and 90 Hz were not ex-
actly 180° out-of-phase at the start. These points are indicated in the detected
waveform of Fig. 6.18 (d) by the second and fourth peak. For the correct start-
ing phase these two peaks would be exactly equal. The waveform of Fig. 6.18
(c) is the sideband only signal fed to the sideband antenna feed-line. It is re-
quired for stability and symmetry of the ILS navigational signals that the carrier
be completely suppressed in the sideband feed-line. In the detected waveform
of Fig. 6.18 (d), the central large peak (3) if in coincidence, at a 60 Hz sweep
speed indicates carrier suppression. If the carrier is present a gap will appear
at the peak of the waveform. Carrier suppression is indicated by a waveform
with no gap at the peak. Care must be taken to ensure that the oscilloscope
sweep is in 60 Hz and not in 30 Hz. A 30 Hz sweep would indicate a waveform
with no gap regardless of carrier content.
6.2.5.2. Effects of Misphasing and Quadrature

Phasing
In the localizer, four parts of Alford loop antennas are used CSB is fed to the
inner pair of the array in phase, and SBO is fed to the three outer pairs out-of-
phase. In the localizer, the carrier and carrier sidebands are 'phase locked'. This
means that the carrier is modulated by sidebands in the transmitter, and the
modulated signal (CSB) follows a single path to the antennas, and then radi-
ated by the antennas. However, the SBO follows a separate path from the
transmitter to the antennas. The SBO signal is then radiated from the antennas
and modulates the carrier in 'space'. The formula
(6.5)
where, sf. is the space modulation factor. The formula is very similar to the for-
mula for transmitter modulation factor.

(6.6)
'm' the transmitter modulation factor, is the ratio of the detected carrier side-
band voltage to the carrier voltage. 'sf', the space modulation factor, is the ratio
of the detected SBO voltage to the carrier voltage times the 'Cosine' of the
angle of Misphasing, 'φ'. It is noted that misphasing angle (φ) is a factor only
for space modulation and not transmitter modulation.
6.2.5.3. Difference in Depth of Modulation (DDM)

The intelligence is contained in the radiated signal from the ILS. It is not too
common and perhaps could even be considered unique. The ILS radiates one
carrier that is modulated by two frequencies (90 Hz and 150 Hz) from two
sources, transmitter modulation (Ecs) and space modulation (Ess). By compar-
ing the magnitude of these two frequencies the aircraft receiver can determine
how far and in what direction the aircraft has deviated from a prescribed
course. Since the intelligence of the radiated signal is dependent upon a com-
parison of two frequencies. The relationship between the two frequencies can
be expressed is as a difference in magnitudes. This difference relationship is
called DDM. DDM is the standard that is used to evaluate an ILS facility. It is es-
sential to develop a good understanding of DDM.
6.2.5.4. Receiver Characteristics

To understand DDM, it is necessary to understand the ILS receiver output cir-
cuits. Since the localizer and GP receivers and associated portable ILS receiv-
ers are all very similar, one general block diagram can be used for discussion
purpose as shown in Fig. 6.19. With normal RF signal strength, the receiver
Automatic Gain Control (AGC) action, or a manual level control, can be con-
sidered to maintain the carrier signal at a constant level. The detected 90 Hz
and 150 Hz components are directly proportional to the respective depths of
modulation. This signal is amplified by an audio amplifier and applied to 90 Hz
and 150 Hz filters that separate the frequencies. Each frequency is rectified by
a full-wave bridge rectifier, and positive DC voltage is developed which is dir-
ectly proportional to the depth of modulation of the input signal.
Figure 6.19 Receiver deflection circuit.
Figure 6.20 ILS indicator meter movements.

6.2.5.5. Receiver Deflection due to Transmitter

Modulation
Assume an input signal has equal depths of modulation for 90 Hz and 150 Hz.
Modulations of this nature would develop a positive DC voltage from each rec-
tifier and the outputs would be equal. These voltages are applied to a meter
movement, which is zero center microampere meters and requires 150 μA for
full-scale deflection. If the voltages on both sides of the meter are the same
polarity and the same magnitude, then there is no difference in potential
across the meter. Therefore, no current will flow through the meter and the
meter will remain at zero centers. Using the same signal, the resistor that is
marked 'FLAG ADJ', is common to both rectifiers.
The current through this resistor is the sum of the currents produced by the
two rectifiers. Since the current from either rectifier is proportional to the audio
voltage applied to the rectifier and the audio is proportional to the depth of
modulation, the total current is proportional to the depth of modulation. The
total current passing through this resistor would therefore be proportional to
m90 Hz + m 150 Hz. The current is proportional to total modulations and is
labeled as flag current. There is a meter movement connected across the flag
adjusting resistor and responds to changes in current through the flag adjust
resistor. This is a 1 kΩ movement that actuates a flag, which is in view until the
movement reaches a predetermined value. A flag condition known as a peep-
ing flag, where the flag is almost hidden by the mask, occurs with 240 μA of
current. When the flag is in full view, it indicates to the pilot that the RF field
strength or total modulation is not sufficient to provide valid deflection read-
ings. As a general rule the flag will be hidden at the time that receiver AGC has
reached its full control value.
6.2.5.6. Receiver Deflection due to Space

Modulation
Consider what will happen in the deflection movement and the flag movement
if another modulation factor is introduced in addition to the 'm90 Hz and m150
Hz'. i.e., space modulation 's90 Hz and s150 Hz'. Let them be equal to each other
and smaller in magnitude than 'm90 Hz and m150 Hz'. Also let 's150 Hz' be of such
a phase as to subtract from 'm150 Hz'. The positive DC voltage produced by the
90 Hz rectifiers is now be increased by an amount proportional to 's90 Hz' and
the +DC voltage produced by the 150 Hz rectifiers is be reduced by an amount
proportional to 's150 Hz'. There will be difference in potential across the deflec-
tion movement. When the 90 Hz modulations is greater than the 150 Hz modu- 
lation (m90 Hz > m150 Hz) the current would flow through the meter in one direc-
tion and cause the needle to deflect in a corresponding direction. If 's150 Hz'
adds to 'm150 Hz' and 's90 Hz' subtracts from 'm90 Hz', (m90 Hz < m150 Hz) and the
deflection will be in the opposite direction. The amount of deflection would still
be proportional to the space modulation factor. This describes the DDM that
exists between the two channels.
When equal signals were applied (m90 Hz = m150 Hz), the current flow through
the flag movement is proportional to total modulation. Consider the case when
'm90 Hz' is greater than 'm150 Hz'. The 90 Hz rectifier would have a current i.e.,
proportional to 'm90 Hz + s90 Hz' and the 150 Hz current will be described as
'm150 Hz – s150 Hz'. Since, 's150 Hz.= s90 Hz' one current has been increased by 's'
and the other has been decreased by 's'. Hence, the resultant current can still
be described as proportional to transmitter modulation. It is concluded from
above discussion that the deflection circuits respond to DDM; the flag current
respond to a difference modulation and is proportional to transmitter
modulation.
6.3. TRANSMITTER AND SPACE

MODULATION
When carrier is modulated at the transmitter with an audio frequency and the
same audio signals is used to generate sidebands and are radiated separately
from the modulated carrier, the two modulation components will combine to
produce a total modulation factor for particular audio frequency. Since Ess is
radiated from a separate source being either in phase or oppositely phased
with respect to the carrier sideband components, it may either add to or sub-
tract from Ecs. This condition indicates that the total sideband component for a
single audio frequency may be Ess + Ecs or Ess – Ecs depending upon receiver
position in the radiation field. In practice, two audio frequencies (90 Hz and
150 Hz) are used, both producing Ess and Ecs components. To form a course or
path it is essential that the phase of one of the Ess components be reversed
with respect to its Ecs counterpart. This initial phase reversal is accomplished
in the equipment circuit arrangement. Once the initial phase has been estab-
lished, phase reversals due to sideband nulls in the radiation pattern provide
the course sensing information in such a manner that when Ess90 Hz is in-phase
with respect to Ecs90 Hz. At a position on the opposite side of the course, Ess150
Hz will be 180° out-of-phase with Ecs90 Hz and Ess150 Hz will be in phase with
Ecs150 Hz.
At a point in the radiation pattern
(6.7)
On the opposite side of course
(6.8)
On course E90 Hz = E150 Hz since Ess90 Hz and Ess150 Hz are zero in the sideband
null. In normally adjusted equipment, the transmitter modulation factor (m90 Hz
and m150 Hz) is equal at all points. Also, space modulation factors (s90 Hz and
s150 Hz) are equal. A general expression to describe E90 Hz and E150 Hz at all
points is:
(6.9)

The total modulating factors for 90 Hz and 150 Hz can then be found by divid-
ing E90 Hz or E150 Hz by Ec since the basic definition for a modulation factor is
the ratio of the sideband components to the carrier component.
(6.10)
where,
Similarly calculation for M150 Hz
(6.11)
The 'on course position' is defined as the point where DDM is zero, or when M90
Hz= M150 Hz since the sum of the audio voltages at the output of the second
detector is a constant at 'off course positions' one of the audio voltages will be
increased as much as the other will decreased proportionally.
6.3.1. DDM as a Scalar Quantity

In the aircraft receiver, Fig. 6.19, the audio components (90 Hz and 150 Hz) are
separated by filters and then rectified to an equivalent DC voltage and the relat-
ive phase of the audio components will have no effect on the amplitude of the
derived DC voltages. For this reason it follows that the total modulation factors
may be treated as scalar quantities, i.e., a quantity having magnitude but no dir-
ection or phase. The DDM may be expressed as:
(6.12)
Figure 6.21 DDM normal case (Ecs > Ess).

Deflection of the indicator needs is directly proportional to DDM or the differ-

ence in magnitude of the total modulation components. It is characteristic of
the operation of a glide path and localizer facilities that Ecs is larger than Ess.
Since the relative values for Ecs and Ess are readily observed from the radiation
pattern, relationships between DDM and s, and DDM, Ecs and Ess are desirable
for practical use. These relationships are derived as follows.
Assuming M90 Hz larger than M150 Hz
(6.13)
Treating the scalar quantities algebraically:
(6.14)
This shows a very important relationship between DDM and the space modula-
tion factor. With normal facility operation, DDM is always equal to twice the
space modulation factor. It is observed from Equation (6.13) that in combining
transmitter space modulation to produce M90 Hz, 'm' is increased by 's'. But for
M150 Hz, 'm' is decreased by 's'. Hence, the difference between M90 Hz and M150
Hz is equal to '2s' as computed in the Equation (6.14). A similar condition exists
when M150 Hz is larger than M90 Hz with DDM still equal to 2s. Further expansion
of Equation (6.13) will indicate the relationship of DDM to Ecs and Ess. Since;

where,
Treating the scalar quantities algebraically:
(6.15)
Since m and Ecs are more readily obtained than Ec, it is desirable to express Ec
in terms of m and Ecs.
Since,
Hence,
(6.16)
Equation (6.16) is especially useful. Since m, the transmitter modulation factor,

will usually be the standard value and easily measurable. Ecs and Ess are usu-
ally calculated from the radiation pattern for the particular facility. With these
factors known, DDM is easily calculated.

EXAMPLE 3
If m = 0.2, Ess = 10 V, Ecs = 20 V Ec = 100 V, and s = 0.1, calculate the DDM

with various methods and verify.
Solution
By substitution the given values in Equation (6.15)
By substitution the given values in the Equation (6.16)
By substitution the given values in term of voltage in Equation (6.15)
Assuming that the receiver is at a point in space where Ess150 Hz is additive

and Ess90 Hz is subtractive i.e.,
This example is further presented in Fig. 6.21 which shows that DDM = 2s
due to the fact that m150 Hz is increased by s150 Hz as much as m90 Hz is re-
duced by s90 Hz. The total change brought about by space modulation is
s150 Hz + s90 Hz, but since s150 Hz = s90 Hz and m150 Hz = m90 Hz the resultant
DDM is merely 2s.
Under normal conditions, the on-course or on-path modulation is solely due

to the transmitter modulation factors, m90 Hz and m150 Hz. This is due to the
on-course position being defined as the point at which DDM is zero, this
condition can occur only when M90 Hz and M150 Hz are equal. Since space
modulation produces equal but opposite effects in producing m90 Hz and
m150 Hz the only point at which the two total modulation factors can be
equal is a point at which space modulation is non-existent or in a sideband
radiation pattern null. A more complete definition of the on-course position
is that the course will fall in the sideband null only if the transmitter modu-
lation factors are equal. Otherwise, the zero DDM point will be found dis-
placed towards the sideband of the radiation field, which contains the
weaker of the modulation components.
6.3.2. Abnormal Case for DDM

It is possible due to some characteristic in the operation of a localizer or a GP
facility, that the separately radiated sideband signal, Ess may become equal to
or larger than the transmitter modulation sidebands, Ecs. When this condition
occurs, the formulas derived for DDM are no longer valid. A new formula for de-
termining DDM in the abnormal case is derived as follows. From the normal
case for DDM is
(6.17)
As DDM is a scalar quantity and since Ess is larger than Ecs Equation (6.15) can
be rewritten reversing the order of m and s.
(6.18)
Since the transmitter modulation is a constant value at all points in the radi-
ation field, DDM will equal '2m' at any point where Ess is greater than Ecs. When
this condition occurs, that DDM reaches rather high values and deflection cur-

rent in the receiver will be much greater than required for full-scale deflection.
However, the indicator instrument is designed for approximately 800 % over-
load so that no damage to the meter movement will occur.
The abnormal condition is shown in Fig. 6.22, which indicates the DDM = 2m
by virtue of the facts that 's150 Hz' is increased by 'm150 Hz' as much as 's90 Hz' is
reduced by 'm90 Hz'. The resultant M90 Hz is caused by the predominant Ess90 Hz
sideband signal, which has the opposite phase with respect to Ecs90 Hz but this
is unimportant. Since the two signals (90 Hz and 150 Hz) after detection in the
receiver, are rectified and filtered to be used as DC voltage applied to the de-
flection circuits, only the magnitude of the recovered fundamental signal is im-
portant. It can be seen that M90 Hz is only 0.1, but M150 Hz is 0.5 still the differ-
ence between M150 Hz and M90 Hz is 0.4 or equal to 2m. This condition will exist
any time when Ess is equal to, or greater than Ecs.
Figure 6.22 DDM abnormal case (Ess > Ecs).
Figure 6.23 Mechanical modulator line drawing.

6.3.3. DDM Limits

A path or a course of the ILS will normally be located in a sideband null. If this
is the case, 'm90 Hz = m150 Hz'. DDM on-course or on-path would be the differ-
ence in the total modulations of the two frequencies. Since 's = 0' on-course,
DDM on-course will be the difference in 'm90 Hz' and 'm150 Hz' and equal to zero.
This is the lower limit of DDM. If the maximum depth of total modulation de-
sired is 100%, the maximum depth of modulation for each frequency is 50%. In
the GP, this value is approached for each frequency. Assuming that m = s = 0.5
This is the upper limit of DDM, therefore, the lower limit of DDM is zero and the
upper limit is one. In practice, DDM should not exceed 0.8 for the GP facility
and 0.4 for the localizer facility.
6.3.4. Relationship between DDM and mA

It is discussed in the previous section that full-scale deflection of the aircraft
indicator is equal to 150 μA of current though the meter movement. In the loc-
alizer receiver this 150 μA reading equates to 0.155 DDM and in the glideslope
receiver this 150 μA equates to 0.1775 DDM. Since the meter movement is lin-
ear the conversion to DDM can be done by ratio and proportion.
EXAMPLE 4
Given a localizer and GP receiver what would be the DDM if either receiver
has 90 μA of current through it.
Solution
a. For localizer receiver 150 μA = 0.155 DDM
b. For the glide path receiver 150 μA = 0.178 DDM
Therefore,
The reasons there are two different DDM readings for full-scale deflection
of the localizer and GP receivers are because of the different modulation
factors.

EXAMPLE 5
If the m90 Hz ≠ m150 Hz in either the glide path or localizer in such a way that
m90 Hz was increased by 10% and the m150 Hz was decreased by the same
amount, and suppose the s90 Hz = s150 Hz = 0.005 in both systems, what is
the DDM?
Solution
In the GP m90 Hz is increased by 10% i.e., (0.1) × (0.4) = 0.04
So,
Therefore
and
In the localizer, m90 Hz is increased by 10% i.e., (0.1) × (0.2) = 0.02
Therefore,
If the Equation (6.14) DDM = 2s was used in the last example then a DDM
of 0.01 would have been calculated which would have been erroneous.
DDM = 2s is only valid when m150 Hz = m90 Hz. Also the accuracy of the DDM
readings as measured by localizer or GP test equipment is directly related
to the transmitter modulation factor being 20% and 40% respectively.
6.4. MECHANICAL MODULATOR

There are several ways to modulate an RF carrier. Mechanical modulation is
one of them. This technique was used initially in ILS. The purpose of the mech-
anical modulator, as the name implies, is to provide, by mechanical means, a
stable method for applying amplitude modulation to the carrier. There are two
channels, or troughs, one for 90 Hz modulations and other for 150 Hz modula-
tion. The output of each of the troughs is a complete amplitude modulated
wave of the same form and possessing the same characteristics as class C
modulated amplifier. It is noted that that in a mechanical modulator, however,
no power is actually added by the modulating process. Rather, there is a divi-
sion of the output power into both carrier component power and sideband
component power (absorption modulation). The two troughs simply appear as
gates opening and closing at sinusoidal rates and controlling the amplitude of
RF permitted to pass from the final amplifier source to the load. Adjustment of
both the maximum and the minimum amplitudes of the waveforms are
provided in each channel.
Mechanical modulation has been employed in navigation transmitters for

many years. Mechanical modulation of this version of equipment used bal-
anced transmission lines. In later version of transmitters using mechanical
modulation, unbalanced lines are used to minimize line radiation. The simplest
explanation of modulator operation is the sinusoidal gating of the RF wave is
accomplished by opening and closing the outer conductor of a coaxial trans-
mission line. As shown in Fig. 6.24, the coaxial input line enters the left side.
Inside the trough the outer conductor braid is replaced by a hollow silver plated
tube grounded at the top of the trough and containing the polyethylene-covered
center conductor. This outer conductor tube extends into the trough a little 
more than half way, and at its end is attached a stator plate. The opposite side
of the trough is constructed, similarly, so that the two outer conductor sections
are side-by-side with a shorting bar near their upper end, and with two stators
at their lower end separated by only a little more than the thickness of rotor
blades, which revolve between them. The center conductor continues below
these outer conductor sections to form an inductive loop.
Figure 6.24 Drawing of mechanical modulator (plan).
The rotors in both modulating troughs are driven on a single shaft by a con-
stant speed motor whose shaft revolves at 1800 rpm or 30 rps. A three bladed
rotor assembly is mounted at one end of the shaft to produce 90 Hz modula-
tions and a five bladed rotor assembly at the other end of the shaft to produce
150 Hz modulations. It is noted that the three bladed assembly divides a 360°
rotation of the shaft into three 120° sectors, while the five bladed assembly di-
vides 360° into five 72° sectors. Hence, the 150 Hz rotor blades, as well as the
respective stator plates, are smaller in area than the 90 Hz blades and stators.
With rotors disengaged, the outer conductor line sections, shorted at one end,
open at the other (except for small capacitive loading) constitute a quarter
wave section readily tuned by positioning the shorting bar. When properly
tuned it becomes an effective quarter wave shorted line section equivalent to a
parallel resonant circuit or may simply be regarded as a shorted quarter wave
line section whose impedance at the open end is very high.
An equivalent circuit of the modulator is shown in Fig. 6.25. With the rotor dis-
engaged the equivalent generator looks into high impedance, and appears as if
the transmission line is open circuit with the outer conductor discontinuous. At
this time, there would be no output from the modulation trough, and the RF
wave would have a minimum value. As a rotor blade passes between the stator
plates, the high impedance from stator to stator changes to low impedance. It
is equivalent to the detuning of a parallel resonant circuit by any increase of ca-
pacity, the open end of the quarter wave shorted section becoming loaded with
a high capacity. The high capacity existing at the instant of full engagement be-
comes very low impedance almost a short circuit at the frequencies involved,
and the split outer conductor in effect becomes nearly joined together. A max-

imum output is RF wave result. The change from high impedance to low im-
pedance is made at a sinusoidal rate by precise alignment of stators and rotors
so that a sinusoidal variation of the RF envelope results.
Figure 6.25 Equivalent circuit of modulator.
Figure 6.26 (a) and (b) Modulator in minimum and maximum pass.
The rate of sinusoidal variation is determined by the number of blades on the

motor shaft and the rotational speed of the shaft. For maximum pass condi-
tions, rotors engaged, the source generator is actually looking into a series ca-
pacity and a resistive (antenna) load except that the low reactance of the
stator-to-stator capacitance is tuned out by extending the center conductor
loop to a series inductive reactance.
6.4.1. Modulation Percentage

It is important to consider the method of adjustment of modulation percent-
age. The nominal percentage desired is 80% for the glide path and to secure
less than 100% modulation the variable shorting bar of the coupled section is
moved away from the stator plates so that the modulating section does not
quite cut-off the RF wave when the rotors and stators are disengaged.

As indicated in Fig. 6.27, the setting of the sliding shorting bar established the
minimum voltage (waveform minimum) when the rotors and stators of the
modulating section established the maximum voltage (waveform peak) at the
time the rotors are fully engaged with the stator plates. It is possible therefore,
to modulate up to 100% in each channel.
Figure 6.27 Mechanical modulation process.
6.5. PRINCIPLE OF LOCALIZER (LLZ)

ARRAY
The principle of the localizer array in mathematical way is explained in simpli-
fied 3-antenna system shown in Fig. 6.28. In this figure, the central antenna
marked A corresponds to the central antenna of localizer arrays, which is
aligned with centerline of the runway. However, the two sideband antennas are
equally spaced on either side of the central antenna. The carrier and sideband
feeding arrangement is preserved i.e., the central antenna is supplied with the
carrier frequency and both the 90 Hz and 150 Hz sidebands, while the other an-
tennas, B and B′ receive only sideband energies. The 90 Hz sideband energy in
antenna B will lag the similar energy in antenna A by 90°, while that in antenna
B′ will lead the 90 Hz sideband in A by 90°. The 150 Hz sideband energy at B
will lead the similar energy at A by 90° while that in B′ will lag the similar energy
in A by 90°.
Figure 6.28 Simplified localizer system.

Antenna A will parasitically excite antennas B and B′. Therefore currents having
their origins in antenna A will flow the sideband antennas. These currents rep-
resent the sidebands of 90 Hz and 150 Hz as well as the carrier frequency. The
parasitic currents induced in antenna B will be in phase with those induced in
antenna B′. These current will travel to cross connection F at which point they
will attain a value zero. The cross connection merely presents a large discon-
tinuity to the transmission line and the currents will flow between the cross-
connection and the loops. The phase of the parasitic current in B and B′ will be
in the phase of the inducing waveform antenna A retarded by an amount that is
proportional to the time of travel of the fields between the antennas and further
modified by the lengths of the transmission line connecting antenna B′ to B. It
is therefore possible to modify the phase of the parasitic currents flowing in
these antennas. The parasitic current induced by V-type antennas is much less
than from loop antennas. This condition is due to the characteristic of the field
pattern of the V-type antennas and is one of the reasons for using them in pref-
erence to the Alford loops. In localizers, two loops connected in parallel are
used for the central radiator. This arrangement produces a field strength pat-
tern with an elongated shape; radiation in the broadside direction is reduced
which minimizes the parasitically induced currents in the sideband loops.
Let aircraft be at point P in space, there will be a field i.e., the vector sum of the
fields produced by the primary current flowing in B, and parasitic current in B,
the current flowing in A, the primary current flowing in B′ and the parasitic cur-
rent flowing in B′. The phase relation between the 5 field vectors will be the
phase of the antenna currents that produced them, modified by the difference
in the distance that the fields have traveled in reaching point P. Clearly, the field
due to antenna B′ will lead that due to A and the filed due to B will lag that due
to A. If point P is located at a sufficiently great distance from the antenna array,
then it may be assumed that the paths from the 3 antennas are essentially par-
allel and that the bearings R1, R2 and R3 are equal. If the distance S between
the antennas is expressed in meters and the transmitting wavelength A is also
in meters, then the phase difference due to the difference of the length of
paths traveled by the energy from the 3 antennas will be

(6.19)
For purposes of simplification, may be replaced by D
(6.20)
It has been stated that a point P there will be five field vectors; however, it must
be recognized that four of the fields composed of the four-sideband frequen-
cies and the fifth represents the carrier plus the four side band frequencies.
The sidebands resulting from the 90 Hz modulation is equal to the carrier fre-
quency plus 90 Hz and the carrier frequency minus 90 Hz that is
(6.21)
where, k1 and K are constants of proportionality; ωc is the angular carrier fre-

quency and is equal to 2πfc; and ω90 Hz is the angular 90 Hz modulation fre-
quencies and is equal to 2πf90 Hz; fc is the carrier frequency in MHz. For 150 Hz
modulations frequency, it is possible to write in a way similar to Equation
(6.21)
(6.22)
The carrier field will be
(6.23)
By measurement, the parasitic currents flowing in B and B′ are usually about

one quarter of the current in exciting antenna A. If it is assumed that the radi-
ation resistance of A is not appreciably changed by parasitic action, then one
unit of energy divided among the three radiators results in fields as shown in
Equation (6.24). Equation (6.24) is the complete expression for the value of the
90 Hz signal at point P derived by expanding Equation (6.21), and taking into
account all the factors brought out in the foregoing discussion.
(6.24)
The last two expressions are derived through parasitic action from A. The
angle φ represents the phase of the main currents in B and B′ with respect to
current in A, while represents the phase of the parasitic currents in B and B′
with respect to the current in A. The term in Equation (6.24) is representing the
radiation from antenna B, may be expanded through use of the trigonometric
equivalent for the 'Sine' of the sum of two angels, i.e.,
(6.25)

Through the use of the trigonometric equivalent for the sine of the sum of two
angles and the 'Cosine' of the sum of two angels, Equation (6.25) may be fur-
ther expanded to give
(6.26)
In a similar manner, the radiation from B′ due to the energy supplied to it and
the radiation from antennas B and B′ due to parasitic action from A may be ex-
panded to produce the following complete expression for the field of the 90 Hz
sidebands at point P.
(6.27)
Similarly, the field for the 150 Hz sidebands will be
(6.28)
While carrier frequency power has been supplied to only the central array,
through parasitic action it will also be radiated from antennas B and B′. The
carrier field at point P, therefore, will be
(6.29)
Equation (6.29) is expanded, the following expression results.
(6.30)
The total field at point P will be the sum of the fields given by Equations (6.30),
(6.28), and (6.29). Before considering the physical significance of the equa-
tions, it is desirable to determine the optimum values of the phase of the cur-
rents in the antennas. It has been stated that these phases may be controlled
by the phase shifter located between E and the antenna bridge and also by the
length of the lines connecting the sideband antennas.
Considering the principle on localizer is to operate, it will be remembered that

the course is to establish by generating a zone where the fields from 90 Hz and
150 Hz signals will be equal. It follows therefore, that outside of the zone, the
converse of equality should attain. That is, outside the equi-signal zone, the
strength of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals should be as unequal as possible.
This is another way of saying that the ratio of the two signals shall be as great
as possible. The ratio of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals expressed in dB is
called the clearance, except for values of bearing equal to ±1.5°. At these bear-
ings, the ratio is called the course sharpness.
If, for the moment, the terms resulting from the parasitic excitation of antennas
B and B′ are neglected, the ratio of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals will be

(6.31)
Differentiating the ratio of Equation (6.31) with respect to θ and setting the res-
ult equal to zero, the following expression is obtained.
(6.32)
The solution of Equation (6.32) for φ is , where n is any whole integer. The
phasing actually used is the first solution; that is, the phase relation selected is
90°.
An examination of the carrier field Equation (6.30) shows that it contains two
terms originating from the parasitic excitation of the sideband antennas but
the term on the right-hand side is out-of-phase with the carrier field from the
central antenna. This term would lead to irregular field patterns, and may be
eliminated by making the phase of the current flowing in it equal to zero de-
grees. When the phase characteristics discussed above is inserted in Equation
(6.27), (6.28) and (6.29), the expression for the total field at point P becomes,
(6.33)
From Equation (6.33) the field pattern of the localizer antenna is plotted in Fig.
(6.29) using a value of D equal to 163°. It shows that the sideband signals form
a butterfly pattern with the 90 Hz sideband pattern corresponding to the upper
wing and the 150 Hz sideband pattern corresponding to the lower wing. The
carrier pattern is said to be dumbbell in shape. The vector diagrams in Fig.
6.30 illustrate an explanation of the general principles of a localizer functions.
All diagrams on the right hand side of the drawing illustrate vectors corres-
ponding to the amplitude and phase of the 90 Hz sidebands while those on the
left hand side of the drawing illustrate the phase and amplitude of the 150 Hz
sidebands.
Figure 6.29 Field pattern of localizer developed by plotting Equation (6.33),

the three patterns represent the 90 Hz, 150 Hz, and carrier frequency.

The sidebands of the 150 Hz signal from antenna B lag from antenna A, while
the 150 Hz sidebands from B′ leads A. the resultant therefore, subtract to pro-
duce a weakened 150 Hz signal. On the other hand, the sidebands of 90 Hz sig-
nal from antenna B will be retarded in phase with respect to from antenna A,
while 150 Hz sidebands from B′ will lead in A. the resultants, therefore, add to
produce an increased 90 Hz signal which greatly exceeds the 150 Hz signal. In
Fig. 6.30 (b) is shown the conditions for a point located directly on a line
passing through the central antenna and perpendicular through a line that joins
the center of all antenna elements. At point C, the conditions are for a point to
the left of a line passing through antenna A and perpendicular through a line
that joins the center of all antenna elements.
Figure 6.30 The conditions at point P in Fig. 6.28.
In antenna B, the sidebands of the 150 Hz signal lag those in antenna A, while
the 150 Hz sideband signal in B′ lead those in antenna A. As the radio waves
travel to point P, the 150 Hz sideband signals from antenna B are further re-
tarded and those from B′ are further advanced with respect to those reaching
point P from antenna A. The resultant of the 150 Hz sideband signals from an-

tennas B and B′ is 180° out-of-phase with those from the central antenna. The
resultant, therefore, subtracts from the sideband signals from the central an-
tenna and creates a reduced 150 Hz signal.
From Fig. 6.30 (a) it will be seen that the 90 Hz sideband signal from antenna B
is advanced in phase with respect to the similar sideband signal from antenna
A. The 90 Hz sideband signal from antenna B will be retarded in phase with re-
spect to the 90 Hz sideband signals from antenna A. The resultant of the side-
band signals from the two outer antennas is in-phase with the similar signal
from antenna A. The resultant, therefore, adds to the sideband vector from an-
tenna A and thereby produces an increased signal. A comparison of the 90 Hz
and 150 Hz resultant vectors shows that for point P in Fig. 6.30 the 90 Hz sig-
nal greatly exceeds the 150 Hz signal. This conclusion may readily be verified
by referring to Fig. 6.29 for some angle such as 20°.
Figure 6.30 (b) illustrates the case for a point located directly on a line passing
through the central antenna and perpendicular to a line that joins the centers of
all antenna elements. For this case, the 150 Hz sideband signals from both the
B and B′ antennas will be retarded. The resultant of these signals will be zero
i.e., the 150 Hz sideband signals from the central antenna will be neither re-
duced nor enhanced. The 90 Hz sideband signals from B and B′ antennas will
also both be retarded with respect to those from the central array, with the res-
ult that they too will cancel, thus neither enhancing nor reducing the 90 Hz sig-
nals from the central antenna. It is evident, therefore, that the 90 Hz and 150
Hz sideband signals at points along the centerline of the runway will be exactly
equal.
Figure 6.30 (c) illustrates the case of the 150 Hz and 90 Hz signals at points to
the left of a line passing through antenna A and perpendicular to a line joining
the center of all antenna elements. It will be seen that this case parallels of Fig.
6.30 (a), which covered the case of a point to the right rather than the left of
centerline. In the case of Fig. 6.30 (c), the phase of the 150 Hz signal from an-
tenna B is advanced while that from antenna B′ is retarded (with respect to the
similar signals from antenna A). The resultant of the sideband signals from the
outer antennas adds to the signal from the central antenna and produces an
enhancement. The 90 Hz signal from antenna B′ is retarded and from B is ad-
vanced. Therefore the resultant is out-of-phase with the signals from the cent-
ral antenna and subtracts from them. It is evident that at points below the cen-
ter of the array of Fig. 6.28, the 150 Hz signals will exceed the 90 Hz signals.
Reference to Fig. 6.29 for an angle such as 340° confirms the conclusion
drawn from Fig. 6.30 (c).
If a receiver is designed to show the relative strength of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz

signals from localizers, it would be capable of indicating that the aircraft is loc-
ated to the left, the right, or the center of the localizer array i.e., centerline of
runway. Further, for quite large angles on both sides of the localizer array, the
amount of the excess of one signal over the other is a measure of the regular
deviation from the center of the array.
6.5.1. Course-width and Clearance

A line passing through the central antenna of the localizer and perpendicular to
a line connecting the centers of all the antennas is called the centerline. Usu-
ally, the localizer is so located that the centerline of the array coincides with the
centerline of the runway. Some deviation from this arrangement is permissible.
The localizer array is located at the 300 m away from stop end of the instru-
ment runway in line of centerline, i.e., opposite to the approach end. It may
have a back course in a direction away from the approach end of the runway,
but sometimes vertical metallic screens are employed in the rear of the local-
izer to eliminate back courses.

Consider the characteristics of localizer guidance importance to the satisfact-
ory deployment of this equipment as an instrument approach aid. As an air-
craft deviates from a position on the centerline, the right left needle on the in-
dicating instrument must signal this deviation by deflecting from the center po-
sition by an amount that is readily apparent to the pilot. A successful system
must cause a full-scale deflection of the needle when the aircraft is only 2.5°
deviated from the centerline. This deflection is a function of the difference
between the magnitude of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals at the output of the
radio receiver. The localizer receiver incorporates a good automatic gain con-
trol; therefore the gain is inversely proportional to the strength of the radiated
carrier wave while the output of the receiver is a ratio of the sideband to the
carrier, i.e., the percentage of modulation. If the strength of the 90 Hz side-
bands is designated by A and the strength of the carrier field by C, then the 90
Hz output of the localizer receiver will be
(6.34)
Similarly, if the field strength of the 150 Hz sidebands is given by B, then the
150 Hz output of the localizer receiver will be
(6.35)
where, K is a constant and represents the gain of the receiver. It has been
stated that the deflection D of the indicating meter is a function of the differ-
ence between the 90 Hz and 150 Hz outputs. Therefore
(6.36)
Figure 6.29 shows that not only field strength of the sidebands varies with
bearing, but the carrier also varies as well. For small angles near the 0 – 180°
line, the carrier can be assumed to have a constant value and the strength of
the sidebands can be divided into two components. These components are
readily evident from an examination of Equation (6.37). One component (ori-
ginating chiefly from the central antenna element) will remain constant while
the bearing changes. For small angles, the second component can be as-
sumed (without any appreciable error) to vary linearly with change in bearing.
It is observed that the ratio of the sideband powers will not directly determine
the course sharpness. This fact is mentioned because at one time the ratio of
the sideband is taken as a criterion of localizer performance. For example, sup-
pose that the sideband field of the central array was decreased to a value of
0.4 arbitrary units. At a bearing of 2.5° the 90 Hz and 150 Hz sideband fields
would then be 0.97 and 0.3 arbitrary units, respectively. The ratio of these side-
band fields would be 1.33; whereas in the case above cited, the ratio was
1.185. The impression might be gained that a sharper course existed for the
second case, but actually the depth of modulation difference remains un-
altered and there is no change in course sharpness. The total modulation is re-
duced very drastically at the centerline. The total modulation is
(6.37)

Thus, at the centerline, the localizer performance has a total modulation of
100%. For pilot information that the equipment is functioning properly, a small
flag incorporated within the meter indicates the presence of signals. Insuffi-
cient modulation fails to operate the flag properly. A well-designed localizer
therefore must produce sufficient modulation at all bearings.
One of the most important characteristics of localizer courses is the amount

and character of their bends. An excessive amount of certain bends will render
course totally unusable because it will be impossible for a pilot to follow it. If
the 3-antenna localizer, which has been considered for simplicity in discussing
the principles, was to be installed over flat earth of infinite conductivity and
there were no reflecting objects present, it might be satisfactory. Experience
has shown, however, that there are always some reflecting objects present at
airfields that make the 3 elements unit unsatisfactory. In fact, the desire for
better courses led to the development of the wide-aperture localizer.
The localizer course is disturbed depending on both the sensitivity of the right-
left indictor, signal strength and other characteristics of the extraneous signals.
It is seldom possible to install the localizer in an ideal position, since it must
produce a course down the instrument runway. There is usually little choice of
site. It is necessary, that the equipment be designed to minimize the susceptib-
ility to bends. The amount of bending of the course observed is necessarily the
amount by which the indicator needle deviates from the correct position. It has
been shown that the amount of this deflection is given in Equation (6.26).
Equation (6.26) states that the deflection is equal to the difference in the side-
band fields of the two modulation frequencies divided by the carrier field and
times multiplier K, which has been worked out for one case as having a value
of 1750. The amount of the bend, therefore, is proportional to the difference in
the extraneous sideband fields received from the reflecting object divided by a
constant. In other words, the amount of the bending of course that occurs near
the centerline of the localizer for a given condition of reflected signal is directly
a function of the gain setting of the receiver. If K can be reduced by one half,
then the amount of bending will also be reduced by one half for the same
amount of extraneous reflected signal. To reduce the value of K and still retain
the same apparent course width, the difference in the sideband field at a given
bearing must be increased. This difference can only be secured by the use of
more antenna elements. The requirement to maintain course sharpness and
obtain freedom from bends is the reason for using the 7-element antenna. The
field patterns of the sidebands present with this antenna are shown in Fig.
6.31.
Figure 6.31 Field pattern of the sidebands of the 7-elements antenna.

The change of field due to the additional elements of the antenna is readily
evident. The value of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz sideband fields, expressed in arbit-
rary units, is 1.67 and 1.03, respectively. The carrier value is adjusted to 4.14.
Thus the DDM becomes 0.155, which is the value adopted by the ICAO. With a
depth of modulation difference equal to 0.155, the value of K in Equation (6.21)
becomes 968. This setting is accomplished by operating the localizer receiver
with a 1000 μv signal that is modulated 20% by a 90 Hz tone and a similar
amount by a 150 Hz tone. The receiver gain is adjusted so that an increase of
one audio frequency by 2 dB (15.9%) produces an output of 90 μA. It has been
shown that for angles up to 2.5° on either side of the centerline, the meter de-
flection is proportional to angular displacement, but for all other angles, the de-
flection should never be less than full scale, and shown always be in the cor-
rect sense. The necessity for this provision resides in the method of using the
system. As soon as the needle leaves full-scale deflection, the pilot regards the
indication as signifying that this aircraft is within 2.5° of the centerline, and
therefore begins to correct the heading accordingly. Figure 6.29 shows that at
angles of 45°, 90° and 135° as well as at the reciprocals of these angles, minor
lobes exist. The number of minor lobes is greater for the 7-elements than for
the 3-elements antenna, and the amplitudes of some of these may reach val-
ues such that the needles may tend to leave the extreme edge of the indicator
at angles other than 2.5°. For such a case, the localizer is said to have a low
clearance point. The amplitude of these minor lobes may be controlled by alter-
ing the ratio of the current in the center antenna to the current in the sideband
elements. The clearance ratio for several bearings is a function of the ratio of
sideband current in the central antenna element to the first sideband element
current.
6.5.2. Wide Aperture Localizer

The performance of the localizer is affected by the site on which the equip-
ment should install and operate. To demonstrate the factors that control site
sensitivity, the sideband patterns of the 3-element array taken from Fig. 6.29
are drawn to the same scale in Fig. 6.28, and the similar patterns for the 7-ele-
ment array taken from Fig. 6.31. Let it be assumed that there is a reflecting ob-
ject located 15° off-course that reflects 90 Hz sideband signals to an aircraft
i.e., approaching on-course where normally the 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals are
equal. Instead of the signals with both types of modulation being equal, there
will be a preponderance of the 90 Hz signal, so the pilot would be reached 15°
off-course. In other words, the reflecting object causes 15° of error. If, on the
other hand, the reflecting object had been located 30° off-course, an equal
compensating signal would have been received by flying about 20° off-course
with the 3-element array but only 3° off-course with the 7-element array.
The above discussion is necessarily in exact as it does not take into account
the 90 Hz signals i.e., present to the right of the course or the 150 Hz signal i.e.,
present to the left of the course; nevertheless, it serves to show in general
terms the main characteristics of the phenomena that are involved. In Fig. 6.32
the localizer course position error has been plotted as a function of the posi-
tion of the reflecting objects expressed as bearing from the center of the local-
izer array for both the 7-elements and 3-elements array. Figure 6.32 shows that
while objectors located as much as 25° off the center of the 3-elements local-
izer array have a direct relation to the error, this relation holds true for objects
only a about 15° for the 7-elements array. Further, for objects beyond the loca-
tions mentioned, the effect is much less for the 7-elements array than for the 3-
elements array. An object located 40° form the center of the 7-elements array
produces an effect equal to a 2° error while an object similarly located with re-
spect to a 3-elements array would produce an error of about 11.5°
Figure 6.32 Sideband pattern of a 3-element arrays (solid line) compared to

a 7-element arrays shown in dotted lines [Plotted not to the scale].
Naturally, every effort is made to keep obstructions along the centerline of the
array to a minimum, because such objects form a hazard to aircraft. However,
as an airport increases in importance, more and more large obstructions, such
as hangers, are installed on the sides of the airfield and cause troublesome ef-
fects on the operation of localizer. In some locations, there are important hills
at the sides of the airport that also produce serious reflections. Even though
the effects are small, they serve to make the task of following a localizer
course more difficult.
It was decided that a 10 to 1 improvement in performance should be secured.

The desired sideband patterns were plotted and are shown in Fig. 6.29. It has
been shown under the discussion for the 3- elements array that the sideband
patterns are composed of a number of 'Sine' and 'Cosine' terms. By the use of
Fourier series and graphical analysis, it is possible to analyze the desired
space pattern and reduce it to terms that may be predicted by required number
of radiating elements.

The localizer antenna consists of a screen about 85 feet in length and 7 feet in
height. At a quarter wavelengths from its surface are 12 horizontal dipoles.
These dipoles have diameter of about 2 inches and are excited through trans-
formers that connect to coaxial transmission lines. Since the dipoles are
placed end to end, there is little coupling among them. The transmission lines
to all elements, regardless of their location, are exactly the same length. The
spacing between the centers of all dipoles except the end elements is 268° at
the center frequency of the localizer. The last elements are spaced 308° from
the centers of their nearest neighbors. This correction is necessary to minimize
the minor lobes. The elements on one side of the array are excited with side-
bands of both 90 Hz and 150 Hz in phase opposition to those on the other side
of the center array, which are also supplied with sidebands of 90 Hz and 150
Hz. All elements, except the two on the end, receive carrier energy. Transmis-
sion line bridges serve as hybrid coils to isolate the antenna pairs.
One terminal of each bridge (except that for the end elements) is connected to
terminal A on the bridge shown in Fig. 6.28. At this terminal, both carrier and
sideband energy are available. The other terminals of all the bridges are con-
nected to terminal E of the antenna bridge shown in Fig. 6.28, so that all anten-
nas are supplied with sideband energy. The bridges are connected to a coaxial
transmission line transformer by which it is possible to match impedances and
control the amount of current to the pairs.
It is evident that with the narrow field pattern given in Fig. 6.33, it would not be
possible to obtain guidance except for a very narrow sector having a total
width of about 12°. To obtain guidance and have proper meter indication in the
remaining large portion of the sector, use is made of an auxiliary array employ-
ing only 3-elements. The assembly is called the clearance array and its pattern
is also shown in Fig. 6.33. It is located at distance of about 50 feet in back of
the main array and is operated from separate transmitter on a carrier frequency
10 kHz from the frequency of the transmitter that excites the main array. The
characteristics of the localizer receiver are such that it readily receives both the
signals from the clearance and precision arrays without retuning. As the air-
craft passes from a direction to the side of the localizer receives only clear-
ance signals to the approach position. When aircraft approach for landing i.e.
aligned from opposite of localizer arrays, the signal from the localizer array is
much stronger than from the clearance array that the signals from the latter no
longer contribute to the output of the receiver. Because of this so-called cap-
ture effect, the signals from the clearance array play no part in the operation of
the indicator during the time that an aircraft is on course. The difference in
depth of modulation for the wide aperture system is adjusted so that a receiver
that has been set to receive the localizer signals standardized by the ICAO may
receive the signals of the wide aperture localizer with the same course
sensitivity.
Figure 6.33 Field pattern of a wide aperture localizer system combined with
3-element array.

6.5.3. Basic Concept of LLZ Aerial

Functioning
In this section we will discuss the basic principle of working of localizer with
help of three element localizer array. The explanation of the ILS will be in the
phasor presentation for easy understanding.
Aerial B is located at the extended centerline of runway. Aerial A and C are an

equal distance apart from aerial B. Aerial B radiates CSB signal while aerial A
and C radiates SBO signal. The vector representation of these signal are shown
in the Fig. 6.34. If an aircraft is located in blue sector (which falls right side of
runway while approaching) say at point R1, then it receives three signals (CSB,
SBO, –SBO) through three different paths (AR1, BR1, CR1). Since the path
lengths are not equal hence the relative phases of the signals at point R1, will
not be the same as it was at point A, B and C. The phase of the SBO signal will
advance in-phase with respect to CSB signal at point R1 because of shorter
path length (AR1 < BR1). Similarly the phase of the –SBO signal will retard in-
phase with respect to CSB signal at point R1 due to longer path length (CR1 >
BR1). Advancing in phase of SBO signal is shown as a rotation in anti-clock-
wise direction and phase retarding of –SBO signal is shown as clockwise rota-
tion in the Fig. 6.34, If we now add all these three signals vectorially, we may
observe that 150 Hz sideband is strengthen where as 90 Hz sideband is re-
duced. This creates difference in depth of modulation where 150 Hz tone is
greater than 90 Hz tone.
Figure 6.34 ILS Localizer three element array.

Aerial B is aligned with centerline of runway and at any point at the extended
centerline of the runway, the path traveled by SBO (AO) and –SBO (CO) are
equal in length and are greater than the path traveled by CSB (BO) signal by the
same amount. Thus SBO signal and –SBO signal are phase retarded by the
same amount and hence are 180° out-of-phase at point O. Hence SBO signal
are cancelled out and only CSB signal remains present at point O. As the depth
of modulation by 150 Hz and 90 Hz are equal in CSB (20% each) hence zero
DDM results at any point on the centerline of runway. By similar arguments and
vector addition of SBO, –SBO and CSB signals in yellow sector, we can say that
90 Hz tone amplitude when demodulated in an aircraft receiver will be greater
than 150 Hz. CSB is the only signal existing on the centerline because SBO sig-
nal cancels. Hence at all points on the center line of runway DDM is zero. 150
Hz tone predominates in blue sector and 90 Hz tone predominates in yellow
sector. This, so far presents to us qualitative analysis of tone predominance at
various places. But it is quite evident from the vectorial addition of CSB, –SBO
and SBO done above that the resultant signal will have depth of modulation by
150 Hz and 90 Hz which depends upon relative strength of SBO signals with
respect to CSB signal and also an angle of phase advance or phase retard.
From above discussion, we can conclude that value of DDM depends upon:
a. Relative strength of SBO with respect to CSB signal.
b. Azimuth angle (where DDM is being measured) DDM increases if azimuth

angle increases. It is started earlier that 15.5% DDM is adjusted at 105 m
from the runway centerline at the landing threshold in order to meet spe-
cification of displacement sensitivity. This can be achieved by adjusting
SBO power.
c. The displacement sensitivity is set by the SBO power
In the previous discussion, we have assumed that SBO, CSB and –SBO signal
are being radiated from aerials A, B and C respectively. In other words, the sig-
nal with specific phase relationship is being radiated from various dipoles. if
SBO signal and –SBO signal were interchanged then tone predominance in
blue sector and yellow sector will also change in a manner where 90 Hz > 150
Hz in blue sector and 150 Hz > 90 Hz in yellow sector, which is totally undesir-
able. Hence, the proper phasing of the SBO signals relative to CSB sets correct
tone predominance. These points must be thoroughly understood.
The basic concept of localizer with help of three aerial discussed so far, does
not, provide required coverage and displacement sensitivity and also does not
remain linear to 18% DDM. CSB signal fed to dipole B, located on the extended 
centerline of runway provides excess coverage and reflection due to this wider
coverage area may create complication in localizer radiation (such as course
bending etc.). If the localizer antenna systems have 12 or 24 dipole elements
which restrict localizer azimuth coverage within specific limit and requirement
of displacement sensitivity also is met.
6.5.3.1. Azimuth Coverage

ILS coverage is provided in the course and clearance areas. Course area is
defined as the area within ± 10° from the runway centerline, whilst clearance
includes the area from ± 10° to ± 35°. It should be mentioned at this stage that
one of the paramount problems with ILS is reflection, from nearby objects in
the sensitive area of localizer, more predominant onto the runway centerline.
Figure 6.35 Azimuth coverage and change of DDM due reflecting object.
The LLZ coverage is restricted to only ± 35°, to eliminate the effects of objects
outside this area. However, there is a major problem of reflection from objects
sited within the coverage area. To reduce these effects, signals in clearance
areas are often transmitted on a different frequency or on a different phase
from course. From the above discussion, it becomes clear that azimuth guid-
ance by LLZ equipment is provided in two distinct areas i.e., Course area (± 10°
from runway centerline); and Clearance (from ± 10° to ± 35°)
(a) Course Coverage
Consider azimuth guidance in course area which it radiates following two sig-
nals for guidance i.e., Carrier with sideband/Course (CSB/CR); and Sidebands
Only/Course (SBO/CR). This is being discussed based on 12 dipole element
antenna array. CSB/CR signal is fed to central five pairs of aerial (i.e., 1B – 1Y,
2B – 2Y, 3B – 3Y, 4B – 4Y and 5B – 5Y) for more clarity. Across the length of
the aerial array the distribution of CSB energy gives a maximum in the center
falling zero at ends. The amplitude and phase relationship of RF feed to vari-
ous aerials are as shown in Fig. 6.36. SBO/CR signal is fed to all six pairs of
aerials. The distribution of SBO energy, across the length of aerial away, gives a
maximum an either side of the center/line with zero in the center and at both
ends. Amplitude and RF feeds of SBO/CR are as shown in Fig. 6.37.
Figure 6.36 C.S.B./C.R dipoles located in Yellow sector are 180° rotated with
respect to dipoles in the Blue sector.

Figure 6.37 SBO/CR dipoles in the Blue sector are rotated by 180° with
respect to dipole in Yellow sector.
Radiation pattern due to CSB/CR feed to various dipoles is shown in Fig.

6.38(b). It may be noted here that RF feed of CSB/CR signal to various dipoles
are not equal as can be seen from Fig. 6.36, and arrows define phasor amp-
litude of the signal fed to the individual antenna. By doing this is to obtain the
required radiation pattern consisting of single narrow major lobe falling to zero
at 11.5° from the centerline and having minimum side lobes (see Fig 6.38 (b)).
Radiation pattern due to SBO/CR is as shown in Fig. 6.38. The theoretical as-
pects, as to how this radiation pattern is obtained, can be discussed in the sub-
sequent section. In this discussion, it is assume that the aerials of LLZ are 
omni-directional aerial (not diploes) for the purpose of simplification. However
the result obtained through these omni-aerial may be later on extrapolated to
predict the radiation pattern when the aerials are dipoles.
Figure 6.38 (a) Omni-directional aerial is used (b) CSB pattern with dipoles
and reflection.
Two omni-antennas spaced any distance apart from a centerline and fed in RF
phase, will always provide a maximum signal on the centerline. It is also re-
membered that the number of lobes per quadrant equals the number of
wavelengths of aerial separation and alternate lobes are always in anti-phase.
For example antennas spaced 3λ apart, will produce, so the lobes per quad-
rant. In practice, antennas are placed apart, so the first quadrant will have
lobes for one set of aerial, lobes for next set lobes for the next etc. If
we place a reflector behind the antenna it will eliminate the back radiation and
enhance the forward signal. Additionally, if the omni-directional antennas are
replaced with dipoles, the pattern is further enhanced (because of its direc-
tional radiation property) and is shown in Fig. 6.38 (b). Therefore, if CSB/CR
signal are fed to antenna pairs in RF phase (amplitude of this RF energy across
length of an antenna array is distributed to reduce side lobes), a radiation pat-
tern as shown in Fig. 6.38 (b), will be obtained. If depth of modulation due to
150 Hz and 90 Hz is set equal to 20% in the CSB signal, zero DDM will result on
the centerline of the runway.
(b) Feeding Dipoles Pairs in Anti-phase
In the previous section, we have discussed the radiation pattern of CSB/CR. We

now consider SBO/CR. The radiation pattern of this SBO signal is shown in Fig.
6.39. To obtain this radiation pattern, we feed the same dipoles in the array
with anti-phase signals each side of the centerline as shown in Fig. 6.37. The
energy distribution of SBO signal across aerial array again here ensures min-
imum side lobes.
Figure 6.39 Resultant radiation pattern SBO/CR signal to all dipole.

Consider omni-directional aerial placed symmetrically with respect to center-

line and fed with RF anti-phase. We state that the antenna spaced, apart there
is one lobe per quadrant, (this implies that if the aerial spacing is , and there
will be lobes per quadrant) and zero radiation on the centerline.
Although the aerials are fed with (+) Cosine and (–) Cosine the resultant radi-
ation is 'sine', that RF phase of SBO signal, at a distance far away where aper-
ture effect is negligible, will be 90° shifted with respect to RF phase of the SBO
signal fed to the dipoles and alternate lobes will be in RF anti-phase.
For example the radiation pattern for diploes spaced at is shown in Fig.
6.40, reader may plot it for aerials placed apart. Thus, if the radiation pat-
tern of SBO/CR signals due to dipole pairs (1Y – 1B, 2Y – 2B, 3Y – 3B, 4Y – 4B,
5Y – 5B) are individually plotted and added to a combined radiation pattern will
be obtained which is as shown in Fig. 6.39.
Figure 6.40 Pattern for Omni-direction antenna signal fed to anti-phase.
If we now combine CSB and SBO signals, the polar diagram appear as shown
in Fig. 6.41 (a). The signals are all sign (meaning thereby in RF phase), the
sidebands will add or subtract, depending on their polarity to produce the tone
predominance on each side of the runway centerline. It can be seen that the
patterns are very similar to those achieved with three element localizer except
the signal is now concentrated in a smaller area and the displacement sensitiv-

ity is linear out to 18% DDM. The same criteria for the three-element localizer
apply in this case also, i.e., the relative phase of the SBO signals set the tone
predominance; and SBO power will set the displacement sensitivity.
Figure 6.41 Final localizer radiation pattern for 12 element array.
6.5.3.2. Clearance Coverage

The basic course pattern, as discussed, suffers from two drawbacks i.e., main
lobe beam width does not provide the coverage specified by ICAO (± 35° at
17NM). Secondly, the course pattern has side lobes, which give false guidance
information. The objective of clearance radiation is, therefore intended to over-
come these difficulties. The desired radiation pattern of the combined course
and clearance radiation is given in Fig. 6.42.
Figure 6.42 The radiation pattern due to Course/CL.
The second source of radiation is required to feed the localizer antenna array.
The source may provide signals at the same frequency and in-phase with the
course transmission, but fed to only the center dipoles to providing greater cov-
erage. It should be displaced by 10 kHz from the course signal fed to only the
center dipoles and signals at the frequency but at a different phase from the
course signal. Depending upon the above technique, following three types of
clearance coverage are obtained:

In-phase clearance.
Two-frequency clearance.
Quadrature clearance.
The detail on this will be discussed in the following section.
6.5.3.3. Elevation Coverage

This section deals with the elevation coverage of localizer. A horizontally polar-
ized dipole mounted at height 'h' above the ground will radiate signal to the air-
craft receiver and additionally there will be a reflected signal from the ground
surface. Since the aerial is horizontally polarized the signal incident on the
ground will be likewise and the E-field will reverse upon reflection. Thus the ra-
diation arriving at the receiver will be from the two paths, direct and reflected. It
follows from simple geometry, that a dipole at height 'h' above the ground may
be considered as two radiating elements A1 and A2, spaced 2h apart and radi-
ating in anti-phase.
Now a maximum signal will be received when the signal from dipole A1 and A2
arrives at the receiver in phase. For this to happen, φ, the phase difference in
the two path lengths must equal . From Fig. 6.43, we do the following
calculations
(6.38)
Hence
(6.39)
Assume our transmitting aerials are λ above the ground than h = λ
So,
Hence,
Figure 6.43 Basic concept of LLZ elevation coverage.

Therefore, the nose of the beam occurs at 14.5°. Further, as the antennas are
spaced 2λ apart, there will be an additional lobe at a higher angle. It is evident
that only the lowest lobe is used in ILS, and as aircraft approach a runway typ-
ically at 3°. Now, the regulations state that the field strength in a section
between 2000 feet and 7° from the horizontal must be of usable amplitude.
Therefore, the power of the transmissions must be increased considerably. Of
course, use of a reflector screen helps but if the dipoles are mounted in a 60°
corner reflector, two main results should be measured i.e., the energy is con-
centrated into one lobe at approximately 11.5° and the gain increases to about
11 dB over an isotropic radiator.
In some cases, the dipoles have to be mounted at above the ground i.e.,
Hence
The nose of beam is at 30°, involving an increase in power if the coverage re-
quirement is to be met. The aerials are placed λ above ground.
6.6. BASIC LOCALIZER REQUIREMENT

The localizer system, sited near the stop end of the runway, has to provide the
azimuth guidance to the landing aircraft. It transmits combinations of CSB and
SBO in the correct amplitude and phase to provide correct landing guidance to
the aircraft. The localiser coverage shown in Fig. 6.44 for course and
clearance.
Figure 6.44 LLZ Coverage: (a) 25 NM at 2000 feet to ± 10° from the runway
centerline. (b) 17 NM at 2000 feet to ± 35° from the runway centerline.
The basic specification for an ILS localizer as per ICAO is given as below:
i. Carrier frequency: predetermined between 108 MHz and 112 MHz
ii. Navigation tones are 90 Hz and 150 Hz, modulated on the carrier at 20%
each tones, at the runway centerline. In offset condition, one tone must
predominate to other tone. The 150 Hz tone must be largest on the right
hand side of runway and 90 Hz tone on left. (While approaching toward
runway).
iii. Displacement sensitivity: The DDM must rise in a linear manner up to 18%.
From the position where 18% is measured to 10° away from the runway
centerline, the DDM must remain above 18%, between 10° and 35° the 
DDM must remain above 15.5%. The DDM is adjusted to provide 15.5%,
105 m from the runway at the landing threshold.
Point P is either 2000 feet above the elevation of the threshold or 1000 feet
above the elevation of the highest within the intermediate and final approach
areas whichever is the higher as shown in Fig. 6.45. It is to be noted that all ILS
transmission is horizontally polarized.
Figure 6.45 Coverage elevation from 2000 feet to 7°25 NM.
6.6.1. Block Diagram of LLZ Equipment

The localizer equipment is a static installation, which provides the azimuth
guidance to the landing aircraft. The localizer aerial system is sited on the ex-
tended centerline of the runway at a distance of 300 meter, which is consistent
with safe obstruction clearance, from the stop end of the runway. The localizer
transmitter cabinet and ancillary equipment are housed in a building which is
either side of the runway at least 75 m from centerline of the runway, and
within a radius of 300 feet from the center of the aerial system. The LLZ install-
ation incorporates main and standby transmission systems to provide continu-
ity of service in the event of failure. The parameter of the radiated signals are
continuously checked by a triplicated monitoring system which initiates auto-
matic changeover to the standby system in the event of failure of the main
transmission system and automatic shut down of the main transmission, if
that also fails. A remote control facility is housed in the airfield control tower
building for monitoring the current status of the localizer equipment.
A simplified block diagram of one transmission channel of LLZ is given in Fig.

6.46. The functions of the various units are as follows:
a. Transmitter: This unit generates the RF power at a selected frequency

within the band 102–118 MHz.
b. RF Distribution Unit: This unit accepts the output from the transmitter and
divides it into two parts. One part is further processed in the unit and the
other part is divided into two signals in RF phase for application to the
mechanical modulator. The four outputs from the mechanical modulator
are
i. A double sideband signal separated from the carrier frequency by 90

Hz.
ii. A double sideband signal separated from the carrier frequency by 90

Hz and in AF quadrature with (i).
iii. A double sideband signal separated from the carrier frequency by 150
Hz. 
iv. A double sideband signal separated from the carrier frequency by 150
Hz and in AF quadrature with (iii).
Figure 6.46 General block diagram of the localizer equipment.
The above four outputs are fed back to the RF distribution unit where they
are combined with the original transmitter RF output to provide the follow-
ing four outputs:
i. Course CSB: A double sideband signal at the transmitter frequency,

the double sideband being separated from the transmitter frequency
by 90 Hz and 150 Hz and their mean frequency components being in-
phase with the transmitter output.
ii. Course SBO: Double sideband signals separated from the transmitter
frequency by 90 Hz and 150 Hz, the mean frequency component of
the 90 Hz sidebands being 180° out-of-phase with the 150 Hz
sidebands.
iii. Clearance CSB: A signal similar to, but sideband components RF

phase shifted 22.5° and in AF quadrant with (i).
iv. Clearnce SBO: A signal similar to but in AF quadrature with (ii).
c. Coaxial Distribution Unit: This unit accepts the four outputs from the RF
distribution unit and applies them to the aerial distribution unit. This unit
also provides facilities for the change over from main to standby equip-
ment, and for monitoring.
d. Aerial Distribution Unit: This unit accepts the four outputs from the coaxial
distribution unit and applies them to the twelve dipoles of the aerial in the
correct proportion to obtain the required course and clearance radiation
patterns.
The points (c) and (d) may be referred in Fig. 6.47 for more clarity.
Figure 6.47 RF generation and distribution.

6.6.2. Practical ILS Localizer Aerial

The ILS LLZ aerial consists of a number of dipoles mounted in-line at right
angles to the runway either 12 or 24 aerials may be used, depending on local
requirements or site conditions. The dipoles are treated, as pairs i.e., the two
dipoles in the center of the array are one pair, the outer two dipoles are another
pair. Feeding to the dipoles pairs is in-phase. They are numbered from the cen-
ter outwards and assigned a code of yellow or blue, and they are on the left or
the right of the runway as seen by landing aircraft. Consider to aerial distance
D apart, transmitting to a receiver located on the centerline normal to the aeri-
als shown in Fig. 6.48. Let the distance between the aerials is D and the dis-
tance from the aerials to the receiver be d. let d be much larger than D, so that
the radiation from the two aerials may be considered approaching to the re-
ceiver in parallel lines.
Figure 6.48 Simple two aerial concept.
Assume the aerials are fed in-phase with a signal
(6.40)
Neglecting the path loss, the receiver will receive a signal 2 E sin ωt. Suppose
the receiver in now moved-off from the central line as shown in Fig. 6.49. The
radiated received from the aerial A in now affected by path length increase by
φ.
Figure 6.49 Aircraft receiver at point X.

and the signal is now
(6.41)
and radiation received from aerial B is now
(6.42)
The total signal received must be proportional to the sum of the two signals
and expanding each expression yields
(6.43)
where, K is 2E sin ωt
If the fed to the aerial is maintained at constant amplitude, frequency and

phase, the received signal is proportional to K cos φ . The basic geometry of
the problems shown in Fig. 6.49.
(6.44)
So, received signal is proportional to K cos
where, θ is angular position of the receiver from the centerline between the two
aerials. The distance D is expressed in wavelength, let D = A = 360°. So
(6.45)
We may now compute the Equation (6.45) for various values of θ and the array
radiation pattern will emerge and presented in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Received signal when antenna separation is 360° with various θ
values.
θ (Degrees) sin θ 180° sin θ (Degrees) cos (180° sin θ)


0 0 0 1.0
15 0.26 47 0.682
30 0.5 90 0
45 0.707 127 –0.601
60 0.866 156 –0.913
75 0.966 175 –0.996
90 1.0 180 –1.0
105 0.966 175 –0.996
120 0.866 156 –0.913
135 0.707 127 –0.601
150 0.5 90 0.0
165 0.26 47 0.682
180 0 0 1.0
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If θ is plotted against cos (180° sin θ) a polar results as shown in Fig. 6.50.
Table 6.1 shows that relative phasing of the lobes and it will be noticed that in
each quadrant (90°) there are two half lobes giving a total of one complete
lobe per quadrant. The maximum is seen to be on the centerline between the
aerials and in-line with the aerials. A null exists at 30°. Now consider two an-
tennas spaced 2λ apart i.e., 720 electrical degrees. Then Equation (6.45)
becomes
(6.46)
Figure 6.50 Antenna spaced by (λ/4)λ

Solving the Equation (6.46) values of 'θ' we present following results in Table
6.2
Table 6.2 Received signal when antenna separation is 720° with various θ
values.
0 0 0 1.0
15 0.25 90 0
30 0.5 180 –1.0
50 0.75 270 0
65 0.9 324 0.81
90 1.0 360 1.0
Plotting 'θ' against ' sin θ' in one quadrant gives the radiation pattern shown
in Fig. 6.51. It will be seen that now two lobes are produced for each quadrant.
These lead to two basic rules of the antenna spaced any distance apart about
the centerline of runway and fed in-phase. This will always provide a maximum
signal on the centerline and number of lobes per quadrant equals to the num-
ber of wavelengths of antenna separation. For example, antenna spaced 3λ
apart will produce three lobes per quadrant. In practice antenna are placed
apart, so that first quadrant will have lobe for one set of antennas, lobes
for next set, lobes for next set etc. it is shown in Fig. 6.50. Alternate lobes
are in phase opposition in the anti-phase. Antennas are spaced apart.
Figure 6.51 Antenna spaced by 3λ

If we place the reflector behind the aerials, will eliminate the back radiation and
enhance the forward signal. Additionally, if the omni-directional aerials are re-
placed with dipoles, the pattern is enhanced as shown in Fig. 6.52. If the array
is now fed with the CSB signal, set for zero DDM and 20% modulation depth
per tone, the pattern can be drawn as in Fig. 6.52.
Figure 6.52 Localizer antenna configuration with CSB radiation pattern
6.6.3. Feeding Dipole Pairs Anti-Phase

So far we have dealt with the conditions for radiation of course CSB only. We
should now consider course SBO in this case and we feed the same dipoles in
the array with anti-phase signals each side of the centerline. As in Fig. 6.49, let
the aerial A be fed with a signal +E cos ωt and the aerial B be fed with a signal
–E sin ωt i.e., the antennas are fed anti-phase.
Since the case illustrated in Fig. 6.49 the signal arriving at the receiver from the
aerial A
and the received signal at aerial B
To find the resultant signal we must sum the two receiver inputs
(6.47)
If the receiver moved to the opposite end of the centerline, the condition will
change. At the receiver, we have now
(6.48)
It is apparent from Equation (6.47) and (6.48) zero phase shift along the
centerline and received signal changes 180° phase when change the receiver
position from one side to other side. If the aerials are fed with constant amp-
litude, phase and frequency, then 2E sin ωt can be replaced with constant K so
the Equation (6.48) can be written

(6.49)
Let the aerial be spaced λ apart (360 electrical degrees), so
Let
We can tabulate the results in Table 6.3
Table 6.3 Received signal when antenna is separated by 360° with various θ
values.
90 1.0 180 0
60 0.866 155 0.42
45 0.707 127 0.8
30 0.5 90 1.0
15 0.25 45 0.7
0 0 0 0
–15 –0.25 –45 –0.7*
–30 –0.5 –90 –1*
–45 –0.707 –127 –0.8*
–60 –0.866 –155 –0.42*
–90 –1.0 –180 0
* Negative value indicates phase change
Plotting these value yields the polar diagram shown in Fig. 6.53. Important
points, which emerge from the foregoing analysis, are listed below
a. For aerials spaced λ apart, there is one lobe quadrant
b. There is zero radiation on the centerline
c. The phase of radiation changes as the centerline is crossed.
d. Although the aerials are fed with 'Cosine' and (–) 'Cosine' the resultant ra-
diation is 'Sine'.
Figure 6.53 SBO radiation pattern


The theory may be extended to show the effect of varying the antenna spacing
D. For example, antenna spaced 2λ apart will produce 2 lobes of opposite
phase exist per quadrant. If we apply anti-phase signals to one dipole in each
pair in the array, the resultant is given in Fig. 6.54. If we now combine the CSB
and SBO signals the polar diagrams appears as in Fig. 6.54 (b). Because the
signals are all sine, the sideband will add or subtract, depending on their polar-
ity to produce the tone predominance on each side of the runway. It can be
seen that the patterns are very similar to those achieved with a three element
localizer expect the signal is now concentrated into a smaller area and the dis-
placement sensitivity is linear out to 18% DDM. The same criteria for the three
element localizer apply in this case i.e., the relative phase of the SBO signals
set the tone predominance and the SBO power will set the displacement
sensitivity.
Figure 6.54 Localizer antenna configuration with SBO radiation
6.6.4. Clearance Coverage

The basic course pattern, developed in the previous section, suffers two draw-
backs i.e., the main lobe beam-width does not provide the coverage specified
by ICAO (± 35° at 17NM) and the course pattern have sidelobes which give
false guidance information. The objective of clearance radiation is, therefore,
intended to overcome these difficulties. The desired radiation pattern of the
combined course and clearance radiation is given in Fig. 6.55. The second
source of radiation is required to feed the localizer aerial array i.e., signals at
the same frequency and in-phase with the course transmissions, but fed to
only the center dipoles so giving greater coverage; signals displaced by 10 kHz 
from the course transmission, fed to only the center dipoles; and signals at the
same frequency, but at a different phase from the course transmission fed to
only the center dipoles.
Figure 6.55 Composite ILS radiation pattern with clearance signal.
(a) In-Phase Clearance
The course CSB signal is divided and realigned in-phase. One portion is fed to
the course input to the aerial (10 dipoles) and the other fed to only the center
four dipoles pairs. Course and clearance may be abbreviated to CR and CL re-
spectively. The CL signal radiated from the center dipoles is in-phase with the
CR signals, whilst the CL signals radiated from the other three-dipole pairs are
anti-phase. The resultant CSB are shown in Fig. 6.56.
Figure 6.56 Radiation pattern of in-phase clearance.
It can be seen that CL signals cancel on the centerline, yet provide coverage
out to the null at 42°. The SBO signal is also split into CR and CL signal being
fed to only the center four dipoles. The DDM in the clearance sectors exceeds
15.5%. The cancellation of the CL signals on the centerline allows for adequate
setting of the important CR parameters without interference from the CL
signals.

(b) Two Frequency Clearance
In two frequencies clearance systems the CR and CL transmissions are separ-

ated by 10 kHz each being displaced by 5 kHz from the assigned frequency.
The aircraft receiver uses the well known capture effect to lock onto the larger
signal. This can be demonstrated as follows
a. Detector output, aircraft on right-hand side of runway no interference.
b. Detector output, aircraft on right hand side of runway with interfering clear-
ance signal.
The aircraft audio frequency circuits will reject the beat provided above 4 kHz.
It can be noted that the tolerance of the two transmitter are strictly controlled,
if the frequency difference is too large, the transmission may interferes with
the adjacent channels and if it is too small the beat frequency will pass through
the aircraft receiver circuits and upset the DDM measurements. The tolerance
for the transmitters in this case is ± 0.002% instead of is ± 0.005% allowed for
signal frequency system. To ensure that the position where the two carrier are
equal (Maximum 10 kHz) does not occur within the linear portion of the front
course section, the relative powers are set 2:1 for CR/CL (in many cases they
are set at 4:1). In addition it is important that the audio tones are locked to-
gether in-phase to prevent unsatisfactory operation of the aircraft receivers. If
this is not done, guidance tone from course transmission and guidance tone
from clearance transmission will be in same phase and amplitude i.e., tone will
get cancelled. At intermediate phase errors, the DDM will be seriously affected.
(c) Quadrature Clearance
In this case, CR and CL signals are transmitted in-phase Quadrature i.e., 90°
out-of-phase
It can be seen that the signals are in RF and AF quadrature. Let us examine the
merits of the quadrature clearance with respect to its immunity from the ef-
fects of cross coupling from clearance to course. It is assume that the ration of
CR/CL be 10:1

EXAMPLE 6
The resultant carrier will be
For all the practical purposes carrier amplitude is unchanged. The resultant
sidebands, assuming 20% modulation depth tone will be
The total sideband amplitude is unchanged but there is slightly asymmetry

evident. Now consider the more usual case of a clearance signal being re-
flected onto the course-line. The clearance will have a high DDM, so as-
sume it is 20% with 150 Hz predominant. Also assume a 40% mod-sum on
both course and clearance. Let the reflected signal be 10% of the direct sig-
nal amplitude.
EXAMPLE 7
The resultant carrier amplitude will be
150 Hz:
90 Hz:
To summarize this case it may be said that
– The carrier amplitude and modulation depth is virtually unchanged.

– The sidebands are slightly asymmetric but DDM is unchanged
Of course the above are conclusions drawn from only one example. It is
worth considering another case. The RF phase of the reflected signal varies
cyclically as the receiving aircraft flies inbound.
Figure 6.57 Quadrature clearance phaser presentation.
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Figure 6.58 Two aircrafts receiving the localizer reflected signal.
In Fig. 6.59, it can be seen that the distance from the localizer to aircraft-1
(AC1) is larger than the distance than distance to aircraft-2 (AC2). This
means that the signal will arrive at AC1 at the different phase to the signal
arriving at AC2. The other case to be considered is when the interfering sig-
nals arriving at the aircraft in-phase with the direct signal. However, the
sidebands will be in quadrature due to the low difference frequencies
employed.
Figure 6.59 (a) CSB/CL phase addition (b) 150 Hz and 90 Hz CR/CL
phase addition
EXAMPLE 8
Let the DDM of the reflecting signal again be 20% of 150 Hz predominant
and let the amplitude of the reflected signal be 10% of the direct signal.
The carrier will add because they are in phase and giving a total amplitude
R = 11.
The side band will be resolved
The combined vector for
For 150 Hz = 2.02; and For 90 Hz = 2.0018

It is assume that the carrier amplitude of the composite signal is 11 i.e.,

same to the above example and the amplitude of the 150 Hz sideband sig-
nal is 2.30 and for 90 Hz sideband is 2.1. Based on the above data the
modulation depth for 150 Hz is 20.9% and for 90 Hz sideband is 19.1%.
The total percentage modulation depth = 20.9 + 19.1 = 40%
It can therefore be seen that quadrature clearance offers a significant im-

provement, in immunity from reflection from the clearance sector, over con-
ventional systems.
(c) Single Frequency Clearance System
Single frequency clearance system type of localizer where for providing the
coverage in the clearance sector (i.e., between 10° to 35° in azimuth) the
transmitted signal is radiated at the same frequency as the frequency of
transmission in the course sector depending upon requirements dictated
by the site either 24 elements or 14 elements array is used. The beam gen-
erated by the system is very sharp within each width of 10° on both side
and then signal strength drops to the level just sufficient to give the re-
quired range. Antenna spacing, current distribution and radiation pattern for
a 24 element array gives minimum field intensity of more than 40 μv/m in
the coverage within ± 0° at 25NM and ±35° at 17 NM above a height of
2000 feet. The localizer array comprises twelve dipoles spaced at the
three-quarters of a wavelength and mounted on a low mass fully fran-
gible framework 85 feet wide. The framework incorporates a corner re-
flector throughout its entire width; this reflector limits the vertical radiation
and concentrates the majority of the radiated energy at an elevation of
about 9.5°.
Some of the localizer system use quadrature clearance coverage. In this

system, capture effect at the aircraft receiver is obtained. The 90 Hz and
150 Hz tones of the course system are in low frequency phase quadrant
with the 90 Hz and 150 Hz tones of the clearance system. As, at most
points on the approach path, either the course or clearance signal predom-
inates, it follows that the vectorial, that is almost equal to the predominat-
ing signal. As the course signal is always strong within a few degrees of
the runway centerline, reflected clearance signals will have very little ef-
fects at the aircraft receiver, when vectorially added to the large course sig-
nals. Course bends are thus minimized and obstacles in the clearance re-
gion have far less effect on this system, than they would have on a system
using the technique of transmitting course and clearance signals at slightly
differing frequencies to achieve the capture effect.
Clearance coverage is obtained by radiating following two signals i.e.,

CSB/CL; and SBO. CSB/CL signals are fed to central four pairs of antennas.
Across the length of the antenna array the distribution of CSB energy is
such that it produces a radiation pattern area covered by course CSB and
zero at 41.8° either side of the centerline, at these angles there is an unfly-
able false course with no carrier and reversed left -right indications and
beyond these angles, the course information is reversed. This however is of
little importance as the system is only, required to provide course informa-
tion in the sector ± 35° runway centerline.
6.7. LOCALIZER ADVANCE CONCEPT

The localizer requires larger antenna arrays to provide the larger angular cover-
age required in the azimuth plan for horizontal guidance of the aircraft. We will
use hypothetical 4-element arrays as a model to present the principles behind
LLZ radiation patterns, course structure, sensing and DDM structure. Once the
4-element array, is fully understood, it will be simple matter to apply the prin-
ciples learned to more complex arrays in use. Install the first two antennas as a
pair with one antenna having 'd' spacing of 190° right of the runway centerline

and 1000 feet back from the stop end of the runway. Install the other antenna
of the first pair also with 'd' spacing for 190° left of the runway centerline. Let
us call this pair, the number 1-pair and antenna right of centerline, as seen by
the approaching aircraft, the 1R antenna and other 1L antenna as shown in Fig.
6.60.
Figure 6.60 One antenna pair location
If we were to fed this pair as a signal-in-phase (SIP) then the field intensity
would be
(6.50)
where, Et is defined as the relative field strength at a point in the radiation pat-
tern, I is the current ratio of the pair, 'd' is the spacing and θ is the azimuth
angle. For many localizer antennas there is still one variable missing. Most loc-
alizer uses directional antenna, which radiates most of their energy in the for-
ward direction. We will use the symbol 'K' to numerically describe the directivity
characteristics. Different antenna types have different 'K' factors; we will use 'K'
factor of V-ring antenna. When we add the 'K' factor to the basic equation it
becomes
(6.51)
To plot the general shape of the pattern from the first pair, calculate the relative
field strength 'E' at 20° intervals from Equation (6.51).and presented in Table
6.4.
Table 6.4 Relative field strength at various θ values with 20° interval
Et = 2(1)(1) cos (190° sin 0°) 2
20° Et = 2(1)(.97) cos (190° sin 20°) 0.82
40° Et = 2(1)(0.83) cos (190° sin 40°) –0.88
60° Et = 2(1)(0.62) cos (190° sin 60°) –1.20
80° Et = 2(1)(0.33) cos (190° sin 80°) –0.655
100° Et = 2(1)(0.13) cos (190° sin 100°) –0.258
120° Et = 2(1)(0.18) cos (190° sin 120°) –0.347
140° Et = 2(1)(0.3) cos (190° sin 140°) –0.319
160° Et = 2(1)(0.38) cos (190° sin 160°) 0.321


Et = 2(1)(1) cos (190° sin 0°) 2
180° Et = 2(1)(0.4) cos (190° sin 180°) 0.8
In order to plot Equations (6.51), we need to know where the critical points of
the pattern are. Also we know that critical points from a Signal in Phase (SIP)
array are calculated by
(6.52)
where, VR is the vector rotation equal to 90°, 180° etc.
For a SIP pair, we know that there is a maximum at 0°. For a VR =90° for the 1
pair there will be null at 28.27°, a maximum at 71.33° and in the second quad-
rant a null at 151.73° and a maximum at 108.67°. However, because of the 'K'
factor the maximum points will not be at approximately 54° and 132°. There-
fore the a maximum points will actually be
The reader can do the polar plot for the Table 6.4 results for better understand-
ing. The pattern we have just discussed is a variable amplitude bi-phase pat-
tern. It is bi-phase because the lobe at 54° and 306° are oppositely phased to
the lobe at 0° and 180°. Figure 6.61 shows the K factor and it pattern has
strongest radiation at 0°, which is runway centerline for localizer antenna.
Figure 6.61 K factor plot

6.7.1. SIP Two Pairs

We need to set up the second pair of array and plot its SIP radiation pattern.
Let us use 'd' spacing 480°, a current ratio 0.5 relative to the first pair and same
K factor. The complete arrays are shown in Fig. 6.62 using the Equation (6.51)
that we used in plotting the 1 pair, but changing I to 0.5 and 'd' 480°. When
comparing the two patterns, notice that number 2 pairs pattern is much lower
in amplitude because of the reduced I and it has 6 more lobes that the 1 pair
due to the increased 'a' spacing. Null points are at 10.8°, 34.22°, 69.64°,
110.36°, 145.78° and 169.2° in the first and second quadrant and nulls in quad-
rants three and four are mirror image.
Figure 6.62 Antenna pair location 1 and 2-pair antennas.
The pattern phase experiences a 180° phase reversal when going through a
null point and reader may plot the results of Table 6.5 for better understanding.
Table 6.5 Relative field strength at various θ values with 20° interval.
1- pair (d = 190°) 2-pair (d = Results Results Total

480°) of 1- of 2- field
pair pair
0° Et = 2(1)(1) cos To be com- 2 2 4

(190° sin 0°) pleted by
reader
20° Et = 2(1)(.97) cos 0.82 –0.933 –

(190° sin 20°) 0.113
40° Et = 2(1)(0.83) –0.88

cos (190° sin
40°)
60° Et = 2(1)(0.62) –1.20

cos (190° sin
60°)
80° Et = 2(1)(0.33) –0.655

cos (190° sin
80°)

1- pair (d = 190°) 2-pair (d = Results Results Total

480°) of 1- of 2- field
pair pair
100° Et = 2(1)(0.13) –0.258

cos (190° sin
100°)
120° Et = 2(1)(0.18) –0.347

cos (190° sin
120°)
140° Et = 2(1)(0.3) cos –0.319

(190° sin 140°)
160° Et = 2(1)(0.38) 0.321

cos (190° sin
160°)
180° Et = 2(1)(0.4) cos 0.8

(190° sin 180°)
The resultant pattern has nulls at approximately 19.18° and 160.82°. The res-
ultant pattern is a bi-phase pattern. In a normal localizer pattern nulls are un-
desirable as the uni-phase pattern is required. In order to obtain the uni-phase
pattern, it would be necessary to add more SIP antenna pairs to Narrow Width
Aperture (NWA) array. However for the purpose clarity, we will confine our dis-
cussion to that area ± 10° of the azimuth from runway centerline.
6.7.2. Antenna Feed

If we want to feed the 4-elements array with two different but related RF sig-
nals and we desired that one RF signal, (Ecs), be fed to the antenna pairs as SIP
and other RF signal (Ess) be fed the same antenna as signal-out-of-phase
(SOP). Figure 6.63 shows the bridge methods of accomplishing this. In the Fig.
6.63 Ecs signal has the same line length to travel from the input of the bridge to
any antenna. The Ess signal has to travel an extra 180° going to the right side of
the array as compared to the Ecs signal or the Ess travel to the left side. The 4:1
power divider are necessary (2:1 current divider) in order to set up the 1:0.5 '1'
ratio between the 1 and 2 antenna pairs.
Figure 6.63 Bridge method of feeding both signal to antenna pairs.

6.7.3. SOP Pattern

The term 'd sin θ' in both SIP and SOP field strength Equation (6.51) is vector
rotation and the only difference between the two equations is in SIP, the vector
rotation is modified by the 'Cosine' function and in SOP equation the vector ro-
tation is modified by the 'Sine' function. For the SOP pattern the nulls will ap-
pear in the first quadrant at VR = d sin θ with VR = 0°, 180° and 360°. Note these
null positions are at the same azimuths that were calculated for the SIP max-
imum points, neglecting the 'K' factor. It is simple to plot the pattern for the
SOP array once we know what the SIP pattern looks like? Just change the SIP
maximum point to SOP null points and the SIP null points to SOP maximum
points. Of course the K factor as we noted before, we again shift the maximum
points but the general shape of the pattern can be determined by transposing
the SIP maximum and SOP null points. The SOP pattern for the antenna 1 pair
is plotted in Fig. 6.64
Figure 6.64 SOP radiation pattern including K factor 1-pair.
The term 'I' in the SOP Equation (6.51), Et = 2 IK sin (a sin θ) was increased to
1.7484 relative to 1 SIP pair. In Fig. 6.64 it is observed that at 0°, there is null
(runway centerline). There is null at 180° also. The location of these two nulls
is very important and also pattern is a bi-phase pattern.
The SOP pattern for the two pair is plotted in Fig. 6.65. Although these patterns
appear to have the same relative magnitude the number two pair actually smal-
ler due to the half antenna current. Note that pattern has a null at 0° and 180°
and is also a bi-phase pattern.
Figure 6.65 SOP radiation pattern including 'K' factor, 2-pair antenna.

The composite SOP pattern is shown in Fig. 6.66
Figure 6.66 SOP pattern produced by combining 1 and 2 pair.
6.8. LOCALIZER COURSE STRUCTURE

The localizer antenna array is normally installed approximately 300 m from the
stop end of the runway and positioned so that a line drawn through the center
of the array would be perpendicular to the centerline of runway. The composite
carrier sideband pattern has its maximum signal strength at 0° azimuth which
is the runway centerline. The composite separate sideband pattern has a null
at 0° and 180° of azimuth. There is a symmetrical distribution of Ecs and Ess en-
ergy on the either side of 0° and 180° azimuth. This means that cross pointer
deflection or DDM will vary symmetrically on either side of the runway center-
line. DDM at 2° on the right of the centerline should be the same as DDM at 2°
left of the centerline. DDM also varies at the linear rate up to 4° on either side
of 0° azimuth.
In four-element antenna array, the antenna is fed as SIP for carrier signal and
SOP for sideband signal. In ILS the carrier energy is designated as Ec, Ecs150 Hz,
Ecs90 Hz and the sideband energy Ess90 Hz and Ess150 Hz. In order to have correct
sensing, E90 Hz > E150 Hz on the left side of centerline E150 Hz > E90 Hz on the right
side, the Ecs and Ess must have the correct phase relationship in the antennas.
Figure 6.67 shows the correct phase relationships for the Ec, Ecs and Ess in all

localizer arrays. The resultant phase relationships are shown for centerline,
right of centerline and left of the centerline. At the point P1 the Ec + Ecs from
both sides of the array had to travel the same distance, and since they are in
phase in both sides of the array, they will be in-phase at P1 and add.
Figure 6.67 Physical location of antenna and phaser presentation of Ec, Ecs
and Ess.
The Ess from both sides of the runway must also travel the same distance, at
P1, they will have the same phase relationship as exists in the antennas. Ess is
fed as SOP, therefore the Ess on the right side is oppositely phased with Ess on
the left side, so they will be oppositely phased and have the same amplitude at
P1 and they will cancel. At P2 the right side of the runway, the signals on the
right side of the array are advanced relative to the signals at P1 and signals
from the left side are retarded relative to P1. At P3 the opposite is true. At point
P2 and P3 the Ec + Ecs resultant are of the same phase and if the two points
were equal in distance from the runway centerline they would have the same
amplitude. The Ess150 Hz resultant is in phase with Ecs90 Hz resultant P3. There-
fore they will add. At P2 Ess90 Hz is out-of-phase with Ecs90 Hz so they will sub-
tract. For Ecs150 Hz and Ess150 Hz signals, at P2 Ecs150 Hz will add to Ess150 Hz and
at P3 Ecs150 Hz will subtract from Ess150 Hz. These phase relationships are E90 Hz
> E150 Hz on the left side and E150 Hz > E90 Hz on the right side relative to the ap-
proaching aircraft.
6.8.1. Localizer System Phasing

Figure 6.68 shows a basic localizer distribution circuit that will be used for the
antenna array. To have a correct sensing, the Ess and Ecs signal must be in
quadrature at the antenna. The steps to be followed while localizer quadrature
phasing
a. Position of PIR at a distance of at least 100 times the widest 'a spacing' of
the Localizer array and approximately 5° from the runway centerline.

b. Dummy load the Ess150 Hz – Ess90 Hz feed line. A dummy load should be
placed at the modulation bridge output and on the feed line itself for
proper loading.
c. Remove the dummy loads and install a 90° line section in series with the
sideband feed line. Adjust the SB Phaser to obtain same reading as the
reference reading.
d. Remove the 90° line section and reconnect the sideband feed line nor-
mally. Check for normal sensing.
Figure 6.68 Antenna distribution circuit.
6.8.2. Localizer DDM

The DDM plot was derived by calculating the relative field strength at all azi-
muths for both the Ecs and Ess and substituting the calculated values into the
DDM Equation (6.53)
(6.53)
EXAMPLE 9
Assume that for every unit of Ecs energy fed to 1R or 1L antenna and also
1.74 unit of Ess energy. Assume that there is a 0.5 ratio in 2 pair relative to 1
pair. Also 'a' spacing is 190° for one pair and 480° for two pair and both
pairs are fed SIP for Ecs and SOP for Ess. These conditions describe the ini-
tial configuration of antenna array. What is the DDM at +2.5°?
Solution
Calculation of the relative field strength reveals that at +2.5° the compon-
ent Ecs is equal to 2.913 units and the composite Ess is equal to 1.123 units,
DDM is 0.154. On the right side of the runway at 2.5° a PIR would indicate
0.154/150 Hz. On the left side at –2.5° this array would indicate 0.154/90
Hz DDM. The total DDM plot is for the antenna array with the same ra-
tio as shown in the Fig. 6.69. In this array will be located along the center-
line. Runway centerline is along 0° axis. Looking at the DDM plot, at 0°,
DDM is equal to zero and rises to abnormal case,(0.4 DDM) at approxim-
ately 6° on either side of runway centerline. DDM stays at 0.4 DDM until ap-
proximately 19.5° where Ec goes to null. At this point the aircraft instru-
ments will not have sufficient flag current. This null is very sharp, less than
0.1° wide. Since there is a phase reversal when going through a null, the
sensing will stay reversed until another null is reached at approximately
160.5°. At 90° the DDM dips to almost 0.155 DDM and at 180° DDM again 
has gone to zero. On the either side of 180° the localizer has true sensing,
however if an aircraft were using this 'back-course' and will see reverse
sensing relative to a front course approach. This back course sensing is
normal condition. Continuing around the array the same DDM plot exists,
including the reverse sensing and dips at 270°.
Figure 6.69 DDM structure (Not to the scale).
In order for the antenna array to be acceptable otherwise it will need more
antenna elements to eliminate the flag points and increase the DDM at 90°
and 270°. Since course, width is defined as the angle from 0.155 DDM on
the right side to 0.155 DDM on the left side, the localizer receiver responds
to changes in ratios in the same manner as the GP receiver. The cross
pointer deflection or DDM is directly proportional to the space modulation

's', as long as Ecs is larger than Ess. The course width is adjusted by chan-
ging the value of Ess. DDM calculations for the localizer are made using
Equation (6.53).The Ess and Ecs in this equation is the composite values
provided by the antennas. Calculation of the individual antenna values
could be used. However it is quite cumbersome because of the number of
antenna values of Ess and Ecs can be taken directly from patterns. DDM
changes at a liner rate as the azimuth angle varied between +4° to –4°. In
this area DDM may be calculated by ration and proportion.
EXAMPLE 10
Assume DDM is 0.155 at 2.5° and it is desired to know the DDM at 2°.
Solution
By ratio and proportion
6.8.3. Localizer Course-width

Localizer receivers are calibrated for 150 μA of deflection current, when DDM =
0.155. The edge of course is defined as a point where the cross pointer current
is exactly 150 μA, therefore, DDM value of 0.155 corresponds to the edge-of-
course. The area between the two edges-of-course is defined as the localizer

course sector. GP path widths are all adjusted for 1.4°. Localizer course-widths
are adjusted according to runway length. This is referred to as a 'tailored
course-width' the course is adjusted to be 700 feet wide at approach end of the
runway. It should be apparent that the longer the runway, the narrow the angu-
lar course-width.
EXAMPLE 11
Calculate the angular course width for runway length of 9000 feet;
Solution
Assume the localizer array is 1000 feet from the end of the runway. This
makes the total distance of 10,000 feet from the antenna array to the ap-
proached end of the runway. Also, one-half of 700 feet is 350 feet or the
distance from the runway centerline to either edge-of course. Since the dis-
tance to the runway end and to the edge of course is known, it is a simple
matter to determine the angle.
This is an angle from centerline to one edge-of-course, so over all angular

course-width is 4°. There are limits on initial localizer course-widths. They
can be no wider than 6° and no narrower than 3°. If the runway length is
long enough that the angular course-width calculates to less than 3° when
using 700 feet at the approach end, the course-width is set for 3°. If the
tailored width calculates to more than 6°, the course-width is set for 6°, on
a short runway. To change the course width, it is necessary to change the
separate sideband power. Increasing power will cause a narrower course
and decreasing the power will make the course wider. Since DDM varies at
a liner rate ± 4° on the either side of 0° azimuth and Ess is proportional to
separate sideband power, a ratio and proportion relationship can be used to
calculate changes in course width.
For example, flight inspection reported the localizer course with to be 3.5°
when it should be 4°. The sideband power is measured at 0.12 W. Find the
sideband power required to produce a course-width of 4°. So the relation-
ship will be inversely proportional
This will be useful when making changes to course-width during a flight in-
spection or when another technician is measuring course width using a PIR
at the end of the runway.
6.8.4. Course-width vs RF Phase

Proper RF phasing cannot be over emphasized. It is a very important concept
that must be understood. For maximum space modulation the RF phase of the
separate sideband must be correct. Any change from optimum will cause DDM
to decrease and cause the course width to widen
(6.54)
where, θ is the angle of misphasing.
When angle is 90°, DDM will be zero. In a previous section on antenna RF

phases, it was presented the Ecs and Ess currents in the antenna pairs were in
quadrature. This was necessary so the radiated field would be in-phase. The
facts that the currents in the antennas are in quadrature for a normal facility
makes a very convenient methods of checking RF phase. A detector placed in
one of the feed lines to an antenna whose output is fed back to the localizer
building and connected to a PIR will show when DDM is correct. This is an al-
ternate method of phasing the facility and is called in-line phasing.

6.8.5. Monitor Combining Network

The theory of the operation of a localizer monitor combining network is com-
monly used in the most of the localizer unit. In ILS localizer pick up loops, the
antenna samples the signals to be radiated. These signals are combined by the
device called an RF combining network. The strip-line device takes these
sampled signals, and combines them to produce a CSB signal and SBO signal.
These signals are then routed to the monitor combining network, which com-
bines them to produce a course signal and a width signal, which are routed to
the localizer monitor. The monitor combining network receives its CSB and
SBO inputs from RF combining network. These are representative of the sig-
nals radiated by log-periodic antenna array. The CSB input is routed through a 6
dB attenuator to a 1:1 power divider, which is made up of two 70 Ω 90° line
length. One output from1:1 power divider is routed to the input of the course
detector while the second output is routed to a strip-line quadrature coupler
combiner where it is combined with an SBO signal for application to the width
detector. The coupler can be used to transfer signals in either direction. When
a signal is applied to one of the ports, it is transferred to two ports at a –3 dB
level and either in phase or 90° retarded while a third port is isolated from the
one at which the input is applied. If any one of the four ports is used as an in-
put with the input current dividing at magnitude of 0.707 and phases of 0° and
–90° in the respect to the input.
From Fig. 6.70, the SBO input to the monitor combining network is routed to
10-dB attenuator, through a 0 to 15-dB step attenuator and a phase to the strip-
line quadrature coupler combiner mentioned earlier. The combiner outputs are
routed to the width detector. The symbolic representation of quadrature
coupler combiner is shown in Fig. 6.71.
Figure 6.70 Block diagram of localizer monitor.
Figure 6.71 Quadrature coupler combiner.

The phase consists of 3-dB quadrature coupler and an LC circuit as shown in
Fig. 6.72. RF phase difference between the input and output signals are de-
pendent upon the reflection angle selected by the phasor control through the
LC circuitry. Input signals entering the coupler will be divided and impressed
across the 0° and –90° ports. Since these two ports are terminated by LC cir-
cuitry, the output signal will be reflected back into the coupler. Signals thus re-
flected back to the input port from the 0° port will be 180° out-of-phase with
those from –90° port, resulting in cancellation of those signals. The signals re-
flected to the isolated or output port of the phaser, from 0° and 90°, arrive in-
phase with each other.
Figure 6.72 SBO RF phaser.
6.8.6. Localizer Monitoring

The localizer monitoring system must be stable, in duplicate conditions, and
cause an equipment transfer to standby equipment or the facility shutdown
when prescribed tolerance exceeds. The parameters must be monitored in loc-
alizer channels are course alignment, course width, % modulation, transmitter
RF output level and identification. The eight-loop antenna arrays use two field
detectors to monitor the on-course and width signals. The on-course detector
was located on the centerline approximately 150 feet in the front of the array at
an azimuth of zero degree. The off-course or width detector was also located
approximately 150 feet in front of the array, but at an azimuth of about +5°.
Localizer radiated signals were received, detected to audio levels and feed
back to the monitors. The % of modulation, the transmitter RF output level and
identification level are usually sampled from the on-course detector signals.
Since the detectors are only 150 feet from the antenna array, proximity error
must be considered. The V-ring antenna system is compatible with either the
high power 200 W tube type equipment, or the low power 20 W solid equip-
ment. The first method used to monitor the V-ring array had two-monitor an-
tenna located 12 feet in front of the array on either side. This was referred to as
'wide aperture monitoring'. This system did not have the required stability, thus
integral monitoring system was developed. Later antenna systems such as the
traveling wave and log periodic array use the integral monitoring system. The
integral monitoring system, a sample of the radiated energy is fed back to
monitor equipment.
6.8.7. Course Alignment

In an ideal localizer system, transmitter modulation would be 20% of each fre-
quency. Also, the composite sideband null would be exactly on the runway
centerline. Slight errors in a physical placement of an array and individual an-
tenna will cause the sideband null not to be exactly on the runway centerline.
Also, small difference in the phase of antenna currents of a pair will cause the
on-course 0 DDM to be slightly displaced off the runaway centerline when the 
modulation factor 90 Hz and 150 Hz are equal. To correct for these slight dif-
ferences the modulation equality of 90 Hz and 150 Hz is unbalanced. So the
ILS receiver on centerline will indicate 0 DDM. With localizer centerline re-es-
tablished, the monitoring of these parameters is of considerable importance.
Course alignment is the most important parameter monitored and con-
sequently if not closely checked, could allow an aircraft to fly into an obstruc-
tion. Course alignment for Cat-I localizer has a 'standard' tolerance of 5% of the
commissioned course-width. In the other words, a facility with a width of 5.0°
could have a maximum alignment change of ± 0.25°.
EXAMPLE 11
What would be the deflection in μA of a flight check aircraft, sitting on run-

way centerline, read if a localizer with 4.0° width had its course shifted
clockwise to the 'standard' monitoring unit.
Solution
Given
Hence,
EXAMPLE 12
A tailored 5.4° localizer has its course shifted 15 feet clockwise as meas-
ured at runway threshold.
a. What DDM reading would be provided to the course monitor if its nor-
mal input was 0 DDM?
b. If the localizer monitor were calibrated to alarm at the 'standard'
course alarm point would it now be in alarm?
Solution
a. ; X = 0.0066 DDM
b. 5.4° × 0.05 = 0.27°
; Hence X = 0.0155 DDM
Answer: No, the standard alarm point is 0.0155 DDM, and the course is at
0.0066 DDM
6.8.8. Integral Monitoring

Integral monitoring is used to sense out-of-tolerances conditions in the radi-
ated signals. A sample of the radiated RF signals from each antenna are re-
combined to develop
1. A course data signal will sense changes in course alignment, RF level and
modulation.
2. A width data signal will sense changes in course width.
We use a hypothetical recombination's circuit to monitor our previous de-

veloped hypothetical four-element localizer array. Figure 6.73 is a drawing of
this recombination circuit. For simplification only the 150 Hz signal will be
shown. In this Fig. 6.73 a sample of the RF signal is coupled, at typically-27 dB,
from the antennas. The RF sample from the 1R and 1L antennas are shown en-
tering the drawing from the left and into 3-dB coupler B. The phase relation- 
ships of the Ecs150 Hz and Ess150 Hz as they appear in the antenna are shown en-
tering drawing. If 1L RF signals Ei (Ecs150 Hz) and Si(Ess150 Hz) undergoes a
phase lag of 90° through the α link. At the port a of coupler B the Ecs150 Hz from
1L antenna is lagging the Ecs150 Hz at port b by 90°. The Ess150 Hz at port a is
leading the Ess150 Hz at port b by 90°. Since there is no phase shift from port a
to port c and there is a –90° phase shift from port b to c, at port c the Ecs150 Hz
from the 1R and 1L antenna will be in phase. The Ess150 Hz at port c from 1R
and 1L antenna will be out-of-phase and cancel. At port of coupler B the Ess150
Hzfrom 1R and 1L antennas will be in phase because of the –90° phase shift
between port a and port d and the 0° phase shift between port b and port d.
For the same Ecs150 Hz will be out-of-phase at port d and cancel.
Figure 6.73 Antenna recombination circuit.
Coupler C combines the Ecs150 Hz and Ess150 Hz from the 2R and 2L antennas
the same way coupler B combined the 1R and 1L signals. Coupler A combines
the Ecs150 Hz signals from coupler B and C so that at port d of the coupler A the
Ecs150 Hz from all antenna will be in phase, note the 90° –α link between port c
of coupler C and port b of coupler A. This α link is necessary to set up the
proper input phase relationship into coupler A.
Coupler D is used to combine the Ess signals from couplers B and C the same
way that coupler A combined the Ecs. At port 'a' of coupler D the Ess from all an-
tennas will be of the same relative phase and Ecs will be out-of-phase. In other
localizer antenna arrays the same type of recombination circuits are used to
combine the Ess and Ecs from all antennas. The larger arrays use more 3 dB
couplers then used in antenna array. For example the V-ring array utilizes
twenty-one 3 dB couplers to recombine the Ess and Ecs from its antenna pairs,
however the basic operation of the recombination circuits are very similar.
The combined Ecs and Ess outputs are routed to a bridge circuit similar to Fig.
6.74. The recombined Ec and Ecs from all antenna pairs are fed into bridge A.
The bridges in this circuit are 3-dB bridges. The input voltages are split by
bridge A with 0.707 of it being routed to the on-course monitor. A level of 0.707
of the input voltage into bridge A is also routed to the top of the bridge B. The

recombined Ess from all antennas is routed to the bottom of bridge B. the Ecs
and Ess is combined at the in-phase corner of bridge B and routed to the width
monitor.
Figure 6.74 Monitor input bridges.
The width monitor phaser is adjusted so that at the input of the width monitor,
the Ess150 Hz is in-phase with the Ecs150 Hz. The width monitor attenuator adjusts
the level of Ess fed into bridge B and sets the DDM into the width monitoring, to
manufacturers specification. When localizer course-width is set for operational
specified limits and the DDM is set by using Equation (6.53). If more attenu-
ation is used less Ess is fed into bridge B and DDM decreases.
6.8.9. Localizer Proximity Error

Proximity error as it relates to localizer monitoring is normally presented in de-
tail in the applicable localizer equipment course. The general proximity error
equation for an antenna pair is
(6.55)
where, 'a' is the antenna spacing, θ is the azimuth angle of the point where the
measurement is taken and S is the distance in degrees to the measurement
point. Recall also that βp is defined as the phase lag of Ess relative to the Ecs at
a point in near field and DDM is reduced by the cosine function of βp.
Examination of the basic βp Equation (6.55) indicates that if antenna 'a' spa-
cing is increased the βp will increase; therefore the outside antenna will have
more affect on βp decreases and finally, most importantly as the distance to
the array is decreased the βp is increased. Because of this all ground checks
should be taken in the far-field, at least 100 times the largest 'a' spacing. The
basic Equation (6.55) shows that as the distance to the array is reduced to
halved βp becomes double.
6.9. GLIDE PATH 

The equi-potential GP attributed to F.W. Dunmore of the United States, Bureau
of Standards plays no part in the standard fixed beam low approach systems
adopted by the ICAO; however, slope employing this principle were important
considerations in all of the low-approach development in the years from 1927
to 1941. Therefore, it appears desirable that the student of aeronautical radio
engineering has some knowledge of the principle of operation of this device.
6.9.1. Basic Concept of Equi-potential Glide

Path
To understand the principle of the equi-potential GP, consider first the vertical
field pattern of a horizontal dipole located at some distance above the ground.
When the radio signal propagate from a GP antenna strike the ground and are
reflected into the space where they add to or subtract from the direct signal
coming from the antenna. This phenomenon is equivalent to the analogy
shown in Fig. 6.75, wherein an antenna is the image of the real antenna, is as-
sumed to be located below the ground plane at a distance from exactly equal
to the height of the real antenna above the ground plane. The field pattern is
now determined on the assumption that it is generated by radiation from two
horizontal dipoles which equal currents are flowing in opposite directions.
Figure 6.75 The field at P is coming from the radiator directly and reflected
signal from the ground plane.
Equi-potential GPs were obtained through the use of frequencies of the order
of 100 MHz. The height of the horizontal radiators was about 2λ. It may be as-
sumed that at some point P sufficiently moved in space, the radio signal from
the two antennas travel essentially parallel paths so that the vertical angels δ
and δ′ are substantially equal. The difference between the lengths of the paths
shown will be
(6.56)
The phase difference φ between the signals the real and the image antenna
will be equal to the path difference 'D' as given in Equation (6.56) if the dis-
tance between the antennas 2h is expressed in electric degrees from the trans-
mitting frequency employed.

Let it be assumed that the fields e and e′ produced by the image and the real
antennas at point P located at unity distance from the radiators are equal then
the field from the image antenna may be resolved into two orthogonal compon-
ents that can be added to the field from the real antenna. The vector sum of
the two fields will be
(6.57)
Expanding Equation (6.57) and substituting for the expression sin2 φ + cos2 φ
= 1, the following equation results.
(6.58)
By substituting for the quantity being rooted in Equation (6.58) its trigonomet-
ric equivalent for the half angle the following expression results
(6.59)
The following equation is obtained by substituting for its equivalent in terms of

Equation (6.56)
(6.60)
The vertical space pattern can be obtained through the use of Equation (6.60)
with the assumption that the maximum value of 'e' at unity distance was equal
to unity and that h = 2λ = 720°. It is also assumed that the field intensity at
unity distance is unity; therefore at twice unity distance, its value will be 0.5 at
three times unity distance, its value will be 0.333 etc and the field strength de-
creases with distance and increases with vertical angle until it reached a max-
imum at a value of 7.2°.
The GP receiver is designed so that its output terminates in a meter giving in-
dications proportional to field intensity, and it will be readily possible for the
meter to show a constant value if the equipment could be raised in altitude as
the distance from the radiators increases. Let it assume that it is desired to
maintain a constant reading of field equal to 0.1 arbitrary units. Then as dis-
tance increases, it will be necessary to multiply the field intensity with distance
value by the numbers indicated at various points. The value of the multipliers
may be obtained from the field intensity versus vertical angle. The value of ver-
tical angles is necessary in order to the filed strength will remain constant as
distance increases. A GP receiver was used to actuate the horizontal needle of
a cross-pointer instrument. When the correct value of field was present at the
input of the receiving antenna, the horizontal needle passed through the center
of the instrument. It moved up and down to indicate that the field was too weak
or too strong. A too high or too low reading of the meter indicates the aircraft
position with respect to the GP. The position of the horizontal needle passing
through the center of the instrument indicates that the aircraft is on the op-
timum GP.
It is interesting to note that one of the low approach systems utilize the radi-
ation from the localizer as an equipotential GP. This development was one of
the first coordinated navigation systems. It will be seen that an approach on an
equipotential GP is not to be made at a constant angle. The path had a pro-
nounced flare being steeper at a distance and becoming nearly parallel to the
runway as the touch–down point was approached. It is also evident that the ra-
diation from the GP transmitting system must not only be maintained constant

with time but must be identical for all installation. If the radiation were not con-
stant with time and different installations, the apparent position of the GP
would change. The difficulty of maintaining the radiated field constant at all
times and equal at all installations, plus the lack of uniformity in the glide
angle, led to the development of the equi-signal GP and it is discussed in detail
in the next section.
6.9.2. Basic Requirements of GP Equipment

The GP antenna system provides the means for transmitting the ILS elevation
guidance information. This is achieved by transmitting combinations of GP,
CSB, and SBO signals in the correct amplitude and phase from two or three ra-
diating elements raised at critical heights above the ground. These elements
are mounted on a common mast, sited at safe distance from the runway, adja-
cent to touch–down. The basic specifications for ILS GP are as follows
a. Carrier frequency: Predetermined between 328 and 336 MHz.
b. Navigation tones: 90 and 150 Hz, modulated on the RF carrier at 40% each
tone on the GP. One tone must predominate over the other tone to from
the preset GP depending on runway length. The 150 Hz tone is largest be-
low the glide path and the 90 Hz tone above.
c. Glide angle: set at a predetermined value between 2° to 4°.
d. Displacement sensitivity: the DDM should be 0.0875 (8.755%) at 0.12θ.
e. Coverage, azimuth: 10 NM at 8° from that course line is shown in Fig.

6.76(b)
f. Coverage elevation: 10 NM between 1.75θ and 0.45θ angle or down to

0.3θ, as required to safe guard the promulgated GP procedure is shown in
Fig. 6.76(a).
where, R is point which ahs downward extended straight portion of ILS glide
path intersects the runway centerline.
Figure 6.76 (a) GP azimuth coverage and (b) GP elevation coverage.


6.9.3. Basic Theory of Equi-signal GP

An equi-signal type GP was tried in 1938 by D.M. Stuart and J.C. Hromada, then
of the Civil Aviation Authority, but the system accepted as standard by the
ICAO was developed by Federal Telecommunications Laboratories on a con-
tract awarded by the United States Air Force (at that time the United States
Army Air Corps) in about 1941. It operates on the principle of the localizer or,
overlapping field patterns carrying different types of modulation. The position
of the course or courses is determined by the zone in which the signals have
equal intensity. The patterns are generated by means of the same principle as
the equi-potential GP. Through the use of Equation (6.60) can be plotted a pat-
tern of field intensity with vertical angles for an antenna at a height of 720°
above the ground. With the equi-signal GP, two horizontal antennas are em-
ployed at two different heights above the ground as shown in Fig. 6.77.
Figure 6.77 Equi-signal GP system.
The radio frequency spectrum employed for GP equipment operation is UHF

band. A crystal controlled transmitter operates in the band of from 329.3 to
335 MHz. The output of this transmitter is connected to a bridge. Rotating ca-
pacitor modulators coupled to transmission lines that connect from two
corners of the bridge produce the modulation. The transmission lines from the
bridge connect to an upper antenna with radio frequency energy modulated
150 Hz and to a lower antenna with radio frequency energy modulated at 90
Hz. The amplitude control of signal is employed to adjust the relative amount
of energy of the two antennas.
The upper antenna is approximately 28.5 feet above ground and the lower an-
tenna is at approximately 6 feet for GPs at angles of about 2°. However, by the
decreasing the height of the antennas, the GP angles may be increased to as
much as 5°. The GP angles are obtainable in 0.25° steps up to 4° and 0.5°
steps up to 5°. Glide angles are adjusted by changing antenna heights while
keeping the height ratios constant
The patterns resulting from the antennas as calculated through the use of
Equation (6.60) are shown in Fig. 6.78. It will be seen that the lower radiator
generates a single lobe for the vertical angles of from zero to 18°. Within these
same angles, the upper antenna generates 5 lobes. The selection of the loca-
tion of the antennas is made after considering several factors. It is desired that
there should be course sharpness such that the horizontal needle will deflect
from center to full scale downward for a deviation of 0.3° above the GP and full
scale upward for a deviation of 0.5° below the GP.

Figure 6.78 Field patterns in the vertical plane for the equi-signal glideslope
antenna system.
It is desired that the minimum clearance be nearly equal for positions above
and below the GP. In this respect, it will be noted from Fig. 6.78 that 3 positions
above the GP have low clearance. Also it will be noted that Fig. 6.78 has 2 posi-
tions for which the signals from the lower and the upper antennas are equal.
The design of the system was so chosen that the first false position, which ap-
pears in the vicinity of 17°, is at an angle of at least 6 times that of the correct
GP angle. Through this procedure, it is believed that the false positions could
not be confused with the true position. In Fig. 6.78, it can be seen that if the in-
tensity of the field from the lower antenna had been reduced by an appreciable
amount, the GP position would have moved to a somewhat higher angle. If the
intensity of the field from the lower antenna were reduced greatly so that is
maximum amplitude approximated that from the upper antenna, that intersec-
tion would occur in a region where the change in signal intensity ratio would be
small between the signals from the upper and lower antennas for a fractional
change of angle. That is, the area in which signals of equal strength would be
received, appear to be broad. It is evident, therefore, that an optimum ratio of
fields from the upper and lower antennas must be maintained.
The equi-potential GP generating equipment was located at the end of the run-
way (away from the approach end) and not at the point where aircraft contac-
ted the runway. This arrangement was desirable because the slope eventually
became zero and it is necessary that the aircraft contact the ground where the
slope has an appreciable value. The equi-signal GP, however, intersects the
ground near the equipment that generates it. Therefore, this equipment must
be moved to the side of the runway in order that it should not constitute a haz-
ard. The intersection between the first lobes will be at a constant angle above
ground throughout the 360° in the horizontal plane that centers on the two an-
tennas. This intersection of patterns, therefore, is contained in the surface of a
cone. If this cone has its axis vertical but is displaced by an appreciable
amount to one side of the runway, a vertical plane passing through its surface
generates a hyperbolic line.
The geometry of the problem is shown in Fig. 6.79 and the GP is from a point P
at altitude to touchdown O, is represented by the line O-P. The desired vertical
angle of the GP will be ψ. The glideslope generating equipment G is located to
the side of the runway by a distance D. The equi-signal line of radiation to point
P is shown by the line G-P. When this line is projected on the surface of the
earth, it forms the line 'r'. The line G-P is elevated by a vertical angle δ. The pro-
jection of the glideslope on the surface of the earth is 'O a'. This line is projec-

ted in the horizontal plane parallel to the centerline of the runway to form the
line 'd'. The projection on the surface of the earth, the line from the GP generat-
ing equipment G-P is at a horizontal angle θ from the line 'd'.
Figure 6.79 Glide path equipment is located at point G and must develop a
straight line glideslope O-P.
It is evident that the GP angle is given by
(6.61)
As an aircraft makes its descent, it moves along the line O-P, therefore both its
altitude 'A' and distance 'd' decreases. If the glideslope angle is to remain con-
stant, it is evident that the ratio must also remain constant. However, the
distance 'd' is given by
(6.62)
and A is given by
(6.63)
Substituting the Equation (6.62) and (6.63) into Equation (6.61)
(6.64)
where, K is a constant and the angle δ will vary from some small value to zero
as the aircraft moves from some altitude to the touchdown point; therefore,
without appreciable error, it is possible to assume that tan δ = sin δ, when in-
serted in Equation (6.64) gives
(6.65)

Equation (6.65) has given the value of the field at unity distance for any vertical
angle. As the aircraft makes its approach, the angle θ changes. Therefore, the
field at point P will also be a function of the pattern of the antenna in the hori-
zontal plane. If the upper antenna is assumed to have a pattern in the hori-
zontal plane given by F1(θ) and is at a height H, then its field e1 will be given by
(6.66)
Substituting Equation (6.65) in Equation (6.66) the following results
(6.67)
Similarly, for the lower antenna, which has a horizontal pattern given by F2(θ)
and is at a height h, its field e2 will be
(6.68)
The GP lies at the point where e1 = e2 (for equal depths of modulation of the 90
Hz and 150 Hz tones); therefore
(6.69)
Equation (6.69)indicates that the glideslope can be produced at an unvarying

angle by controlling the patterns of the antennas in the horizontal plane. The
required patterns are calculated by the use of Equation (6.69).
A vertical ground screen bisects the antenna and serves to keep radiation from
the transmitting equipment, which is located in back of the screen. The pattern
of this antenna is shown in Fig. 6.80. It will be noticed that the pattern is very
broad lobe extending over more than 140°. The radiator utilized in the upper
position consists of two V antennas separated in the vertical dimension by a
half wavelength. These antennas are located in front of dipoles that serve as
reflectors. Two antennas are employed to increase the forward field intensity.
This design is desirable because a single V antenna radiates considerable en-
ergy in a plane at right angles to the plane that contains it. The horizontal pat-
tern of the upper radiator is shown in Fig. 6.80. In order that the field patterns
from the antennas will satisfy Equation (6.69) and thereby produce a straight
line GP, the directions of maximum radiation of the upper antenna is located
12° from the axis of maximum radiation of the lower antenna in a direction
away from the runway. It is observed that the ratio of the energy from the lower
antenna to the upper antenna increases as the touch–down point is ap-
proached by aircraft.
Figure 6.80 Horizontal plane pattern for the Upper and Lower GP antenna.

The modulated carrier from one field pattern was present at any one time. The
relative strengths of the signals from the two field patterns are compared by
means of aural memory. Carrier frequency is radiated from only one source
(except for parasitic excitation). With the equi-signal GP system, however the
delivery service frequency is radiated from both the upper and lower antennas,
since these are not located at the same point, a difference in-phase of two an-
tennas feed and carrier is present.
One carrier is modulated at a frequency 3 times some arbitrary value F and the
other at a frequency 5 F. The detector is assumed to be linear. The total per-
cent modulation is 90 and F is equal to 30 Hz. The 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals
continually decrease as they are being converted into cross modulation and
harmonic products. The harmonic content that would be developed on the lat-
ter part of the GP shortly before the point of contact would change the indic-
ated shape of the GP depending on the characteristics of the filter system in
the receiver. The resultant ratio of 90 to 150 Hz signals is the case in which the
phase difference between the carriers is varied from 0 to 180°. This curve was
plotted for the condition where the in-phase signal amplitudes have a ratio of
1.75 to 1. It shows the so-called swamping effect. This is the effect where sig-
nals of higher level appear to swamp the signals at a lower level, with a result-
ant great increase between the ratios of fundamental audio frequencies. Figure
6.80 shows the lobe of the upper radiator and 3 points where the clearance is
low. The second lobes are out-of-phase with the first, which, however, is in
phase with the third. By taking advantage of the greater phase difference that
exist at the maximum of the third and fourth lobes and of the swamping effect,
the clearance may be increased.
Figure 6.81 has shown that if there were sufficient phase difference between
the carriers, the signal strength would be greatly decreased. It has been the
practice to advance the phase of the carrier in the upper antenna by 27°. By
this procedure, the carrier shift is maintained within reasonable limits for the
entire length of the path. The depth of modulation of the radio frequency car-
rier due to each of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz tones is maintained at 47.5%. The
depth of modulation difference is maintained at 0.175 for an angular deviation
of between 0.15 ψ ± 0.04 ψ for the upper limit and between 0.25 ψ – 0.14 ψ
and 0.25 ψ + 0.08 ψ for the lower limit. As previously defined ψ is the angle of
the GP.

Figure 6.81 The resultant ratio of 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals as a function of

phase difference between the carrier frequencies.
6.10. BASIC OF NULL TYPE GLIDE

PATH
For some approach angles, it is necessary for the lower antenna used with the
equi-signal GP to be located as low as 4 feet. Through the application of Equa-
tion (6.60) it is easy to understand why heavy snowfall of the order of 2 feet or
more, which characterizes conditions at many of the world's airfields, will
cause the path to change. As a matter of fact, any precipitation produces some
change in the height of the path. Reference to Equation (6.60) which gives the
field intensity produced by the upper and lower radiators of the equi-signal GP
system, will show the ratio of the two signals for an angle of 0.75° above the
GP differs greatly from the reciprocal ratio for the same angle below the slope.
This non-uniformity may be considered the error signal above and below the
glide slope is particularly objectionable for the operation of automatic pilot
circuits.
The principle of this equipment is illustrated in Fig. 6.82. One end of the an-
tenna bridge having only sidebands of 90 Hz and 150 Hz in connected to an
upper antenna. The lower end of the bridge having the carrier frequency plus
the sidebands of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz modulations is connected to a lower
antenna. There is, in addition, a third antenna connected to the end of the
bridge that has sidebands only. This third antenna is called the modifier array
and will be disregarded in the discussion of the moment.
Figure 6.82 Null types GP system.

Figure 6.83 the vertical patterns emanating from the three sets of antennas are
shown. Again disregarding the pattern emanating from the modifier array, it will
be seen that there are two lobes with the null between them located at the
angle of the GP. These field patterns are produced by the upper antenna and
have been calculated by the use of Equation (6.60) for an electric height of
4000° (10.12λ), which corresponds at 330 MHz to a height of approximately 33
feet. These lobed contain only sidebands but their phases are in opposition.
This phase relation obtains naturally as may be seen by the application of
Equation (6.60). In other words the phase relation of the lobes is exactly the
same as for the right and left sideband antennas of the GP of Fig. 6.83 through
the use of cross connection shown at F in Fig. 6.83.
Figure 6.83 Vertical field pattern for the 3-antennas of the Null type GP
system.

The lower antenna is at exactly half the height of the upper antenna and as
may be seen in Fig. 6.83 its vertical pattern has a maximum value at the GP po-
sition. The lower antenna, however, radiates the carrier as well as the sideband
frequencies. The 90 Hz sideband frequency is in-phase with the similar side-
band in the larger angle lobe of the field pattern from the upper antenna and is
in-phase opposition with the similar sideband in the smaller angle lobe from
the upper antenna. The 150 Hz sideband from the lower antenna is in-phase
opposition with the similar sideband in the higher angle lobe from the upper
antenna and is in-phase with the similar sideband in the smaller angle lobe
from the upper antenna.
The operation of the system is illustrated by three sets of vector diagrams in

Fig. 6.84. The diagram in Fig. 6.84 (a) shows the condition that is present at a
point located 0.5° above the normal GP. The 90 Hz sidebands from the upper
and lower antennas add while the 150 Hz sideband from the upper antenna
subtracts from the corresponding sideband from the lower antenna. The result
is a predominance of 90 Hz signal over the 150 Hz signal, thereby resulting in a
strong fly down indication. In Fig. 6.84 (b) is shown the condition present on
the normal GP. There is no signal from the upper antenna and since the 90 Hz
and 150 Hz sidebands of the lower antenna are equal, the horizontal needle of
the cross pointer instrument will indicate center. The condition shown in Fig.
6.84 (c) resembles that shown in Fig. 6.84 (a) except that in the latter case, the
90 Hz sideband from the lower antenna subtracts from those of the upper an-
tenna while the 150 Hz sideband from the upper antenna adds to those from
the lower antenna. The result is a predominance of the 150 Hz signal, which
results in a fly up indication.
Figure 6.84 Combining the sidebands, L indicates the field in vertical plane
from lower antenna and U of the Upper antenna.

It is evident that the position of the GP is determined only by the position of the
null that lies between the two lobes that are generated by the upper radiator.
Since the upper radiator is at a height of 33 feet, snowfall as high as 2 feet
would produce a change in path angle of not more than 0.13°. If the snowfall
were as much as 4 feet, the GP of the equi-signal system would be completely
obliterated; however, such a snowfall would cause a change of less than 0.4° in
the null type a system. It is also evident from an examination of Fig. 6.83 that
the rate of change of indication for about 1.5° above and below the course is
essentially uniform.
The upper and lower antennas are similar in construction, and consist of single
dipoles located at a distance of about a quarter wavelengths in-front of reflect-
ing screens. The ends of the dipoles are bent back towards the screen. The
resulting pattern in the horizontal plane is shown in Fig. 6.85.
Figure 6.85 Pattern in the horizontal plane of the main elements of the Null
type GP antenna array.
Similar to the problem that has been illustrated in Fig. 6.79 through the result-
ing GP from the null type system would result in a flared GP. It is therefore ne-
cessary to employ some mechanism to, in effect, lower the GP in the area near
the touch–down point. With the equi-signal system, this mechanism consisted 
in altering the intensities of the patterns generated by the upper and lower an-
tennas so that they were not equal everywhere along the slope. This mechan-
ism is not available to the null system because the same antenna produces
both of the GP determining patterns. The mechanism employed is a third an-
tenna array, which has been mentioned as the modifier array. This array accom-
plished its purpose by transmitting into the vicinity of the final touch–down
area, the touch–down point, and the rolling area, some additional sideband
power in such a manner that the existing 90 Hz sideband from the other anten-
nas are augmented and the 150 Hz signal is decreased.
The operation of the modifier array is illustrated in Fig. 6.86 by four sets of vec-
tor diagrams. Figure 6.86 (a) illustrates the condition that attains at a point on
the normal GP positions that in this case is in the vicinity of the final touch-
down point. As in the case of Fig. 6.86(b), there is no signal from the upper an-
tenna. The 90 Hz and 150 Hz sidebands from the lower antenna are equal.
However, the 90 Hz sideband from the modifier antenna adds to the corres-
ponding sideband from the lower antenna, whereas the 150 Hz sideband from
the modifier antenna subtracts from the corresponding sideband in the lower
antenna.
Figure 6.86 Vector diagram showing effect of modifier antenna M for four
conditions.
The result is a preponderance of 90 Hz output, which produces a 'fly-down' in-

dication at exactly the same vertical angle at on-course indication is received
at a point remote from the touchdown point. The reference to 'the same angle'
of course, to a vertical angle measured at the transmitting array and not the
vertical slope of the GP. Figure 6.86 illustrates how the radiation from the mod-
ifier arrays create a GP near the touchdown point i.e., at a vertical angle of

about 0.65° lower than the angle of GP produced without the modifier. The 90
Hz sidebands produced in this case by the modifier array exactly equal to the
corresponding sidebands from the upper arrays, but being phase opposition,
the resultant is zero. Exactly same conditions attains for the 150 Hz sideband
from the upper antenna and the modifier. They too are equal and in opposite
phase so that their net resultant is zero. The remaining signals come only from
90 Hz and 150 Hz sidebands of the lower array, which since they originate from
a common source are exactly equal and produce an on-course indication.
Figure 6.86 (a) and (d) illustrate the conditions of 0.5° above the remote GP po-
sition and 0.5° below the touchdown GP position respectively. These diagrams
show that the modifier arrays introduce no unusual conditions and are believed
to be self-explanatory. The modifier array consists of three radiators similar to
that have been described for the upper and lower antennas, expect that the
ends of each radiator be bent farther to provide greater side radiation. The
three radiators are mounted in a common plane (horizontal) and spaced ap-
proximately 180° apart. It will be noted, however, that the two outside radiators
have a phase i.e., in opposition of the central radiator. Figure 6.87 shows two
lobes displaced by about 40° from straight ahead. Actually, only one lobe
serves a useful purpose. The other is used alternatively for a GP installation on
the opposite side of the runway. The modifier arrays, to obtain optimum theor-
etical results, should be located in exactly the same position as the carrier
(lower antenna). Since it is impractical to mount the modifier in such a posi-
tion, it is located 77% of distance from the ground to the lower array but not
within 2 feet of the carrier array. If the modifier array had been located above
the carrier arrays, it could reduce the clearance the critical region by about 5°
and possibly produce a false course.
Figure 6.87 Horizontal field pattern of modifier arrays.
Reception of the null type signal is accomplished with the same GP receiver
i.e., used to receive the signals from the equi-signal GP system. The null type
GP equipment is so adjusted that it is unnecessary to change the glide slope
receiver constants from values that are optimum for the reception of signals
from the equi-signal GP system.
6.10.1. Null Reference GP

Horizontally polarized dipoles, mounted at height h above ground, will radiate a
direct wave to the aircraft receiver and additionally there will be a wave reflec-
ted from the ground surface. Since the aerial is horizontally polarized and the
E-fields will receive signals from the direct and reflected routes both.
Figure 6.88 Basic diagram for direct and reflected wave of GP antenna.

From simple geometry, it can be shown that, provided the aircraft is relatively
far away from the dipole, the dipole can be considered as two radiating ele-
ments, A1 and A2, placed 2h apart radiating anti phase.
Figure 6.89 GP antenna placed 2h apart.
This simple approach allows the previous analysis of aerials radiating in anti-
phase to be used. It is stated that two aerials spaced λ apart, produce on lobe
of radiation per quadrant and a general rule has been established that the num-
ber of lobes per quadrant is equal to the number of wavelengths separating the
aerials. Also, for anti-phase radiations, a null exists on the centerline between
the aerials. The GP geometry may be liked to this by considering the ground as
the centerline and the quadrant existing between the ground and the vertical
plane. Thus, if 2h = λ there would be one lobe in the quadrant. No radiation can
exist below ground so here the analogy must cease. In general terms, it may be
said that one complete lobe exists in the quadrant for every of aerial
height. It is established that for aerials radiating anti-phase, the radiation de-
pended upon 'K sin (h sin θ)', where, h is height of aerial, and θ = Elevation
angle.
Assume the required glide angle is to be 3°, and requirement is signal max-
imum at 3°. A signal maximum may be defined when the normalized radiation
is 1.0 and θ = 3°
(6.70)
K is a constant and, in our case, can be disregarded, so the equation becomes:
So
And

(6.71)
For 330 MHz this is a lowest aerial height. Since λ is equal to 0.90 m, 5λ= 4.5
m, it can be seen that, by replacing 3° in the above calculation with θ, a stand-
ard Equation (6.72) is realized for any glide angle:
(6.72)
In other words if a dipole is installed at height 'h' above the ground, the max-
imum of first lobe will occur at an elevation angle θ.
6.10.2. Principle of Working

As per ICAO specification, glide angle can be set at a predetermined value
between 2° and 4°, the selection depends upon the site and other operational
criteria. Once the glide angle is chosen, the height of lower aerial for null refer-
ence system is computed with the help of Equation (6.72). CSB signal is fed to
lower aerial and SBO signal is fed to the upper aerial as shown in Fig. 6.90.
Figure 6.90 Vector presentation shown for each antenna signal feed.
Figure 6.91 Null reference glide path antenna pattern.
 Open in new tab (/mhe-lookup/tab-link/ch06fig91/6076385) 

Figure 6.92 Radiation pattern of CSB and SBO in rectangular plot.
As the dipole radiating CSB signal is located at height 'h' above the ground, the
field strength of CSB is proportional to sin (h sin θ). To understand radiation
pattern in a better way, let us assume that glide angle is chosen to be 3°, for
which height 'h' is equal to 5λ. The maxima of the first lobe will occur at 3° and
there will be ten lobes per quadrant.
The dipole radiating SBO signal is located at height 10λ (2h) for 3° glide path.
Hence there will be 20 lobes per quadrant. The maxima of the first lobe will oc-
cur at half of the glide angle and null at glide angle (θ = 3°). Second
lobe will have maxima at and null at 2θ.
Below glide path, the vectorial addition of CSB and SBO signal, as shown in Fig.
6.93 will result in difference in depth of modulation, where 150 Hz is greater
than 90 Hz. At glide angle only CSB signal exists; hence DDM will be zero as
depth of modulation in CSB signal by 150 Hz and 90 Hz are equal (40% each).
Above glide angle, it is evident from the above diagram that 90 Hz is greater
than 150 Hz.
Figure 6.93 Null reference antenna fed (Vector presentation).

Now let us discuss Fig. 6.94 of the situation at 3θ will reveal that a false glide
path exists having reversed guidance information. The configuration discussed
is known as the 'Null Reference' glide path. It is simplest option and the easiest
to maintain as the height of the top aerial determines the glide angle (assum-
ing CSB is set to zero DDM). Electrical adjustment of the glide angle can be
made by adjusting the DDM of the CSB signal but this is not recommended as
it complicates maintenance. Additionally, the displacement sensitivity may be
adjusted by means of the SBO power, as in the case of the localizer. Increasing
the SBO power reduces the angle between θ and the position where 8.75%
DDM is achieved (increased sensitivity) and reducing the SBO power increased
the angle (reduced sensitivity). As per Fig. 6.94, at 3θ only CSB signal is
present and no SBO signal. Hence at 3θ DDM is zero i.e., false courses.
Figure 6.94 Radiation pattern of two CSB lobes and four SBO lobes.
The false GP information generated at 3θ, should not concern aircraft operat-
ors because the aircraft normally approaches an airfield below θ. Therefore the
receiver will capture the lowest lobe. For a glide angle of 2.5° and a height of
2000 to 2500 feet, the range at which this occurs is about 10 NM. The false GP
will have a height of 4000 to 5000 feet. At this range and the aircraft will there-
fore only use the lowest (correct) lobe for guidance. If the second lobe is cap-
tured the guidance information is reversed so will not be 'flyable'. The null refer-
ence GP requires rather special circumstances for optimum operation. Firstly
there is the subject of aerial height and glide angle i.e., typical at value for 3°,
and calculate value antenna height with help of Equation (6.72). Therefore,
It can be seen that the aerial mast requirement for this case, is at least 9 m. In
many case a mast of this height is an unacceptable obstruction. So an altern-
ative system must be used. Additionally, because of aerial height, it requires
substantially flat ground at least 360 m front of the aerial system and there-
after no substantially obstruction out to ± 10° each side of the course line. Ob-
structions will create reflection resulting in distortion of the guidance informa-
tion (beam bends). It is therefore required that an alternative system should
have lower aerial and some immunity from reflections.
6.10.3. Two-Elements Sideband Array 

The array comprises two aerials mounted vertically one above the other on a
mast .The lower aerial is mounted at height above the ground and the upper
aerial at height , where h is computed by Equation (6.72). The RF drives to
the upper and lower aerials are detailed in the Table 6.6. (The amplitudes are
normalized with respect to the course CSB carrier).
Table 6.6 RF drive signal strength for lower and upper antenna
Signal Lower Antenna Upper Antenna
Amplitude Phase Amplitude Phase
COURSE CSB
Carrier 1.0 0° – –
90 Hz Sideband 0.4 0° – –
150 Hz Sideband 0.4 0° – –
COURSE SBO
90 Hz Sideband 0.142 0° 0.142 180°
150 Hz Sideband 0.142 180° 0.142 0°
Types of signal fed to the aerials are as shown below:
(a) Lower Aerial
The lower aerials element radiates course CSB and –SBO signal. The radiation
pattern due CSB and –SBO signal therefore will have the same shape and is as
shown in Fig. 6.95. It may be noted here that though the shape of radiation pat-
tern due to CSB and –SBO. Signals remains the same but amplitude of RF field
strength at a given angle depends upon the strength of CSB and –SBO signal
fed to lower aerial. Let us consider electric field strength
(6.73)
Figure 6.95 Signal feed to the sideband antenna of GP.


If θ is the angle of elevation of desired glide path; and Then 'h' is stated in
Equation (6.72).
Maxima of radiation pattern will occur:
or
If φ and θ are very small angles hence we can write:
Hence
Which means that maxima of radiation pattern occurs, due to signal to lower
aerial at twice the GP angle. Thus CSB and SBO, signals will have maxima at
2θ. From the above formula we may derive that for the lower aerial null will oc-
cur at 4θ. From the above a general rule may be stated that:
If the height of aerial is reduced to half times 'h' then maxima of radiation
occur at double of the glide angle (2θ).
If the height of aerial is increased to times 'h', i.e., , then the max-
ima of radiation occurs at reduced angle of times of glide path angle
i.e., θ. Null of radiation will occur at
(b) Upper Aerial
SBO signal is radiated from the upper aerial. This SBO signal is equal in amp-
litude but 180° out-of-phase with respect to –SBO signal fed lower aerial. Radi-
ation pattern due to +SBO signal will be different than what it was in case of –
SBO signal because here the height of aerial is different. The radiation pattern
of ± SBO signal fed to upper aerial can be easily drawn and is shown in Fig.
6.96.
Figure 6.96 Radiation pattern of the lower and upper aerial.

(c) Tone Predominance
If only CSB signal is radiated from the aerial system, then zero DDM is obtained
at angles because depth of modulation by 150 Hz and 90 Hz are equal (40%
each in GP system). Designed tone predominance (below 150 Hz > 90 Hz) is
obtained due to presence of SBO signal. The resultant SBO signal due to vec-
torial addition of SBO signal and –SBO signal is plotted as Fig. 6.97. It can be
seen that below glide path +SBO signal is larger and in combination with CSB
signal, it produces a DDM where 150 Hz is greater than 90 Hz above GP –SBO
signal is larger hence when combined with CSB, it generates DDM where 90 Hz
is greater than 150 Hz. At glide angle resultant SBO passes through zero line,
meaning thereby that resultant SBO is zero at GP. Only CSB signal is presented
there.
Figure 6.97 Tone predominance.

Figure 6.98 Typical diagram of M-array GP.

Figure 6.99 Course CSB radiation pattern.
This produces zero DDM at glide angle. The DDM distribution is symmetrical
about the GP angle being substantially linear out the width angle giving 17.5%
DDM and rising thereafter to about 40% DDM.
(d) Some Immunity from Reflections
It is observed from above discussion that maximum CSB signal exists at 2θ

and most of the carrier power is contained in CSB signal. Hence the maxima of
carrier exists at 2θ, therefore there is less signal below GP and hence less to
reflect from obstruction. In fact reduction of signal on the GP is in the order of
–6 dB and immunity from reflection is the order of –2.3 dB over null reference
system.
(e) Reduce Foreground Requirement
Due to aperture effect, array requires 'Beam Forming Area'. It is meant that re-
ceiver must be a significant distance from the aerial before realistic signals are
received. In case of glide path system the foreground requirement (distance in
front of glide path aerial) is dictated be Raleigh distance R
where L = Aperture of aerial; λ = Operating wavelength
Aperture in GP system is equal to twice of the height of the highest aerial. For
sideband reference system height of upper aerial is 6.75λ, which is 10λ in case
of null reference. Thus aperture of sideband aerial system is 13.50λ where as
for null reference is 20λ. This reduces value of R i.e., foreground requirement is
reduced. But it should be noted that though foreground requirement is reduced
but since the height of aerial is reduced in case of sideband effect on the radi-
ation pattern. Hence ground flatness requirement is more critical here. These
criteria's makes the sideband reference system more suitable where ground
falls away beyond the landing threshold.
(f) High value of fly-up indication at lower height
GP radiation is normally captured by an aircraft from below GP. Suppose an air-

craft captures GP radiation at the lowest point P. It is arbitrary point below GP
at distance not less than 10 NM. The aircraft must get an urgency of fly-up in-
dication. In other words GP transmission must provide DDM (150 Hz > 90 Hz)
more than 17.5% (this value will gives full 5 dots fly-up indication). Value of
DDM depends upon relative amplitude of CSB and resultant SBO signals on el-

evation angle. If elevation angle is the lower limit of GP coverage, then relative
amplitude of CSB and resultant SBO must ensure DDM greater than 17.5%.
This requirement is needed. In order to provide high fly-up indication at lower
height a clearance CSB signal is radiated in M-array GP system.
(g) False Course
Due to CSB and +SBO and –SBO distribution, a stable false course is radiated
at an angle of 3θ, fly down indication are produced, but due to symmetry about
the angle 2θ, the extent of the fly–down indication is the same at (3θ – x) as it
is at (θ + x), where x is any angle less than θ. The normal glide path angular
width is ± 0.24θ as shown in Fig. 6.97.
6.10.4. Quadrant Clearance Array [M-array]

This configuration of array consists of three aerial elements mounted vertically
one above the other at heights h, 2h and 3h above the ground. Each element is
fed with proportions of the course CSB, course SBO and clearance CSB signals
in order to transmit the GP radiation pattern with the minimum of interference
from obstructions and rising ground in the front of GP aerial. The clearance ra-
diation is phase advanced by 90° on the course radiation to create a crossover
region at ± 0.6θ about the angle of elevation θ, and also being modulated to a
depth of 60% with 150 Hz tone and 20% 90 Hz tone, ensures high values of fly-
up DDM at low elevations. The array offers a potential improvement of 27.5 dB
over the null reference array, with regard to GP interference, assuming an over-
all reflection sector of 10%. The DDM is linear throughout the GP width being
17.5% at ±0.24θ.
(a) Course CSB Radiation
The course CSB (E) is fed to the lower and middle elements, so that the lower
element signal is twice as great as, and in RF anti-phase with, the middle ele-
ment signal – E. where, E is field amplitude of CSB signal. The height 'h' is
calculated from the Equation (6.72). The amplitude and phases of the various
drives to the aerials of the array are detailed in the Table 6.7.
Table 6.7 Field strength distribution of M-array GP antenna.
Signals Lower Aerial Lower Aerial Upper Aerial
Amp- Phase Amp- Phase Amp- Phase

litude litude litude
COURSE
CSB
Carrier 1.0 0° 0.5 180° – –
150 Hz 0.4 0° 0.2 180° – –

Sideband
90 Hz 0.4 0° 0.2 180° – –

Sideband
COURSE
SBO
150 Hz 0.071 0° 0.142 0° 0.071 0°

Sideband
90 Hz 0.071 180° 0.142 180° 0.071 180°

Sideband
CLEARANCE
CSB

Signals Lower Aerial Lower Aerial Upper Aerial
Amp- Phase Amp- Phase Amp- Phase

litude litude litude
Carrier 0.3 90° – – 0.3 90°
150 Hz 0.223 53.8° – – 0.233 53.8°

Sideband
90 Hz 0.74 53.8° – – 0.074 53.8°

Sideband
The lower course CSB signal has a sinusoidal distribution, the field strength be-
ing given by the equation:
(6.74)
The middle course CSB signal has sinusoidal distribution at twice the fre-
quency, the field strength being given by the equation
(6.75)
The resultant CSB distribution, obtained by vectorial addition of the two CSB
signals, has low values at low elevations and raises the maximum at about
1.3θ, the DDM distribution being linear within the GP width angle ± 0.24θ.
(b) Course SBO Radiation
The course SBO (G) is fed to all three aerial elements, so that the upper and
lower elements signal –0.5G ∠ 0 are half the amplitude, and in RF anti-phase,
the middle element signal G ∠ 0.
In this case G is considered the SBO signal amplitude. The lower course SBO
signal has sinusoidal distribution, the field strength, being given by the Equa-
tion (6.75).The middle course SBO signal has sinusoidal distribution at twice
the frequency of the lower SBO signal, the field strength is
(6.76)
The upper course SBO signal has sinusoidal distribution at three times the fre-
quency of the lower SBO signal, the field strength is
(6.77)
The Equation (6.76) and (6.77) are presented in the Fig. 6.100.The resultant
course SBO pattern as shown in Fig. (6.100) is obtained by vectorial addition of
the lower, middle and upper SBO distributions and has low values at low eleva-
tions, the first lobe maximum occurring at about 0.7θ. The resultant has a null
at the GP angle and rises to a second lobe maximum at about 1.6θ. The distri-
bution through the GP width of ± 0.24θ is linear. Within the GP width, the ef-

fects of the clearance is minimal, so that resultant course CSB vector at some
point in the field can be represented as the combination of carrier and side-
bands as Fig. 6.101 (a).
Figure 6.100 Course SBO radiated signal.
Figure 6.101 Vectorial presentation of CSB and BO signal in M-array

antenna.


The 150 Hz sidebands are greater in amplitude than the 90 Hz sidebands, as

required for fly-up indications. The difference in the sideband amplitude is de-
pendent on the magnitude of the SBO vector, which increases with angular dis-
placement from the glide path angle. The resultant vector due to CSB-SBO (at
elevation greater than θ) is shown as in Fig. 6.101 (d)
The 90 Hz sidebands are greater in amplitude than the 150 Hz sidebands, as

required for fly-down indications. The difference in the sideband amplitude is
dependent on the magnitude of the SBO vector, which increases with angular
displacement from the GP angle. In this way, the growth of DDM from the GP
angle to the GP width ± 0.24 θ varies from 0 to 17.45% with a linearity of 98.6%.
The modulation sum is constant at 80% from ground level (φ = 0) up to twice

the GP angle (φ = 2θ). The resultant signal at the GP angle is 7 dB less than
that from the null reference array i.e., due to 6 dB loss in the combining bridge
of the aerial distribution unit and 1 dB loss in providing clearance signal power.
(c) Clearance CSB Radiation
The clearance CSB (F) is fed to the upper and lower aerial elements a relative
signal level of 30% of course CSB signal, and in quadrature with it, i.e., 0.3F ∠
90°. The clearance CSB signal applied to the lower aerial element has sinus-
oidal distribution, the distribution being given by the equation
(6.78)
The clearance CSB signal applied to the upper aerial element has a sinusoidal
distribution at three times the frequency of the lower element, the distribution
being given by the equation
(6.79)
The distribution of the resultant CSB signal is symmetrical about the GP angle,
giving a null on the GP angle and having lobe maxima at 0.4θ and 1.6θ.
Figure 6.102 Clearance CSB distribution.

The resultant clearance CSB signal being modulated to 60% depth with 150 Hz
tone and to 20% with 90 Hz tone gives a 40% DDM indication at the aircraft re-
ceiver lower angles than the crossover angle of 0.6θ. This signal therefore pro-
duces a full scale fly-up indication at the aircraft receiver as required. At the
cross-over angle, the relative amplitudes of the course CSB carrier and the
clearance CSB carrier become equal, but are phased in-quadrature. Because of
the high, rate of change of the course CSB and clearance CSB through the
cross-over region, the aircraft receiver will capture the stronger, ensuring that
spurious indications are completely eliminated.
6.11. APERTURE EFFECT ON GLIDE

PATH
The wide aperture array requires a large 'beam forming area'. By this, it is
meant that a receiver must be at a significant distance from the aerial before
realistic signals are received.
It can be seen from Fig. 6.103 that the Receiver-1 (Rx1) is placed distance D1,
which is less than α, implying that, if signals are radiated from the center and
extremities of the aerial in phase, the signal received at Rx1 from the center of
the aerial (D1) will be different to that received from the extremities (α). This
could lead to distortion of the signal-received at Rx1. In the case of Rx 2, D2 is
almost the same distance as so there will be only a small phase difference
between the signals received. The greater the distance to the receiver the less
the phase error becomes. The distance at which the correct signals may be re-
ceived will depend on the size of the aerial and the operating wavelength. The
region where unrealistic signals are received is known as the 'Rayliegh Region'.
The distance from which correct signals are received is known as the Rayliegh
distance which is
(6.80)
D is Rayleigh distance, L is aperture length and λ = operating wavelength.
Figure 6.103 Presentation of aperture effect.
In the case of the null reference glide path, we may have an aerial at, say 9 m
above ground but the effective aperture is twice that length (18 m) because of
the image aerial. Using the Equation (6.80), D is 360 m on λ = 0.9 m and L is 18
m.
From this distance correct information is received in the case of the type M-ar-
ray GP, the aerial height may be 13.5 m, giving an effective aperture 27 m. Us-
ing Equation (6.80), D is 810 m on λ = 0.9 m and L is 27 m. These distances are
evidently unacceptable because, accurate GP data is required down to the run-
way a distance of the order of 120 m (400 feet) from the transmitter.
Now let us consider the phase error in a NULL reference GP system.
Here hu is height of upper aerial; hl is height of lower aerial; φ is glide angle;

and θ is phase error . The RF radiated from aerial B reaches to the aircraft loc-
ated at point C (on GP) through path AC. The difference in lengths of path will
create a phase error as shown in the Fig. 6.104. The phase error will upset the
phase relationship between RF radiated from aerial A and B, when it reaches
point C. This is presented mathematically in following paragraphs
(6.81)
Figure 6.104 Phase error in null reference antenna.
for a GP. Hence for 360° phase error φ = h = λ
(6.82)
For 90° phase error
We can calculate thus, different values of d for phase errors which is tabulated
as below:
It may be seen that when an aircraft approaches to land, the phase error starts
to increase from 0° to 360° and this process repeats as it comes closer and
closer. Now we may consider what happens to the guidance information when
certain critical phase error exits i.e., at critical distances from the transmitter.
First, consider a point, where the phase error is 0°, at this point there will be no
change in the relative phase, and the guidance information will be correct. Now
consider what happens at the point where the phase error is 90° or 270°. As

per Fig. 6.104, it may be observed that the relative phase of CSB and SBO has
changed at the aircraft position and by phaser addition of this signal it can be
established that zero DDM results. Hence, we may say that at all points where
phase error is 90° or 270°, zero DDM will result, irrespective of aircraft position
(either on GP or above or below GP). When phase error is 180°, an inverted GP
results consecutively correct guidance, zero DDM, inverted guidance, (360°
phase error) etc.
This situation is obviously unsatisfactory as the GP will be unflyable at these

close ranges. So modifications must be carried out and solution is simple. The
aerials are offset on the mast on an arc struck from the runway centerline. This
will remove any phase error between the signals radiated by the two aerials as
seen by an aircraft at the closet point to the mast. At the landing threshold the
effect of the off–set aerials is reduced, but now the aircraft is further away, so
requires less 'correction' of the signals. The result is that an aircraft receives
correct guidance from the coverage extremities down to the runway. The aeri-
als are offset in a similar manner for the sideband reference and M type array
systems.
(a) Aperture Effect on GP Monitoring: Null Reference
This aperture effect, causing progressive phase error creates problem in

ground measurements for monitoring or setting up the GP system. The dis-
tance at which such radiation can be measured is certainly beyond Rayliegh
distance (360 m approximately for Null reference) at this distance GP will pass
at a height of and therefore we need to have a mast of more than
18 m for proper measurement of GP. This is practically not possible to do.

Therefore, these ground measurements are done at a specific place where
phase error is known. As the phase error is 180° therefore the ground measure-
ment will show an inverted GP i.e., 90 Hz predominant below GP and 150 Hz
predominant above GP. This, in fact also explains the contrast between ground
measurement and actual radiation.
(b) Aperture Effect on GP Monitoring: Sideband Reference
The ground measurement for sideband reference is also done at 180° relative
phase point. This 180° phase error produces a peculiar effect in sideband refer-
ence radiation pattern. Let us draw the radiation pattern of sideband reference
system, (where phase error is 180°, around point C).
If we keep GP receiver monitor dipole at point C, it will receive CSB, –SBO and
+SBO signal phase retarded by 180° as shown in Fig. 6.106.
Figure 6.105 Phase error in sideband reference antenna.


Figure 6.106 Vectorial addition of CSB, +SBO, and –SBO.
The vector addition of all these three signals is shown in Fig. 6.106(d).
Let see now what happens above or below point C of Fig. 6.105. Radiation pat-
tern above or below point C can be drawn in the same way as it was done while
discussing sideband reference system, but with a minor change. SBO signal
can be regarded now phase shifted by 180° in the radiation pattern due to its
radiation from upper aerial (longer path length) presented in Fig. 6.107.
Figure 6.107 Resultant SBO signal.
Now resultant SBO is zero at 2θ, hence '0' DDM will be measured at 2θ. Below
2θ, 90 Hz is predominant and above 2θ for a small angle 150 Hz is greater but
again at 3θ, 90 Hz is predominate. Hence sideband reference system is meas-
ured at 180° phase point and 0 DDM is obtained at 2θ. Also monitoring the per-
formance of SB system is done at height corresponding to 2θ. Above 2θ, for a
very small angle, 150 Hz is predominant and below 2θ, 90 Hz is predominant at
monitoring points. This explains the difference between GP receiver reading at
180° phase point (monitoring point) and actual radiation pattern.
6.12. PROXIMITY EFFECTS


Proximity effect relates to the localizer and GP system. It is also assumed that
the distance from an antenna array to points of reception was very much
greater that the spacing between the antennas in the array. This justifies the
assumption that the paths of radiation from antennas array to a point of recep-
tion in the far-field are parallel and the distance of travel equal. In this effect,
the array appears as a 'point source' antenna with energy radiating from one
antenna. As point of reception is moved closer to the array (near-field) the
'point source' analogy is no longer valid. The physical spacing between anten-
nas in the arrays becomes more apparent and the paths of radiation are no
longer parallel. As a result, the distance of travel from each antenna of as pair
becomes unequal and causes the resultant received energy in near field to be
misphased with respect to the resultant in far-field. This misphasing is called
proximity error and is a very normal effect in both localizers and GP. As mis-
phasing of signals occurs in near-field widening of course path results. This
causes insensitive cross pointer indications and is potentially dangerous. This
is not a serious consequence for a localizer, as an aircraft would have landed
prior to the near-field point. However, facility monitoring and ground checking
are performed in near-field and this necessitates an understanding of proximity
error. As an aircraft lands in the GP near-field, proximity error becomes a major
consideration and a method to control it, for aircraft indication has been de-
veloped. Proximity error can be compensated for by off-setting antennas. As
the performance of localizer and GP is monitored and ground check carried out
in the near-field. Further, it is also assumed that signals fed to antennas have
the proper phase relationship.
6.12.1. Far-field Pattern Development

The point radiation pattern is developed as if the signals are radiated from a
point source antenna at the center of the array. This method of developing radi-
ation patterns is valid if the physical distances from the array are great enough.
In Fig. 6.108 point P has been selected that is at least 100 times a spacing of
the two antenna array A1 and A2. It is noted that the length of the radiation path
from antenna A2 to point P is longer than the path from A1 to point P. Therefore
at point P, A2 signals lag the A1 signals. The amount of lag will be equal to asin
θ where 'a' is spacing between antennas and θ is the azimuth angle of point P.
Conversely antenna A1 signals lead A2 signals at point P by 'a sin θ'. If the dis-
tance labeled as S° in Fig. 6.108, of point P is taken from the center of the array
then it appears that A2 antenna signals lag at point P as much as A1 signals
lead at Point P. Mathematically the signal lag from A2 at point P with respect to
the center of the array can be expressed as –(S° + a sin θ)° where the signal
from A1 at point P can be expressed as –(S° – a sin θ)°. With equal amplitude
signals from A1 and A2 the resultant at point P will be of such a phase as to ap-
pear to radiate from the center of the array. At this point it should be noted that
when two vectors of equal amplitude are combined, the resultant vector would
have a phase angle that is the average of the phase angles of the two vectors.
Far-field pattern appearance is presented in Fig. 6.109.
Figure 6.108 Antenna pair spacing and far-field results.

Figure 6.109 Far-field appearance.
6.12.2. Near-field Pattern Development

If point P is selected in the near-field, which is defined as the distance from the
array that is less than 100 times the a spacing, and if the phase relationships
between antennas A1 and A2 are plotted at point P then errors due to proximity
effect will be noted. As the distance to the array is decreased from the far-field,
proximity error will increase. Since the two antenna signals at point P no longer
appear to come from a single antenna at the center of the array the actual an-
tenna path lengths have to be considered. If in Fig. 6.110 we were to calculate
the distance from point P to the center of the array to antenna A2 and then cal-
culate the distance from point P to antenna A2 to the center of the array we
would note that the path lengths are not the same. This difference in path
length of antenna A2 signals is designated as β″. The same conditions hold
true for antenna A1. The difference in path lengthy of antenna A1 signals is des-
ignated as β′. If we call S° the reference distance, which is from point P to the
center of the array, then radiation from antennas A1 and A2 will lag the refer-
ence distance by β′ and β″ respectively.
Figure 6.110 Antenna pairs pacing and Near-field effects. 

In Fig. 6.111 the dotted lines are the individual antenna signals and their result-
ant in far-field. The solid lines are the same signals, as they would appear in
the near-field. It should be noted that the near-field signals are lagging the far-
field signal. The resultant difference phase lag between far-field and near-field
is the average of β′ and β″ and is designated as –β and addition of the both
parameters is –β′ = where β′ and β″ represent lagging phases there-
fore the resultant will always be negative. The mathematical derivation is

presented in the following section.
Figure 6.111 Course shift due to proximity error.
Figure 6.112 Proximity phase lag of NRGS.

By Pythagoras Theorem;
(6.82)
Therefore
(6.83)
Expanding Equation (6.83)
(6.84)
(6.85)
and
(6.86)
To further simplify calculations, consider the term a sin θ in both β′ and β″

equation. Since we are interested only in very low elevation angles the term a
Sin θ will approach to zero and therefore can be ignored with a little loss in
accuracy.
(since β′ and β″ are approximately equal)

(6.87)
To calculate β″ the same mathematical development is used, therefore
(6.88)
(6.89)
Note that the same equation is derived for both β′ and β″ however referring
back to Fig. 6.111, β″ is formulated from a smaller angle than β′ therefore, β″
will actually be slightly smaller than β′. To simplify further calculations this
slight difference will be ignored.
(6.90)
Simplifying further the Equation (6.90), since S is the distance of the receiving
point in degrees and β′ is generally very small as compared to 2S, the β′ in the
denominator can also be dropped with any loss in accuracy. This leaves the
expression
(6.91)
This last simplified expression is accurate enough for practical use and can be
adopted for use in GP and localizer proximity problems. Remember β is the
proximity error in degrees and is always negative, 2a is the spacing between
antennas, θ is an angle in degrees to the receiving point and S is the distance
in degrees to the receiving point.
6.12.3. Null Reference GP (NRGS) Proximity

Error
In this discussion we will analyze and develop proximity error equations for the
null reference GP for near-field. In the previous section, radiation patterns for
the NRGS are developed for far-field. The proximity effect (β), has been derived
in Equation (6.91). For the lower antenna in the GP array, 'a' spacing becomes h
and angle α replaces θ as depicted in Fig. 6.111 which is same as Fig. 6.110.
Therefore the expression for proximity effect on the NRGS radiation pattern
from the lower antenna is
(6.92)

where, h is the height of the lower antenna in degrees. All GPs will have eleva-
tions or glide angles less than 5° therefore, the term cos2 α is close enough to
unity to be omitted as a multiplying factor, allowing the more simple expres-
sion for GP proximity phase lag
(6.93)
β is the amount of proximity phase lag of the radiated signal from one antenna
and its image with respect to the center of the array. The NRGS employs two
antennas with different heights, therefore, the proximity, phase of the both an-
tennas and their image must be considered. The calculations for both the
lower antenna and the upper antenna proximity error are the same except the
heights are different. In order to differentiate between the two proximity effects
we will designate the lower carrier antenna proximity effect as βL and the upper
sideband antenna as βU therefore
(6.94)
where, H is the height of upper antenna in degrees. It should be noted at this

time that both βU and βL represent proximity phase lag of signals in the near-
field with respect to the same signals in the far-field. However, it should also be
noted that the upper or sideband antenna will exhibit more proximity effect
than at lower or carrier antenna due to the increase of the H spacing of the
sideband antenna. Taking only the H spacing into consideration the sideband
antenna proximity error signals will lag the carrier antenna proximity error sig-
nals. This difference is called the total proximity error and is designated as –βP
which is expressed in mathematical terms
(6.95)
6.12.4. βP Equation for NRGS

A mathematical expression for βP for a normal null reference GP is developed
by substituting Equation (6.94) into Equation (6.95) to get
(6.96)
Substitute H = 2h spacing at a normal null reference GP in Equation (6.96)
(6.97)
This last equation would suffice in calculating βP at normal NRGS. However, it

can be simplified to a more practical form
The height of the carrier antenna in electrical degrees is where φ is
the glide angle. For small angles, (less than 1°), sin φ in radians is approxim-
ately 1 radian and 1 radian = approximately. Therefore for small
angles

(6.98)
Substituting Equation (6.98) into Equation (6.97) to get following equation
(6.99)
Equation (6.99) is of little practical use because the S in the denominator is the
distance to the receiving point expressed in degrees. The distance to the re-
ceiving point is usually expressed in feet. In order to derive a more general βP
formula, the S may be transposed as follows:
whereas the 332 MHz is the center frequency of the GP facility frequency
assignments.
(6.100)
Rounding off to three significant figures yields
(6.101)
If the glide angle and the proximity error are known for a particular point then
the distance to that point can be found by transposing.
(6.102)
EXAMPLE 13
Given a glide angle of 2.9° find the proximity error at 400 feet from the
array.
Solution

EXAMPLE 14
Given a glide angle of 2.9° find the proximity error at 200 feet from the
array.
Solution
This examples lead to the following concept 'βP doubles as distance is

halved from the receiving point'.
EXAMPLE 15
Given φ of 3° what is the distance to the –180° βP point?
Solution
EXAMPLE 16
Given φ of 3° what is the distance to the –90° βP point?
Solution
Again the above concept derived from the mathematical examples hold
true.
It must be understood that the equation
is only valid for GP that has a normal height ratio i.e.,
the sideband antenna is exactly twice the electrical height of the carrier an-
tenna. If it is necessary to calculate βP for other than normal height ratios.
It must also be remembered that this formula and the final formula for nor-
mal height ratios are only very close approximations; however, they are ac-
curate enough for practical purposes.
6.12.5. βP Effect on GP
We are mainly discussing with proximity effects on the radiated signal from the
glide path at the runway threshold and beyond. In Fig. 6.113, a GP facility is
located 1000 feet back from the threshold and 500 feet from the runway
centerline. The distance to the runway threshold by Pythagoras theorem is ap-
proximately 1,118 feet from the GP array. Therefore, βP at the runway threshold,
for a 3° glide angle, would be
Figure 6.113 Proximity phase error for GP.

This βP is the amount that the sideband signals are misphased compared to
the carrier signals and sideband misphasing results in an increased path width.
Approaching aircraft instruments would appear less sensitive to changes in
height. The following example may help in clarification of this point.
EXAMPLE 17
Given the same conditions as stated in Fig. 6.113 where βP = –32.6° at run-
way threshold, what is the path width from normal due to proximity error?
Solution
Method-1
Normal path width is 1.4°, therefore the lower edge of path defined as
0.1775 DDM is 0.7° below the glide angle. With –32.6° of misphasing DDM
at 0.7° below path is 0.1775 cos (–32.6°) = 0.150 DDM.
This means that the 0.1775 lower edge of path has moved to a lower angle.
Using ratio and proportion to calculate ; X = 0.83° below is
now the lower edge of path. Total path width is now 2 × 0.83° = 1.66°
Method-2
A more direct way to calculate the path width due to βP misphasing of side-
bands is

EXAMPLE 18
Given the same conditions as Fig. 6.113, what would the path-width be, due
to βP, at the middle marker, (distance approximately 3,000 feet from
threshold)?
Solution
By Pythagoras theorem, distance to middle marker from the GP antenna

array
βP at the middle marker is
It is observed from above examples the increase in path width due to βP mi-
sphasing is very small at the middle marker and much larger at the
threshold. Because of this small βP at the middle marker, for practical pur-
poses, the middle marker can be used as the dividing point between the
near-field and far-field.
The glide angle was defined as the first sideband null above ground and βP
is defined as the lag of sideband signals to carrier. With these two defini-
tions in mind, clearly βP will not have any effect on the glide angle in an
ideal system. It should be recalled that the carrier signals are also mis-
phased in the near-field compared to far-field. However, this fact can be ig-
nored as it does not effect and is considered in the βP Equation (6.101)
when determining path width due to βP.
6.12.6. Antenna Off-set

The method used to compensate for βP on runway centerline is called antenna
off-set. The βP was caused by the sideband signals lagging the carrier signals.
If a point is chosen directly opposite the GP array on the runway centerline, the
conditions in Fig. 6.114 exist.
Figure 6.114 Proximity phase effects opposite the array.
In Fig. 6.114, if the signal path lengths were measured from the sideband an-
tenna and the carrier antenna to the runway centerline, it would be found that
the sideband signal would have further to travel. This would cause the side-
band signals to lag the carrier signals. If we were to physically move the side-
band antenna laterally toward the runway at point A while keeping the carrier
antenna centered on the tower, we could make the sideband and carrier signal
path lengths equal, thereby, eliminating βP on the runway centerline opposite

the array. This condition is depicted in Fig. 6.115. The distance we move the
sideband antenna is defined as antenna offset, symbol β0,. Since β0 is the
physical advance of sideband signals as compared to the carrier signals β0
would be positive. The resultant proximity error, symbol βR, will be zero when
the correct amount offset is use. The mathematical antenna off-set can be
presented below.
(6.103)
Figure 6.115 Sideband antenna offset.
In Equation (6.103) if βR = 0 means antenna offset is used.
EXAMPLE 19
Given Fig. 6.114 with the GP antenna tower 500 feet opposite the runway
centerline, find the required sideband antenna offset, β0, so that the result-
ant proximity error, βR, is zero on runway centerline (φ = 3°).
Solution
This means that the sideband antenna should be physically moved laterally
7.2 inches towards the runway in order to achieve βR equal to 0°. Con-
versely the carrier antenna could have been moved away from the center-
line by 7.2 inches, while maintaining the sideband antenna centered on the
tower, the βR would still be 0°. If a person was interested in keeping the
weight centered on the antenna tower to maintain equal stress forces, then
in this problem, the sideband antenna would be moved towards the runway
by one half β0, or 3.6 inches and move the carrier antenna one half β0, or
3.6 inches, away from the runway. Whatever method is chosen, the total
physical distance between the sideband antenna and carrier antenna must
equal β0 with the sideband antenna closer to the runway.

EXAMPLE 20
A GP 450 feet opposite the runway centerline, with a φ = 2.7°. The sideband
antenna is moved 3.7 inches towards the runway and the carrier antenna is
centered on the tower, find βR on runway centerline opposite the array.
Solution
βP with no offset
Suppose you wanted to correct the above situation by moving the carrier
antenna. βR = –62.46°, the additional β0 = 0 is +62.46° required to make βR
converting degrees to inches inches. The proof is described
in Fig. in 6.117.
Figure 6.116 Proof of off-set.
Figure 6.117 Resultant proximity phase pattern with off-set.
The negative answer indicates the βP still exists and the carrier antenna is
to be moved 6.16 inches away from the runway centerline or the sideband
antenna an additional 6.16 inches towards the runway centerline. This
would give a total antenna offset of 3.7 + 6.16 = 9.86 inches. With βR equal
to 0° at the runway centerline opposite the array, there will not be any res-
ultant proximity error, βR on the runway centerline from near-field to far-
field. Recall at βP at any point from the array is an inverse function of dis-
tance. In Fig. 6.116 the βP at point T will be of a larger value than βP at
point P, which is a greater distance from the array. Recall also β0 is adjus-
ted to equal βP at point T. However, when you move from point T to point P
angle A is generated. The effects of β0 at point P will not be the same as at
point T just as the βP is not the same. The β0 at any point other than the
runway centerline opposite the array is called the effective antenna offset,
symbol β0. When moving from point T to point P the β0 at point T must be
modified by the 'Cosine' projection of angle A. Mathematically β′0 = β0 cos
A, where β0 is always the antenna offset at point T.

EXAMPLE 21
Prove βR at point P is equal to 0, if β0 = βP at point T. Assume φ = 3.2° dis-

tance to point T of 550 feet and distance point T to Point P of 750 feet.
Solution
βP at point T
Given
Angle A between point T and point P
d1 distance to point P from array
If the GP has the correct β0 then βR at any point on the runway centerline in
near-field out to far-field will be equal to zero. Figure 6.117 is the resultant
proximity phase pattern in the near-field with antenna offset. If Fig. 6.117 is
compared with Fig. 6.113, it is observed that the resultant βP pattern has
been shifted away from the runway centerline. In actuality, with correct off-
set only the runway centerline will have βR equal to zero. All other points in
the near-field will have some value of βR. The βR can be calculated at any
point using calculations similar to the following example.
EXAMPLE 22
Given φ = 2.9° β0 is correctly set, facility is 1000 feet back from threshold
and 500 feet right of the runway centerline. Find βR 75 feet left of centerline
at runway threshold.
Solution
Bp at runway centerline opposite array
Therefore, β0 is correctly set, β0 = +78°
at the runway centerline opposite the array.
In order to find βR at 75 feet left of centerline, βP and β′0 must be found at

that point. In order to accomplish this form a right triangle with one side
(500 + 75 feet) and another side 1000 feet. Using Pythagoras theorem to
solve for the other side, which is the distance from the array to the point in
question.
Therefore βP at 75 feet left of centerline at threshold is
To calculate βR at point in question β′0 must be found and since β′0 = β0

cos A; angle A must be found
In this case βR is positive. If the right side of the runway had been selected,
βR would have been negative. In either case the sidebands are misphased
with respect to the carrier.

EXAMPLE 23
Given φ = 3.1° sideband antenna shifted towards the runway by 13.4

inches, facility is 980 feet back from the threshold and 425 feet left of run-
way centerline. Find the path width at the threshold if path envelope with in
far field is 0.7°.
Solution
Distance to threshold centerline from array = feet
Path width misphased at runway threshold = 0.76° × 2 = 1.52°
The following example is to prove another important concept.
EXAMPLE 24
a. φ of 3° with no offset, find βP at 250 feet directly in front of the array.

b. Find βR this same point if 7.2 inches of correct offset is used.
Solution
a.
b.
If the point is directly in front of the array then angle A must be 90°.
[Note: βR = βP directly in front of the array, this leads to the concept that off-
set has no effect on points directly in front of the array. This important
concept will be used in monitoring of the facility in the next chapter.]
6.13. GLIDE PATH ADVANCE MONIT-

ORING CONCEPT
The GP monitor must detect system parameters deviation that would cause an
unsafe condition to a facility. If an equipment parameter is to exceed a pre-
scribed tolerance the monitor system must initiate an equipment transfer or
shutdown action. The four main parameters are monitored are the glide angle,
path width, RF level, and modulation percentage. There are two methods of
sampling the radiated signals for input to the monitor. They are integral and
near-field monitoring. As near-field monitoring is accomplished by placing a re-
ceiving antenna in front of the array. Integral monitoring is accomplished by
placing pickup loops or dipoles in very close proximity to the radiating element
or RF distribution unit. In the early days of GPs, a monitor mast was positioned
in front of the array and one antenna was placed at a height that intersected
the glide angle. This was the method of monitoring the glide angle. Another de-
tector antenna was positioned at a height not on the glide angle. This antenna

was used for monitoring changes in path width. The transmitter RF output,
which equated to usable distance, and modulation percentage was sampled-
off either or both the detector antennas. The method of monitoring the glide
angle has not changed, however, the method of monitoring path width changes
has been observed to integral monitor detection. Again, RF level and modula-
tion percentage will be sampled and fed back to the monitor system by either
method or a combination of both.
6.13.1. Integral width Monitoring

The path width (PW) of a null reference GP is a function of the Ess to Ecs ratio
for various glide angles. The integral width monitor network in Fig. 6.118 is a
typical way of monitoring PW changes. This monitoring concept will be dis-
cussed for clarity and good understanding.
Figure 6.118 Integral width monitor network.
Let the Ess and Ecs signals are sampled by probes are in close proximity to the
antenna radiator, coupling factors of –25 dB being typical. The Ess signal is fed
to port-1 of the bridge and the Ecs signal is fed to port-3. The phaser is used to
make the electrical line length of the Ess path and the Ecs path equal. The atten-
uator is used to set the DDM required while doing the flight calibration. The Ess
and Ecs are combined at port-2 of the bridge and fed to the double stub tuner.
The double stub tuner is used to match the impedance of the bridge port to the
monitor input detector. The double stub tuner uses standing waves to match
two unlike impedances. In some systems the double stub tuner is omitted, the
monitor input circuits accomplish impedance matching. Since the Ess and Ecs
are combined at port-2 a DDM reading can be obtained.

EXAMPLE 25
Find the DDM at port-2 of the integral width network, refer Fig. 6.118 if glide
angle is 3° and the attenuator is 0dB in the Ecs line to port-3. Assume
proper path width of 1.4°.
Solution
A ratio for path width is 1.4 (given), PW = this means that in
the antennas the ratio is 0.31. Since both path lengths from port 2 to
either antenna pickup probe are equal and if the probes coupling is equal,
then the ratio will also be 0.31 at port-2. If we assign a level of 1 volt to
the Ecs then Ess would be 0.31 V.
Assuming a modulation factor of 40% the formula DDM = may be
used. In this example, DDM = . This DDM reading is

not complete until we specify what frequency is predominating.
In a NRGS, the Ess150 and Ecs150 are in phase and the Ess90 and Ecs90 are
out-of-phase as fed to the antennas. Because of equal path lengths to port-
2, this same phase relationship will exist at port-2. Therefore, the 150 Hz
will be predominating at port-2. So the DDM at port-2 for a 3°, with zero at-
tenuation, is 0.248/150 Hz for a PW of 1.4°. If the PW should increase then
this ratio had to decrease and the DDM at port-2 will also decrease.
Some manufacturers design their monitor circuits so that a DDM value

other than 0.248/150 Hz is normal for a 1.4° PW. These readings vary from
0.35/150 Hz DDM to 0.178/150 Hz DDM. If the attenuator in the Ecs line of
the width network was adjusted for more attenuation, then the Ecs level at
port-3 and 2 would decrease, causing the ratio at port-2 to increase
thereby raising the DDM at port-2 to a higher figure.
EXAMPLE 26
Given an φ of 2.8°, find the attenuation required to obtain a DDM value of

0.31/150 Hz into a width monitor for a normal path width of 1.4° and nor-
mal modulation.
Solution
dB = 20 log ; where DDM1 is the DDM without attenuation, and
DDM2 is the desired DDM.
i.e.,
In this example a 2.52 dB attenuator would be inserted in the Ecs line to

port-3, making sure line lengths are maintained, to obtain a DDM value of
0.31/150 Hz into the monitor for a 1.4° PW.

EXAMPLE 27
Given a φ of 3.1° normal modulation and path width, find the attenuation
required to obtain a reading of 0.178/150 Hz DDM into a NRGS width
monitor
Solution
Since the desired DDM is lower than DDM, the 3.16 dB attenuator would be
inserted in the sideband line, keeping the same line lengths.
[Note that the dB reading in this last example did not turn out as a minus. If
the DDM1 and DDM2 terms were inverted then the dB value would have
been the same along with the minus sign.]
EXAMPLE 28
Given a 3° glide angle, normal path width and modulation and a 4-dB atten-
uator in the Ecs line find the DDM input to the width monitor.
Solution
Alternate solution:
The difference in the third digit of both solutions is because of the use of
logs in the calculations.
6.13.2. Near-field Monitoring

In order to monitor the glide angle it would be a simple matter to calculate the
glide angle height above ground at a certain distance by using the trigonomet-
ric expression of φ (adjacent) = opposite site, where, φ is the glide angle, the
adjacent side is the distance from the base of the array to the monitor mast
and the opposite side would be the height of the monitor antenna.

EXAMPLE 29
Find the height of the glide angle in feet, 220 feet from the base of an an-
tenna array if glide angle 3°.
(b) The distance 298 feet and glide angle is 3.5°.
Solution
a. (tan 3°) (220) = 11.53 feet

b. (tan 3.5°) (298) = 18.23 feet.
So by calculation in order to monitor the glide angle, it would appear that

mounting the antennas at the calculated height and distance from the array
would be sufficient, however, in near-field we know proximity error, βP, ex-
ists directly in front of the array, we need to take this into consideration.
EXAMPLE 30
If we consider the βP at 298 feet with a GP 3.5°.
Solution
This means at 298 feet from a 3.5° GP Ess150 Hz is lagging Ecs150 Hz by ef-
fectively –90° and Ess90 Hz is lagging Ecs90 Hz by –270°. This condition is
defined as a quadrature phase condition. If this position were used to mon-
itor the glide angle, DDM, would remain the same no matter if the glide
angle were to go up or down because E at the fundamental frequency does
not exist.
EXAMPLE 31
Given of glide angle 3° and monitor tolerance ± 0.2°. If an antenna were po-
sitioned on the glide angle in the far-field, find the DDM from the fixed an-
tenna, if the glide antenna were to shift to the monitor alarm points PW is
normal.
Solution
At φ DDM is zero, at 0.7° upper edge of path DDM is 0.1775/90 Hz and at

0.7° lower edge of path DDM is 0.1775/150 Hz. Therefore at 3.7° DDM is
0.1775/90 and at 2.3° DDM is 0.1775/150 Hz. The tolerance for angle shift
is φ ± 0.2°. The angle could shift up to 3.2° or down to 2.8°. Therefore by
ratio and proportion:
If the glide angle were to shift up by 0.2°, at the antenna location far-field,
we would receive .051/150 Hz DDM. With the glide angle shifted up the an-
tenna is now below where 150 Hz is predominating. Conversely if the angle
shifted down by 0.2° we would receive 0.051/150 Hz DDM. Since it is im-
practical to position a tower, several hundred feet tall in far-field to monitor
glide angle changes; we are confined to the near-field for monitoring glide
angle changes. At this time it would be beneficial to examine the vector re-
lationship of the Ess and Ecs signals from the far-field into the near-field. In
Fig. 6.120 the solid line is the glide angle, the dotted line below the glide
angle is some angle below. The vector relationships on the extreme right of
the figure are what would be found in far-field below path. Note they have
the same relationship as the antenna phases. Also note that the Ecs150 Hz is
in-phase with the Ess150 Hz and Ecs90 Hz is out-of-phase with the Ess90 Hz.
Figure 6.119 Vector relationships due to proximity phase lag.

Figure 6.120 Proximity phase effect on PW.
As we start into the near-field the Ess starts to lag the Ecs because of prox-
imity effects as explained earlier. At –45°, βp the Ess150 Hz and Ess90 Hz have
lagged by –45°, with the respect to the Ecs150 Hz and Ecs90 Hz in far-field. The
Ecs90 Hz and Ecs150 Hz are held constant for convenience since the Ess90 lag
with respect to the Ecs90 is the only condition we are concerned about. At
the –45°, and Ess90 Hz lags the Ecs90 Hz by –225°. If path width were calcu-
lated at this point it would be found to have increased.

EXAMPLE 32
Find the effective Ess90 Hz and Ess150 Hz signals at the –45° βp point with re-
spect to far-field, also calculate the path width.
Solution
Ess150 is given an amplitude of 1 volt in far-field and Ess90 Hz is given an

amplitude of –1 volt because of 180° phase relationship, then effective
Ess150 Hz at –45° βp is (1) (cos 45°) = 0.71 and effective Ess90 at –45 βp is (–
1) (cos 225°) = –0.71, the path width at –45° βp point is
If the point was selected to phase the monitor pole to monitor φ then to
reach 0.051 DDM, (the tolerance point in far field, the glide angle would
have to increase or decrease by an excess of ± 0.2°. When proceed further
into the 90° βp point. Ess90 Hz and Ess150 Hz have lagged the Ecs90 – 150 Hz by
90°. This places both signals in quadrature. This condition gives an un-
defined or infinite path width.
Let us discuss further in by 1, to the –91° βp point. At this point Ess150 Hz

lags the Ecs150 Hz by –90° and since it has rotated into the third quadrant
the Ess150 Hz will subtract from the Ecs150 Hz (cos –91° = –0.02). The Ess90 Hz
has rotated to –271° or the first quadrant and will add to the E(cos –271° =
+0. 02). Now we have 90 Hz predominate below GP and 150 Hz predomin-
ate above GP, a reverse sense condition. This reverse sense condition will
exist in the area between –90° βp and –270° βp. Since past –270° sensing
returns to normal.
Figure 6.120 shows the effect βp has on path width in near-field. The dotted
line above and below θ would be the normal path width if βp were not con-
sidered. Note that path width increase in the near-field up to –90° βp. At –
90° βp the path width goes to infinity. Past –90° βp to –180° βp reverse
sensing exists and path width decreases up to the –180° βp point. At –180°
βp the path width is the same as it is far-field, the only difference is the re-
verse sensing condition. Past the –180° βp point to the –270° βp point path
width increases to the infinite point at 270° βp. At –360° βp correct path
width with true sensing exists.
6.13.3. Placement of the Field Monitor

Antenna
In Fig. 6.120 the –360° βp and –189° βp would be the most logical place to po-
sition the near-field monitor pole. The two positions duplicate the far-field path
width conditions. The only difference at –180° βp is reverse sensing. If the
angle of a 3° GP should go up to 3.2° in far-field, then a monitor antenna at the
180° βp should receive .051/90 Hz DDM.

EXAMPLE 33
Given a glide path angle θ is 3°. Calculate the required distance from the
base of the antenna array to the monitor pole, and calculate the required
monitor antenna height. Calculate the –180° βp and –360° βp positions.
Solution
where, the adjacent side is the distance to the monitor pole and the oppos-
ite side is the height of the monitor antenna = tan 3° (202.5) = 10.6 feet.
Using the same type of calculations for the –360° βp positions: = –
feet and (tan 3°) (101.2) = 5.3 feet height. To place
the monitor antenna on at the –360° βp point, it would be 101.2 feet in front
of the array at a height of 5.3 feet. It is concluded that different GP will have
different distance and height values.
Normally the monitor pole is positioned at the –180° βp point, rather than
the –360° βp point for stability in monitoring. We can use quadrature phas-
ing to locate the actual, βp position of an existing monitor pole. So we can
set the alarm points on the monitor. If the monitor pole were placed at ex-
actly –180° βp point then the .051 DDM value must be modified by the 'Co-
sine' of misphasing.
EXAMPLE 34
Suppose a monitor pole at –160° βp, use the quadrature phasing method to
prove this location. Assume system phasing is correct.
Solution
1. Lower monitor antenna to below this is necessary to obtain Ess

signals.
2. Connect PIR to monitor antenna.
3. Terminate the sidebands, through an additional 90° section, obtain a
PIR reading.
4. If reading is not the reference reading, note the reading and the side-
band phaser position.
5. Advance or retard the sideband phaser until reference reading is ob-
tained on PIR.
6. Record the amount sideband phaser was changed.
7. Restore sideband phaser to original position as noted in step 5. Re-
move the 90° section. Restore the monitor antenna to its original
height. Calculate βp.
In this example βp was assumed to be –160° βp therefore, the sideband

phaser in step 6 must have been retarded by –20° to obtain reference. In
Fig. 6.122 (a) is given the vector relationships of the Ecs and Ess at the –
180° βp point. Figure 6.121 (b) is the –180° βp with 90° section installed.
Figure 6.121 (c) shows the vector relationship at the –160° βp point with a
quadrature section installed. Note that if the sideband phaser-20° then re-
tarded the sidebands the relationships in Fig. 6.121 (c) would be obtained.
We retarded the sideband phaser by –20° to prove the –160° βp point.
Figure 6.121 Vector Relationship at –180° βp, –160° βp and –200° βp.

Figure 6.122 Effects of antenna height changes on vertical radiation

patterns.
If advance the sideband phaser by +20° to obtain reference, then the pole
must have been at the –200° βp point. Figure 6.121 (d) shows the vector
relationship at this point. Note the vectors would have to be advanced by
+20° to obtain the same vector relationship as Fig. 6.121 (b). The near-field
monitor antenna can be located between –150° βp to –180° βp. When the
monitor pole is located at other than the –180°βp point the DDM input to
the monitor antenna due to angle changes will have to be modified be-
cause it will be something less than the far-field. At locations where experi-
ence heavy snowfall the monitor antenna can be located up to approxim-
ately 15° to the left of center as viewed from the array.

EXAMPLE 35
Given glide angle is 3° and antenna array 500 feet opposite runway center-
line. Find the distance and height of the near-field monitor antenna if it
were located 15° left of a line running through the center of the array as
viewed from the array and the –180° βp point.
Solution
The following development is presented.
Since we want a point 15° left of a line through the array, angle A will be 90°
+ 15° = 105° then
The height of the monitor antenna would be (tan 3°) (226.2) = 11.85 feet.
This means a monitor antenna at a 3° GP could be located at a distance of
226.2 feet and a height of 11.85 feet if the pole were positioned 15° off
center compared with the straight line distance of = –
feet and a height of (tan 3°) (202.47) = 10.6 feet,
this additional height would add some stability to the monitoring system. A
chart and formula has been developed for various glide angles and off cen-
ter placement of the near-field monitor pole.
where,
Z° = detector offset in degree from 0° line

β0 = carrier/sideband antenna off-set in degrees (one foot = 10.14 β0)
φ = glide angle (Antenna setting to obtain desired angle.
In Fig. 6.122 point A is 202.5 feet for a 3° GP and –180° βp monitor posi-
tion. Point B would be
Point C is 243 feet for a 3° GP and –150° βp-monitor position. Point D

would be
Pont E is 292 feet for a 2.5° and 180° βp monitor position. Point F would be
6.14. GLIDE PATH HEIGHT RATIO

Relative antenna position is a primary determinant to decide the excitation en-
ergy will be distributed in the radiation process. If the desired patterns are pro-
duced, the antenna positions are correct i.e., when the radiation patterns for
the upper antenna exhibit twice the vector rotation of those for the lower, the
height ratio is correct. If the first null (above α = 0°) of the upper antennas radi-
ation pattern and the first maximum of the lower occur at the desired angle, 
then the antenna heights are correct. A null for both patterns should occur at
twice this angle. The height of GP antenna is described in reference to a cer-
tain reflecting plane. This description may be in terms of physical dimensions
(feet) or in terms of electrical dimensions (degrees). When the height is ex-
pressed in physical terms, It can refer from the above ground level at the base
of the antenna mast, to the average ground level over a specified sector in front
of the mast, or to a surveyor's benchmark. This could lead to three different
sets of antenna heights, thus limiting measurements above these points to use
as a reference only. Converting these physical heights to electrical equivalents
by appropriate conversion factors will yield equally self limiting results. A more
useful and meaningful expression of antenna height in degrees can be determ-
ined using criteria of the vertical radiation patterns. If this is done in terms of
the glide angle (φ), the results will be independent of the GP operating fre-
quency. Only one set of electrical heights will be correct for a given glide angle.
(6.104)
where, H° is the height of the upper antenna in degrees. 180° are the vector ro-
tation required to obtain a null at φ degrees; and h° is the height of the lower
antenna in degrees and 90° is the vector rotation required to obtain a max-
imum at φ angles
6.14.1. Antenna Height vs. Vertical Radiation

Patterns
Since the products H° sinφ and h° sinφ each are equal and constants, for a
given value of φ only. The values of H° and h° will produce these unique con-
stants. For example, if H is increased to maintain one constant and h must also
be increased to maintain the other. In other words, if either antenna height is
increased all critical points in its vertical pattern above the horizontal plane will
lower. Conversely, if the height is decreased these same critical points will oc-
cur at higher elevation angles. Since the constants differ by 2:1, height
changes in H° and h° must occur in a 2:1 ratio to retain these same constants.
Antenna height vs vertical radiation patterns shown in Fig. 6.122.
EXAMPLE 36
A normal GP has a 3° glide angle
Solution
EXAMPLE 37
If glide angle is increased to 3.2° then
Solution
Similarly
6.14.2. Height Changes vs. Path-width


It should be noted that the antenna excitation was not changed for the two
conditions of Fig. 6.123. This resulted in the same amount of energy being dis-
tributed over a wider area. If the antennas had been raised maintaining a 2:1
ratio this would have resulted in the same amount of energy being distributed
over a smaller area.
Figure 6.123 Pathwidth variation due to height changes and excitation

unchanged.
The patterns represented by the dashed lines will inherently produce a wider
path-width than the solid line patterns for the same excitation energy. By super-
imposing these patterns in a slightly different manner, this concept may appear
more evident.
All GPs will have the same path-width but not necessarily the same glide angle.
Since the path-width is a function of 'A' ratio, and 'A' ratio is function of φ and
raising the glide angle requires an increase in sideband power and lowering the
glide angle requires a decrease in sideband power to maintain the correct path-
width.
(6.105)
All null reference GPs has identical DDM characteristics within the path sector
regardless of glide angle. The DDM increases linearly with elevation angle de-
parture from the glide angle (α = φ) to at least the edge of path. This means
that all stations have the same DDM for a given angular departure from the
glide angle out to the edges of path irrespective of the glide angle. However,
the DDM characteristics outside the linear region are an indirect function of the
glide angle because of the A ratio requirements. The DDM characteristics can
be plotted for a given glide angle and path width (or a ratio). The resulting
curve will show 0 DDM at α = φ and will increase towards its upper limit of 4
mA as approaches φ and 2φ respectively if . Such a curve can be plot-
ted from values determined by appropriate substitution into the GP DDM Equa-
tion (6.106).
(6.106)
[Note: This equation predicts a symmetrical plot resembling a 'Cosine' curve

and such would be the case except the curve is generally shown with only pos-
itive magnitude.] 
Figure 6.124 shows the typical results of DDM plotting. A better understanding
of the DDM curve for H : h = 2:1 might occur by recalling the unsimplified, gen-
eral form of the DDM equation.
(6.107)
Figure 6.124 DDM curve.
Equation (6.107) shows the DDM is proportional to Ess, but Fig. 6.124 shows
DDM increasing even though Ess is decreasing above 1.5φ and below 0.5φ.
Note that Ecs is decreasing too, and at a greater rate over these intervals than
Ess. Although Ecs decreasing does not affect DDM, the Ec curve (not shown) is
decreasing at the same rate as Ecs and Ec does affect DDM. This relative rate
of change of the DDM determinants can be used to prove the upper limit of
normal case DDM. Substitute the following value in Equation (6.107) and differ-
entiating with respect to α.
As α = 0°, DDM = 2 mA
Taking the
(6.108)
when α is zero degree
(6.109)
Substituting the height ratio into this limit results in the normal case DDM up-
per limit occurring near α = 0°. When the H : h = 2:1, the limit is seen as 4 mA
for α = 0° and α = 2φ. The limit at α = 0° is always a direct function of the height
ratio. The upper limit for abnormal height ratios occurs near the carrier nulls
and is 2 m; the abnormal case DDM. 
6.14.3. Abnormal Height Ratio

Characteristics
While the normal height ratio of the null reference GP sideband to carrier anten-
nas is 2:1 it is possible with certain changes to produce an abnormal height ra-
tio of greater or less than 2:1. There are three changes from normal, any of
which can produce an abnormal height ratio. These are changes in (a) side-
band antenna height, (b) carrier antenna height, and (c) changes in ground level
at the point of reflection.
There are three basic, general conditions that always result when the height ra-
tio is abnormal. These are
a. abnormal case DDM values occurring near the carrier nulls,
b. the number of false paths is doubles, and:
c. asymmetrical DDM characteristics prevail above the paths.
Two additional changes may occur but they depend upon the cause of the ab-
normal height ratio. These are
a. glide angle shifts, and;
b. path width changes.
This is assuming that changes in excitation have not been made to counteract
the effects of the abnormal height ratio. Radiation pattern measurements or
plots readily reveal the existence of an abnormal height ratio and whether it is
greater or less than 2:1. The specific change (or changes), which brought
about the abnormal condition are determinable only when certain information
is available. Consider the partial vertical patterns shown in Fig. 6.125 for indic-
ation of abnormal height ratio.
Figure 6.125 Height ratio vs radiation pattern.
Figure 6.125 (a) reveals a normal height ratio, normal DDM characteristics,
minimum false paths and symmetrical reduction of the carrier pattern about
each path. Figures 6.125 (b) and (c), reveal abnormal height ratios of less than
and greater than 2:1, respectively-abnormal case DDM where Ess exceeds Ecs,

and unsymmetrical variations in the carrier pattern about the paths. Recall that
near φ = 0°, the DDM limit is 2 mA while above the glide angle, where abnor-
mal case DDM occurs, the limit is 2mA. This explains the reasons for the DDM
asymmetry occurrence with abnormal height ratios. Note that every null in the
Ess pattern is a zero DDM point for abnormal height ratio conditions since car-
rier antenna energy is present also. For a normal height ratio, alternate nulls
were flag alarm points and not false paths; hence the point that the number of
false paths doubles with abnormal height ratios is justified. The effects on the
glide angle and path width cannot be determined from the plots in Fig. 6.125,
because these effects require knowledge of the causes for the abnormal
height ratios. Recall there are three distinct changes, any of which can produce
the conditions depicted in Fig. 6.125 (b) and (c). These two types of abnormal
height ratio should be analyzed similarly but separately.
[Note: These patterns are not related directly to each other and should not be
compared to avoid erroneous conclusions regarding cause and effects.]
6.14.3.1. Abnormal Height Ratio Less than 2:1

There are three basic conditions, which can result in an abnormal height ratio.
For these are (a) carrier antenna too high, (b) sideband antenna too
low, and (c) effective ground level lowering. Any one of these will cause all
three of the general results. However, only moving the sideband an-
tenna and/or ground level changes will cause glide angle and path-width
changes. These conditions will now be considered individually.
6.14.3.1. (a) Carrier Antenna Too High

Figures 6.127 (a) and (b) show the general effects of raising the carrier an-
tenna from optimum. Raising the carrier antenna lowered the carrier pattern
critical points, but did not change the sideband pattern; therefore, the glide
angle remains unchanged. The path width remains unchanged if the carrier an-
tenna was not raised too much. The path edges occur at lower angles due to
the changes in carrier amplitude occurring in the vicinity of the glide angle. The
Ec at the former upper edge of path has decreased, raising the DDM, which
lowers the angle where 0.178 DDM occurs. The Ec at the former lowers edge of
path has increased, lowering the DDM, which lowers the angle where 0.178
DDM occurs.
Figure 6.126 H/h < 2:1 Carrier antenna raised.
Both edges lower by essentially the same amount since the DDM characterist-
ics in these areas are linear with respect to these small elevation angle
changes. This keeps the path width constant, although it is referred to as
asymmetrical, since the upper edge occurs closer to the glide angle than the 
lower edge. One general effect of raising the carrier antenna is to cause the
path edges to move in the same direction as the carrier pattern, lower in this
case. This is reasonable since the DDM curve below φ is approaching an upper
limit , which is less than the upper limit approached by the DDM
curve above φ (2m).
An additional false path occurs at 2φ, which has correct sensing with respect
to the false path. This sensing is made correct by the relative phase of the Ec
and Ecs energies present in this false path sector with respect to the Ess energy
here. False paths now occur at every integral multiple of with some having re-
verse sensing and other having corrected sensing. The false path at 2φ is un-
stable even with correct sensing due to the sharpness of the DDM curves and
indications about 2φ. Other false paths are having correct sensing occur at
such extremely high elevation angle, which they constitute no guidance prob-
lems either.
6.14.3.1. (b) Sideband Antenna Too Low

Figures 6.127 (a) and (b) present, the resultant patterns occurring when the
sideband antenna is lowered from optimum. Lowering the sideband antenna
raises the sideband pattern critical points thus shifting the glide angle φ up to
a new designated as φ′ for this discussion.
Figure 6.127 H/h < 2:1 Sideband antenna lowered.

The sideband pattern is now spread over a large area and you must go further
above and below path to locate the 0.178 DDM edge of path. This is the same
effect as decreasing the A ratio or sideband power. The net result is the path
width has increased. In this example only, the sideband antenna was moved so
that the carrier pattern remains unchanged. Since the ratio is not symmet-
rical above and below φ′ the DDM is not symmetrical. The Ec at the lower edge
of the φ′ path is higher than the Ec at the upper edge of φ′ path. An additional
false path occurs at 2φ′, which has correct sensing due to the relative phases
of the Ec, Ecs and Ess energies in the 2φ′ path sector. A sharp flag occurs at 2φ
due to Ec and Ecs pattern going through a null. On either side of the null abnor-
mal case DDM will occur due to Ess being greater than the Ecs.
6.14.3.1. (c) Effective Ground Level Lowered

Figures 6.128 (a) and (b) show, in part, the resultant patterns occurring when
the effective ground level or reflecting surface lowers below the reference posi-
tion. Ground level changes are generally due to snow conditions, vegetation in
reflecting area, or changes in the level of the water table. Ground level changes
are the most common cause of abnormal height ratio.
Figure 6.128 (a) and (b) H/h < 2:1 Ground level lowered.
In a normal 2:1 height ratio the sideband antenna is twice the height of carrier
antenna; therefore, there will be greater effect on the carrier antenna pattern

than the sideband antenna pattern. That is, all critical points above the ground
plane in both patterns were lowered by the ground level decrease but the crit-
ical points for the carrier pattern lowered more than the sideband pattern for a
given ground level change. An example can easily clarify this concept. Suppose
that prior to the ground level change that:
Then
Since the critical points for sideband pattern lowered due to ground plane
lowering the glide angle decreased to a new φ designated as φ′ in Fig. 6.128
(a) and (b). The path width decreased, (became narrower) as a result of the Ess
energy being spread over a smaller area. The path edges, (0.178 DDM) above
and below path, (φ) would be closer to the glide angle than normal. The critical
points for the carrier pattern have also shifted down at a proportionate rate
than the sideband pattern. However, since the is not maintained the
DDM above and below path becomes asymmetrical. That is the upper edge of
path has decreased closer to φ′ than the lower edge of path as a result of Ec,
Ecs amplitude changes in the vicinity of the glide angle. A sharp flag occurs
between φ′ and 2φ′ due to the Ecs pattern going through a null. Abnormal case
DDM occurs above and below 2φ′ due to Ess > Ecs. A false path with correct
sensing occurs at 2φ′ due to the relative phases of the Ecs, Ess above and be-
low the Ess null.
6.14.3.2. Abnormal Height Ratio Greater than 2:1
The three causes of are
a. Carrier antenna too low,
b. Sideband antenna too high, and
c. Effective ground level rising.
Any of these will produce the general condition of but again, only
(b) and (c) will cause alternations in glide angle and path width.
6.14.3.2. (a) Carrier Antenna Too Low

Figure 6.129 (a) and (b) show, in part, the resultant patterns occurring, when
the carrier antenna is lowered from optimum. Lowering the carrier antenna
lowers the carrier pattern critical points. Since the sideband pattern has not
changed the glide angle remained unchanged. The path width became unsym-
metrical above and below the glide angle. The edge of path below φ moved
closer to the glide angle and the path edge above φ moved further away from
the glide angle. The overall path width remained unchanged. A false path with
reversed sensing occurs at 2φ and 3φ. A false path with true sensing occurs at
4φ due to the relative phase relationships of the Ec, Ecs, and Ess around the Ess
nulls.
Figure 6.129 (a) and (b) H/h > 2:1 Carrier antenna lowered.

6.14.3.2. (b) Sideband Antenna Too High

The pattern resulting, when the sideband antenna is raised from optimum is
shown in Fig. 6.129 (a) and (b) Raising the sideband antenna lowers the side-
band pattern critical points. This lowers the glide angle from φ to φ′ as shown
in Fig. 6.129 (a) and (b). The path-width is also decreased because the Ess ex-
citation is spread over a small area. The DDM is asymmetrical above and be-
low path as a result of . A flag at 2φ due to Ecs going through a null
with abnormal case DDM above and below the null due to Ess > Ecs. False paths
occur at 2φ, 3φ and 4φ with reverse sensing at 2φ′ and 3φ′. 4φ′ false paths
have true sensing.
6.14.3.2. (c) Effective Ground Level Raised

The patterns resulting when the effective ground level or reflecting plane is
raised from optimum are shown in Fig. 6.129 (a) and (b). Ground level raised
has the same results as lowering both the sideband and carrier antennas. The
glide angle will increase due to the sideband will shifting up. The path width
will also increase due to the sideband pattern being distributed over a larger
area. As in all previous cases of abnormal height, the DDM will become asym-
metrical in the vicinity of the new glide angle (φ′). In this particular case, the
DDM below the former glide angle increased while above the glide angle the

DDM decreased. In the case of ground level lowered it was pointed out that the
carrier pattern shifted more than the sideband pattern. This statement is also
true for the case of ground level raised.
A flag will occur between 2φ and 3φ, when the Ecs pattern goes through a null.
Abnormal case DDM will be present above and below the flag points due to Ess
> Esc. False paths will appear at 2φ, 3φ and 4φ with reverse sensing at 2φ′ and
3φ′ and true sensing to 4φ′.
6.14.4. System Phasing

It is assumed so far that system phasing has been correct. System phasing
refers to the phase relationship between the separate sideband and carrier in
far-field. When the GP is correctly phased the antennas will be fed such that
the Ess150 Hz in the sideband antenna will be exactly in-phase with the Ecs150 Hz
in the carrier antenna and the Ess90 Hz in the sideband antenna will be exactly
180° out-of-phase with Ecs90 Hz in the carrier antenna. In far-field, below path,
the same relative phase relationships exist as is in the antennas. If a Portable
ILS Receiver (PIR) were placed, say at the middle marker, then the PIR should
show 150 Hz predominated DDM. This is a normal condition for below path. If
in a perfectly phased ideal system an extra length of cable exactly 90° long
were to be added to the sideband or carrier antenna feed-line, the sidebands
would be displaced by 90° from the carrier. It has been previously stated that
= s where 's' is the space modulation at the fundamental frequency.
Keeping this in mind and also cos 90° is equal to zero, clearly DDM is a func-
tion of 'm150 Hz' and 'm90 Hz' DDM is equal to zero if the sidebands are displaced
by 90° relative to the carrier.
This fact will be used to correctly phase the GP system. Following are the ac-
tual steps in far-field phasing a null reference GP system.
1. Set up a PIR in far-field below the GP at the middle marker.
2. Disconnect the sideband antenna feed line at the equipment and termin-
ate both ends into 50 W loads. Radiate Ec, Ecs only.
3. Obtain reference DDM on PIR.
4. Reconnect the sideband feed-line through the 90° cables; this retards the
sidebands 90° with respect to the carrier.
5. Adjust the equipment sideband phaser for reference DDM on the PIR.
6. Remove 90° section of cable and reconnect the sideband feed-line.
7. Check for 150 Hz predominated DDM below path.
8. The previous 7 steps are the most accurate method of phasing a GP, and
is referred to as 'quadrature phasing'. A flight inspection aircraft could
have been used to phase the system. The ground procedures are exactly
the same; just substitute PIR readings for aircraft readings.
Once the system has been properly phased in far-field, proof of offset can be
verified. If antenna offset is correct, on runaway centerline there should not be
βR or proximity error. If the DDM is the same when the sidebands are termin-
ated as when the sidebands are in quadrature, then antenna offset must be
correct, provided far-field phasing is correct and quadrature phasing method is
used in the near-field on centerline to check offset. Care must be taken when

checking proof of offset in the near-field. If a point is selected on the glide
angle then quadrature phasing will be useless since no Ess exists on the glide
angle in a normally adjusted GP. The runway centerline at the threshold is the
normal place to verify antenna offset because at this point the glide angles is
approximately 50 feet above the runway surface.
6.15. LOCALIZER ANTENNA

This section will deal with the construction and theory of operation of various
types of antenna used for localizer operation. We will be more focused on op-
eration of the 8 elements Log Periodic Antenna (LPA) array. The localizer an-
tenna array radiates RF energy generated by the localizer transmitter in such a
way as to produce a VHF signal in-space. This signal contains modulation in-
formation that can be used for the purpose of laterally to guide an aircraft in
accurate alignment with the centerline of runway during approach and landing
under instrument flight conditions. This accomplished by radiating a horizont-
ally polarized RF carrier wave, at an assigned frequency in the range of 108
to112 MHz, i.e., amplitude modulated by two audio navigational tones having
frequencies of 90 Hz and150 Hz. Moreover, the nature of the radiated signal is
such that there is a difference between the depth of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz
modulations, which varies within prescribed limits as a function of azimuth rel-
ative to the extended centerline of the runway. In general the nature of this vari-
ation is such that the signal received by an approaching aircraft will
a. Be predominately 90 Hz modulated when the aircraft is to the left of the

runway extended centerline.
b. Be predominantly 150 Hz modulated when the aircraft is to the right of the

runway extended centerline.
c. Have a difference in depth of modulation (DDM) equal to zero when the

aircraft is on the runway extended centerline.
The signal radiated is of such quality and field strength, that the above per-
formance is obtainable to a distance of at least 25 NM from the transmitting
antenna at all azimuths within ±10° of the runway extended centerline and at
least 17 NM from the array at all azimuths between ± 10° and ± 35° from the
extended centerline. The localizer antenna array radiates two different VHF sig-
nals and these signals are CSB signal and SBO signal. The CSB takes the form
of a VHF carrier wave i.e., AM to equal depths by the two audio navigational 90
Hz and 150 Hz tones. The SBO signal takes the form of a double sideband,
suppressed carrier wave, which is also equally modulated by the two audio
navigational tones. However, the audio phase of the 90 Hz modulations on this
SBO signal is opposite to the audio phase of the 90 Hz modulations on the CSB
signal.
The antenna used in the array is a broadband; Log Periodic Dipole (LPD), which
consists of seven parallel, horizontally polarized dipole radiators that are fed
from a common balanced transmission line. The balanced transmission line is
excited from the front to produce a traveling wave, which progress toward the
rear of the antenna structure. The amount of energy is extracted from the
passing traveling wave (and radiated) by a given dipole radiator depends on the
electrical length of that particular dipole at the operating frequency. Frequency
independent performance is obtained from log periodic structure by virtue of
the dipole lengths and spacing vary in such a manner that the function of the
resonant element is transferred smoothly along the structure, from one dipole
to the next, as the operating frequency changes. Transposition of the polarity
of the driven signals applied to alternate dipoles along the balanced transmis-
sion line feeder is necessary to achieve a concentration of radiated RF energy
toward the front of the structure, even though the wave on this balanced trans-
mission line progress towards the rear of the structure. This transposition is

accomplished by connecting the dipoles to the feeder line in such a way that
successive elements project from this balanced transmission line in opposite
directions.
The half power beam width of this pattern is approximately ± 23° and the front
to back ratio is vary nearly 28 dB over the localizer frequency band. The level of
RF energy radiated at right angles to the axis of the LPD elements in these dir-
ections is essentially zero and, as a consequence mutual coupling between ad-
jacent LPD elements in a localizer array is approximately 30 dB. Sampling of
radiated signals for the purpose of integral monitoring is accomplished by an-
other balanced transmission line embedded in the element body. The monitor
balanced transmission line is laid in parallel, but orthogonal, to the main bal-
anced transmission line. The monitor transmission line does not couple to the
main transmission line, since the monitor transmission line located in the neut-
ral plane of the main transmission line. However, when the monitor transmis-
sion line is run under dipoles, it will no longer be in a neutral plane and it will
couple RF signals. A balanced monitor transmission line is then transformed to
an unbalanced monitor transmission line through a half wave Balun. Monitor
output signal levels are approximately 10.6 dB down from the input signal to
the antenna.
6.15.1. CSB Pattern

The CSB pattern is formed by four pairs of radiating antennas in which each
pair of antennas is fed with different amplitude signals-in-phase (SIP). This
provides a maximum radiated signal level, which will decrease as it is moved
away from the runway centerline and eventually the radiated signal will be null
at a certain angle. The location of a null depends upon the spacing between
the antennas of the pair. The CSB pattern is tailored using the following
parameters:
a. Spacing of elements
b. Number of pairs of elements.
c. Amplitude distribution among pairs of elements.
d. Pair to pair phasing (Pair No. 4 being 180° out-of-phase in 8 element

arrays).
Table 6.8 shows the antenna current ratios (amplitude distribution) and
phases.
Table 6.8 Antenna current ratios and phases
An- Ic, Ics90, Ics150 (CSB) Iss90, Iss150 (SBO)

tenna
Current Ics90 Ics150 Current Iss90 Iss150

ratios ratios
4L 0.055 ± ψr + ψr + 0.415 ± ψr + ψr –
0.006 180° 180° 0.050 90° 90°
3L 0.143 ± ψr ψr 0.700 ± ψr + ψr –
0.018 0.084 90° 90°
2L 0.363 ± ψr ψr 0.890 ± ψr + ψr –
0.044 0.106 90° 90°
1L 1.00 (Ref) ψr ψr 1.00 (Ref) ψr + ψr –

(Ref) (Ref) 90° 90°
ψr = Antenna array reference phase antenna 1L


An- Ic, Ics90, Ics150 (CSB) Iss90, Iss150 (SBO)

tenna
Current Ics90 Ics150 Current Iss90 Iss150

ratios ratios
1R 1.000 ± ψr ψr 1.000 ± ψr – ψr +
0.060 0.060 90° 90°
2R 0.363 ± ψr ψr 0.890 ± ψr – ψr +
0.022 0.053 90° 90°
3R 0.143 ± ψr ψr 0.700 ± ψr – ψr +
0.009 0.042 90° 90°
4R 0.055 ± ψr + ψr + 0.415 ± ψr – ψr +
0.003 180° 180° 0.025 90° 90°
ψr = Antenna array reference phase antenna 1L
6.15.2. SBO Pattern

An SBO pattern is formed by four pairs of radiating antennas in which each an-
tenna of pair is fed with equal amplitude but 180° signals out-of-phase (SOP).
A pair of antennas fed in this manner will have a null in the radiated signal on
the runway centerline. Signal level will increase away from the centerline and
will eventually reach a maximum level. It then starts to decrease still further
from the centerline. The distance from the runway centerline at which the max-
imum signal level is realized depends upon the spacing between antennas.
When the SBO signals are added to the CSB signals in space an RF signal is
produced, which has a difference between the depth of 90 Hz modulations and
the depth of 150 Hz modulations. The greater the relative SBO signal level is
with respect to the CSB signal level, the greater the difference is in depth of
modulations. When there are no SBO signals in space, such as in the case on
the runway centerline; there is no difference in DDM.
6.15.3. RF Distribution Network

The distribution network provides the required distribution of CSB and SBO sig-
nals as described in the preceding paragraphs. The block diagram of the RF
distribution network is shown in Fig. 6.131.
Figure 6.130 Antenna signals for 3° null reference GP.

Figure 6.131 8-Element RF distribution network.
The CSB and SBO signals go through their own respective series of power di-
viders to achieve the desired amplitude distribution, and the CSB and SBO sig-
nals are combined by a combining hybrid to feed each pair of antennas. In the
distribution network, the distribution of the CSB and SBO signals is accom-
plished by a number of miniature, 50 Ω, and 3-dB strip-line hybrid couplers and
associated 50 Ω strip-line interconnecting cables. The miniature 3-dB hybrid
couplers used in the distribution units are broadband, four port strip-line
devices that operate over a frequency range of 90 to 180 MHz.
6.15.4. Unequal Power Division

Unequal power division is accomplished by using two 3-dB hybrid couplers as
shown in Fig. 6.132. The first coupler divides the input power incident on its IN
port equally between its two output ports. The output signal appearing at the –
90° port of this first coupler is applied directly to the 'ISO' port of the second
coupler. 
Figure 6.132 Power divider.
The output signal appearing at the '0°' output port of this first coupler is con-
nected to the 'IN' port of the second coupler through a delay line α° long. The
second 3-dB coupler affects a recombination of these two input signals to pro-
duce signal of respective amplitude of V1 = V at its –90° port (output 1)
and V2 = V at its 0° port (output 2). These two output signals are in-
phase with each other. Each lags the input signal by (+90°)
6.15.5. Combiner Hybrids

The strip-line distribution unit includes a number of combiner divider hybrids,
equal to the number of pairs of symmetrically disposed radiation elements in
the localizer array. Each of these combiner divider hybrids consists of 3-dB,
broadside coupled, directional coupler which receives a CSB signal input at its
'IN' port and an SBO signal at its 'ISO' port and both outputs of each of these
combiner dividers therefore consist of a composite CSB-SBO drive signal for
one of the elements in the array. The signal is of the proper amplitude and
phase for driving that a member of a pair of symmetrically disposed radiating
elements located on the 150 Hz side of the array center when the signal at the
–90° output port the combiner hybrid is used to drive the corresponding ele-
ments on the 90 Hz side of the array center.
6.15.6. RF Combining Network

For the purpose of integral monitoring of the antenna output signal, the RF
combining network Fig. 6.133 provides the required combining function for the
sampled signals from each antenna. The network is similar in construction to
the RF distribution network previously described, but performs essentially the
opposite function. The combining of the CSB and SBO signals is accomplished
by means of a number of miniatures 50 Ω, 3-dB strip-line hybrid couplers and
associated 50 Ω, strip-line interconnecting lines. The couplers are broadband,
four port, strip-line devices designed to operate over a frequency range of 108
to 112 MHz, like the couplers in the distribution network. Each 3-dB coupler, to-
gether with a 90° phase lag at one of two inputs, conforms exactly like a hybrid
bridge (as a combiner). The wide aperture combining network accepts signals
from seven pairs of antennas. Quadrature couplers are so arranged that the
signal obtained at CSB output signals. Under normal conditions, this sum sig-
nal is mostly CSB, and little or no SBO signal appears. The signal obtained at
SBO output is the difference signal between the sum signal of the left-side of
the array and the sum signal of the right-side of the array. This difference sig-
nal is mostly SBO and little or no CSB signal appears. The output signals are
then routed to the monitor combining network.
Figure 6.133 R.F combining network.

6.15.7. Monitor Combining Network

After CSB and SBO signals are completely separated by the RF combining net-
work, they are fed into the localizer monitor combining network. The block dia-
gram of this network is shown in Fig. 6.134. In this network, the CSB input sig-
nal is divided into two equal parts by a power divider consisting of two quarter
wave length long 70 Ω transmission lines.
Figure 6.134 Block diagram monitor combining network.
One output of this power divider is used as an on-course monitor signal. The
other portion is used as one input to coupler DC1 where it is combined with the
SBO signal to produce a width monitor signal. The SBO signal goes through a
fixed attenuator, a step attenuator, and phaser before it is combined with the
CSB signal in DC1. The step attenuator consists of 1-2-4, and 8 dB attenuators.
The step attenuator will be selected (or set) such that width monitor output is
as close to 0.155 DDM as possible. Each attenuator has three resistors ar-
ranged in a π-configuration. Each attenuator can be placed in the circuit or by-
passed by positioning a jumper on either TB2 or TB1 respectively. The sideband
phaser control is provided to make the SBO signal in phase with the CSB sig-
nals at the width output. The sideband phaser consists of a 3-dB quadrature
coupler and a variable differential capacitor, which is in series with RF coils.
6.16. RF DISTRIBUTION UNITS (RFDU)


The two RF distribution units in the localizer rack are identical as far as circuit
configuration is concerned, but in order to facilitate assembly and connection
into the rack they are fitted into the left hand side of the rack they are construc-
ted as mirror images. Access to each unit is by means of the appropriate side
door of the rack. The units are constructed from 50 Ω impedance strip trans-
mission line with aluminum ground planes (strip-line). The ground planes are
also used as a mounting chassis on to which various connectors, controls and
components are secured. Flexible cables having permanent joints at the distri-
bution unit end make the six connections between the distribution unit and the
mechanical modulated.
6.16.1. Basic Function of RFDU

Each RF distribution unit accepts the RF output signal from its associated
transmitter unit and divides this RF signal to provide a carrier signal for further
processing in the distribution unit and a carrier signal to feed the associated
mechanical modulator. Distribution unit accepts the output from the main
transmission and other distribution unit accepts the output from the stand by
transmitter. The distribution units process the carrier signal with the four out-
puts from each mechanical modulator and each provides the following four
outputs.
a. Course CSB Output: A carrier signal at the transmitter output frequency to-
gether with double sideband signals at 90 Hz and 150 Hz from the trans-
mitter frequency, the mean frequency component of the 150 Hz sidebands
being in-phase with the men frequency component of the 90 Hz sidebands
and in-phase with the carrier signal.
b. Course SBO Output: Double sideband signals at 90 Hz and 150 Hz from

the transmitter output frequency, the mean frequency component of the
150 Hz sidebands.
c. Clearance CSB Output: A carrier signal at the transmitter output frequency

together with double sideband signals at 90 Hz and 150 Hz from the trans-
mitter frequency, the mean frequency component of the 150 Hz sidebands
and lagging in-phase with relation to the carrier signal by 22.5°
approximately.
d. Clearance SBO Output: Double sideband signals at 90 Hz and 150 Hz from

the transmitter output frequency, the mean frequency component of the
90 Hz sidebands being 180° out-of-phase with the mean frequency com-
ponent of the 150 Hz sidebands.
There are ten RF bridges in the circuit. The function of an RF bridge is to divide
RF input into two outputs isolated from each other, or to combine two RF in-
puts in a common output while maintaining isolation between the two inputs,
or to combine two RF outputs while maintaining isolation between the two in-
puts and the two outputs, or to alter the phase relationship between the input
and output signals. Three arms of the RF bridge (BC, BE and CD in Fig. 6.135)
are a predetermined fraction of a wavelength long while the other arm ED is
the same length plus one half of a wavelength i.e., .
Figure 6.135 RF bridge.

Assume that RF generator feeds power to point B while at points C and E the
loads R1 and R2 are equal and match the impedance of the bridge arm lines,
which is approximately Zo. The RF energy will divide into two paths BCD and
BED. At D the two voltages of equal amplitude will be present in anti-phase due
to the half wavelength difference in the two paths and thus two voltages will
cancel at D. The value x is calculated so that the short circuit at D reflects at C
a shunt inductive reactance of 2Zo at B. The same value is reflected at B from
E. Therefore the impedance at B is Zo and the power is divided equally to the
loads R1 and R2, the voltages at these loads being in-phase with each other. It
has been shown that a voltage appearing at one corner of the bridge creates
two voltages at the opposite corner, which are of equal k amplitude but in anti-
phase, thus having no effect at that corner. From this it will be seen that a large
degree of isolation is an important feature of the bridge and in the distribution
units it prevents direct cross-modulation between the 90 Hz and 150 Hz side-
band outputs and suppresses leakage of carrier power into the sideband
generators.
If two generators feed power each to an opposite corner of a bridge, for ex-
ample at point B and D, then the proportion of power delivered to each load will
be directly dependent on the relative phasing of the two generator voltages.
The generator at B will feed equal in-phase voltage to C and E and the gener-
ator at D will feed equal but anti-phase voltages to C and E. If the two generator
voltages are equal and in-phase their powers will add at C and cancel at E and
full power will be delivered to R1 and zero power to R2. Power will be delivered
in the opposite way if the two generator voltages are in anti-phase and may be
varied from zero to full power by variation in the relative phasing of the two
generator voltages. If the generator voltage differs in-phase by 0° then the
value of the voltage at C varies as cos while at E the voltage varies as
sin . Thus the two outputs always have a phase difference of 90° with the
output at E lagging behind the output at C. The electrical length of all the bridge
arms in the two distribution units is 54.7° at a nominal frequency of 110 MHz
i.e., × 360 = 54.7°.
6.16.2. Detailed Description

The RF input signal from the transmitter unit is fed into SK1 and hence to the
modulation depth control bridge by a line having an open circuited matching
stub. The RF power is divided in equal portion before the bridge and is fed to
the bridge as two equal amplitude signals in–phase relationship with variable
capacitor which are gagged in anti-phase. The short circuit stubs associated

with each capacitor and the extra length of line in the input to one side of the
bridge. These features enable variations is made to the proportion of RF power
fed to each output and the capacitors are adjusted to provide approximately
80% of the output power and 20% to the modulation depth control bridge. It is
fed by a line having an open circuit matching stub to the modulation balance
control bridge, the function of which is similar to the modulation depth control
bridge. The only difference between mod-depth and mod-balance circuits is in
the length of excess line to one corner of the bridge. By variation of capacitors,
the two outputs of the bridge can be adjusted so that they are of equal power.
The RF output and its associated flexible coaxial cable is fed to the input of the
150 Hz modulator in the modulator and the RF output and its associated
coaxial cable is fed to the 90 Hz modulator. The signals at corner of bridge, the
outputs of the mod balance bridge, are in RF phase quadrature. The one con-
necting cable is 90° longer than the other, which brings the two signals in-
phase at the input of the modulator.
The modulator generates four double sideband signals, two at 90 Hz and 150
Hz difference from the frequency of the RF input signal. Each the four signals
are fed to the distribution unit by flexible coaxial cables connected to bridges
as shown in Fig. 6.136. A double sideband signal at 90 Hz from the transmitter
frequency and the mean frequency component of this sidebands being in anti-
phase to the mean frequency components of the 150 Hz double sideband sig-
nal are fed to the corner of the bridge. The sideband signals are constitute two
inputs to the SBO combining bridge (course) and they are combined at the two
outputs of the bridge. Since the mean frequency components of the input sig-
nals of this bridge are anti-phase, they are fed out to the CSB combining bridge
(course) in-phase and to the SBO phase (course) in anti-phase. The SBO output
of the combining bridge is fed to the SBO phase (course) by a cable having ef-
fectively a two-stub tuner providing impedance matching between the two
bridges. Variable capacitors are ganged together in phase and are each parallel
resonated by their associated short-circuited stub. Reciprocal shunt imped-
ance is thus presented by these two circuits at their respective corners of the
SBO phase (course) bridge.
Figure 6.136 Typical RF distribution unit.

At one limit of the range of the capacitors the signal will take the path having
no phase shift included and at the other limit it will take the path having 180°
phase shift included in the bridge. The maximum phase shift obtainable in
practice is approximately 120° and intermediate values of phase shift between
0° and 120° are obtained by adjustment of the capacitors. Thus, the output sig-
nal of the SBO phase (course) can be altered in its phase relationship to the in-
put signal. This facility enables the phasing of the course SBO signal in the
field to be set up correctly.
The output of the SBO phase (course) is fed to the course width control circuit
by a line with an open circuit-matching stub. The course width control circuit is
power divider bridge having variable capacitors are ganged in anti-phase. Ad-
justment of capacitors allows adjustment of the course SBO output power
level to be made and this alters the radiation pattern width. The portion of
power input to the course width control circuit that is not fed out as course
SBO output is dissipated in resistive load. A length of coaxial cable, in one of
the input lines of the bridge is included to enable variations to be made to the
range of output power levels obtained by adjustment of capacitors. The cable
will be altered on installation to suit the length of the runway so as to obtain a
width of 350 feet. at the runway threshold without the width control being at
the end of its range.
The two input signals to the SBO combining bridge (clearance) are a 90 Hz
double sideband signal from the modulator and a 150 Hz double sideband sig-
nal, also from the modulator, fed to the corner of the bridge. The mean fre- 
quency components of each of this double sideband are in-phase there by res-
ulting in combined signals at the SBO and CSB outputs of the bridge. The
mean frequency components of the SBO combined output signal are in anti-
phase, and the mean frequency components of the CSB combined output sig-
nal are in-phase. The SBO output of the bridge is fed to the SBO phaser (clear-
ance) by a line having a two-stub tuner, consisting of capacitors and their
bridge (clearance) to the SBO phaser (clearance). The operation of the SBO
phaser (clearance) is identical to that of the SBO phase (course) previously de-
scribed. Variation in phase shift across the SBO phaser (clearance) will affect
the clearance radiation pattern. The RF signal from the modulation depth con-
trol bridge is fed through a length of coaxial cable to maintain a close phase
relationship between the carrier signal and the signals from the modulator. The
coaxial cable (approximately 6 feet long) is made to be the same length as the
average total length of cable to and from the modulator. This compensates for
any change in-phase, which occurs due to ambient temperature changes af-
fecting the modulator cables. The RF signal is connected to the input of the
CSB phaser which functions similarly to the phaser previously described and
permits fine control of the phasing of the carrier signal.
The carrier signal from the CSB phaser is fed to a power divider network which
feeds approximately 40% of the power to the CSB combining bridge (clear-
ance) and 60% of the power to the CSB combining bridge (course). The power
divider consists of two lines each with different conductor widths. The width of
each conductor is calculated to give a line impedance of 79 Ω in the clearance
line and 64.5 Ω in the course line. These two line impedances are in shunt at
the power dividing junction and when the lines are terminated by the imped-
ance of ohms, they present an impedance of 50 Ω at the junction. The carrier
signal fed to the CSB combining bridge (course) is combined with sideband
signals from the course SBO combining bridge, and the combined signals are
course CSB output via a line having a two stub tuner. The two-stud tuner con-
sists of capacitors and their associated short-circuited stubs and is used to
match the CSB combining bridge (course) to the input impedance at the appro-
priate input of the Coaxial Distribution Unit. Half of the input power to the CSB
combining bridge (course) is dissipated in resistive load and this power
wastage must be tolerated in order to obtain satisfactory combining of two
signals.
The carrier signal to the CSB combining bridge (clearance) is de-phased with
relation to the mean frequency components of the signal which it is combined
in the bridge by 22.3°. The de-phasing is accomplished by using a shorter line
between the power divider element and the clearance CSB combining bridge
than is used in the course circuit. This de-phasing maintained the required
modulation depth in the clearance CSB output and is necessary because the
power divider splits the carrier power unequally between the course SBO and
clearance-combining bridge are of equal power. Half of the input power to the
CSB combining bridge (clearance) is dissipated in resistor to achieve satisfact-
ory combing as in the CSB combining bridge (course) and the combined output
at the opposite corner of the bridge passes through a line, having a two stub
tuner, which consists of capacitor and their associated short circuited stub.
The two stub tuner matches the CSB combining bridge (clearance) to the im-
pedance of the appropriate input of the coaxial distribution and the output sig-
nal will be available No amplitude control is included in the clearance SBO out-
put as the clearance radiation pattern has a fixed width.
Description various controls of RFDU is only intended to give little bit of theor-
etical back ground to reader about the controls. The adjustment of these con-
trols as mentioned below is certainly not in a proper sequence as required and
one must not attempt to adjust LLZ system just after reading this.
(a) Mod Depth Control

This is basically a power divider RF Bridge. Adjustment of this control varies
'MOD SUM' in course as well as clearance radiation. MOD SUM is adjusted at a
nominal value of 40%, which can be measured for a check by ILS precision cal-
ibrator connected to the position monitor (internal aerial).
(b) Mod Balance Control
This is also a power divider bridge. It controls power of RF feed to 90 Hz and

150 Hz compartment of mechanical modulator. Adjustment of this control en-
sures depth of measured at position monitor indicates that depth of modula-
tion by 150 Hz and 90 Hz are equal. This control is adjusted for zero DDM
measure there.
(c) CSB Phaser
This RF bridge is basically a phase shifting bridge. It changes the phase of the
carrier which when mixed with sidebands in CSB course/clearance combining
bridges, generates CSB/course or CSB clearance signal. Adjustment of this
control brings carrier in-phase with the mean frequency component of side-
bands for maximum depth of modulation (see Chapter modulation technique).
Optimum adjustment of this control is indicated by maximum mod sum meas-
ured in ILS precision calibrator meter connected to position monitor internal
aerial.
(d) SBO Phaser Course
This is also a phase shifting bridge. This control adjusts the phase of SBO
course relatives to CSB (course) signal. Correct phasing of CSB and SBO
course is essential for proper tone predominance in Blue sector/Yellow sector
and zero DDM at extended centerline of runway. This correct phasing is indic-
ated by zero DDM measured by ILS precision calibrator in equipment room of
localizer connected to one end of test cable (fifth cable provided). Other end of
test cable is connected to a directional coupler located in aerial distribution
unit, which samples RF being fed to 2 Y aerial of the localizer aerial array. While
doing this measurement only CSB/CR and SBO/CR is radiated.
(e) Course Width Control
This is basically power divider bridge. It controls SBO/CR power. Adjustment of

this control is done for proper course width of localizer (15.5% DDM at 350 feet
either side of runway center/line at threshold). Increasing SBO power de-
creased course width and vice versa. Usually this adjustment is done by field
measurement (using ILS precision calibrator) at 800 feet while radiating course
SBO and course CSB signals only. Course width at 800 feet is calculated, keep-
ing in view an azimuth angle, which depends upon runway length, and distance
of localizer aerial array from stop end of ILS runway as shown in Fig. 6.137.
Figure 6.137 Course width presentation.

where, H is Half course width, L is the Length of runway, D is the distance
between end of runway to the localizer antenna
(f) SBO Phase Clearance
This bridge is a phase shifting bridge and adjustment of this control affects the
relative phase of SBO/Clearance with respect to CSB/clearance. Proper phase
relationship of CSB/CL and SBO/CL is shown in Fig. 6.138.
Figure 6.138 Vector presentation of SBO clearance.
Correct adjustment of this phaser is indicated by zero DDM measured by ILS

precision calibrator connected at one end of the test cable. Other end of test
cable is connected to directional coupler of 2 Y dipole. At this time only
CSB/CL and SBO/CL signals are radiated.
(g) SBO Balance (Course), CSB Balance (Course), SBO Balance (Clearance)
and CSB Balance (Clearance)
All these are impedance matching devices. Obviously there are two stub tuner
meant for minimizing VSWR and adjustment of these controls are done to min-
imize overall VSWR of the system.
6.16.3. ILS Monitor System

The ILS signal transmission and its integrity is to maintain the confidence in
the system which also contains the stand-by transmitter to radiate the correct
information. If a fault occurs in the main transmitter, the monitor system initi-
ates action by the common control unit to switch the standby transmitter to
the aerial and the main transmitter to the dummy loads. Then perform the facil-
ity check for the required level of service which has been adjusted during flight
check. The performance of the facility is continuously checked with internal
and external monitors. Four similar sets of monitors are used to check the RF
signals. Three sets check the main (radiating) transmitter; the remaining set
checks the standby transmitter. Other monitor unit checks parameters within
the signal generation system. To prevent a failure, in one of the monitors caus-
ing changeover action, a two out of three agreement technique is used. The
means of achieving this are contained within the common control unit but ba-
sically executive action is initiated only if two monitors out of the three, check-
ing the radiating transmitter indicate failure.
6.16.3.1. Signal and Parameters Monitored

A total of eight parameters are monitored as follows:
(a) Internal Aerial Monitor Set
This signal is picked up from co-axial distribution unit for monitoring which is
being fed to the aerial system relative to position, width and clearance.
(b) NF1 Monitor Set 

This signals radiated into space in composite form, as monitored immediately
in front of the LLZ aerial array, relative to position width and clearance. For this
signals are picked up by two sets of monitoring dipoles installed at specific
place in-front of LLZ aerial array.
(c) NF2 Monitor Set
This composite signals radiated is picked up by antenna and monitored the

performance of the signal in field. For this action two set of monitor dipole are
used.
(d) Internal Load Monitor Set
The composite signals are fed to dummy load relative to position, width and
clearance. This signal is picked up from coaxial distribution unit for this pur-
pose. The monitors check performance of stand by transmitter as well. In Cat-
III ILS system, main and standby, both the transmitters are continuously kept
'ON' so that the other channel works as hot standby mode and immediately
takes over if any fault is monitored in the working channel by monitor sets.
(e) Modulator Motor Speed or Modulation Frequency Check
Monitors the speed of the modulator motor which is generates 90 Hz and 150
Hz modulating signal. This signal is pickup from mechanical modulator shaft.
Variation of its speed may cause change in tone frequencies (150 Hz and 90
Hz)
(f) RF Frequency
Checks the carrier frequency of both the channels.
(g) Identification Code
This unit provides warning if identification code fails.
(h) Battery Charge Performance
Monitors the performance of battery charger unit.
The ILS has three monitoring channels. The monitors 1, 2, 3 will initiate
changeover to the standby transmitter if two out of three monitors indicate any
alarm. Monitor-4, as mentioned above checks standby channel. All monitors
detect deviations respective parameters. Monitor-1, 2, 3 and 4 provide warning
signals to the remote control unit when 80% of the permitted limit is reached.
When the limit is reached, the respective monitor provides alarm signals to the
remote control unit. A typical block diagram of monitor system is given in Fig.
6.139.
Figure 6.139 Typical block diagram of monitor system of ILS.

6.16.4. Monitoring Practice (RF Signals)

For each monitor (1,2,3, and 4) set, samples of RF signal from specific posi-
tions relative to the course line are taken.
One the course line (runway centerline) when the DDM is zero. This is
known as the position monitor.
Offset from the course line where the course give a DDM of 15.5%. This is
known as width monitor.
Offset from the course line where the course and clearance signals com-
bine to give a DDM of 15.5%. This is known as clearance monitor.
6.16.5. Monitor Sets

RF signals either picked up from field monitors (NF1 and NF2) or from coaxial
distribution unit (Internal monitors) are bought via co-axial cables to monitor
sets (which are located in the localizer or GP cabinet top half). Each monitor
unit receives RF signals proportional to position (zero DDM), width (0.155
DDM) or clearance (0.155 DDM). From the respective input, the unit produces
DC levels proportional to
RF level
Modulation Sum
DDM
Any of these levels may be selected and fed to the appropriate alarm unit for
selection and display on the front panel meter. Selection circuits in each mon-
itor unit provide DC levels proportional to the worst of the three errors in the
measured parameters. These are applied to the alarm unit to provide alarm or
warning signals is the error exceeds the respective pre-set level.
(a) Internal Aerial Monitor Set
Five probes are used in the coaxial distribution unit producing the signal, from
the course and clearance signals, combinations to simulate position, width and
clearance signals.
(b) NF1 Monitor Set
Uses three dipoles are used to pick up the composite radiated signals. Two are
positioned symmetrically about the aerial center-line at positions there the
course SBO and CSB signals are in phase quadrature. The SBO signals on
either side of the centerline are in the anti-phase, so the signal at each aerial
consists of CSB and either plus or minus SBO. To derive signals relative to pos-
ition and width, the dipole outputs are fed to a monitor combining unit to
provide CSB (position) and a combine CSB/SBO signal width. The third dipole
is sited 32 feet from the array offset from the centerline, where the combined
DDM due to the course and clearance signals is 0.155.
(c) NF2 Monitor Set
ILS system uses three dipoles to sample the radiated signals. The position and
width monitoring dipoles are sited 250 feet from the array one on the runway
center line (position) the other offset (width). The clearance dipole is posi-
tioned 80 feet from the array off-set from the centerline where the combined
DDM due to course and clearance signals in 0.155.
(d) Internal Load Monitor Set
Similarly to internal aerial monitor set, but samples signals dissipated in

dummy load of standby transmitter. 
6.17. ALFORD ANTENNA RADIATION

PATTERNS
The eight Alford antennas of the array operate as four antenna pairs; Carrier
pair is shown in Fig. 6.140. They are SB1 pair, SB2 pair, and SB3 pair. Note the
strapping of the four pairs; both antennas of the carrier pair are strapped Right
Hand (RH), but all the sideband pair '90 Hz side' antennas are strapped Left
Hand (LH). This results in the carrier pair operating as a SIP pair and the side-
band pairs to operate as SOP pairs. Also of great importance in analyzing an-
tenna pair radiation patterns is the pair of 'spacing a' as shown in Fig. 6.140;
the installation dimensions, in feet and inches, that closely correlate to the 'a'
spacing values are
i. Centerline to either Carrier antenna 1'0.5'
ii. Centerline either SB1 antenna 4'8.5'.
iii. Centerline either SB2 antenna 12'5'
iv. Centerline to either SB3 antenna 19'10'.
Figure 6.140 Schematic of Alford antennas array.
6.17.1. Carrier Pair Radiation

I. Ec (Carrier)
II. Ecs90 Hz (90 Hz sidebands, fc ± 90 Hz)
III. Ecs150 Hz (150 Hz sidebands, fc ± 150 Hz)
IV. Ecs1020 (1020 Hz sidebands, Morse coded)
V. Ecsvoice (Voice sidebands, if used)
The antenna pairs will radiate these signals, the shape of each of their radi-
ation pattern will be similar, but the amplitudes will be different. For example,
the Ecs90 Hz value is set such that to create a modulation factor of approxim-
ately 0.2; will be represented in this module as:
(6.110)

This means that at any point in the radiation pattern, the peak value of the Ecs90
Hz signal received will be two tenths of the peak carrier voltage received at that
point. The 150 Hz modulation factor, m150 Hz is also set to approximately 0.2;
the 1020 Hz modulation factor is set to approximately .08; and the Voice mod-
ulation factor, if used, is set in relation to localizer course width. Figure 6.141 is
a polar plot of field strengths for the carrier, 90 Hz or 150 Hz sidebands (Ecs90
Hz or Ecs150 Hz) and the 1020 Hz sidebands radiated by the carrier antenna pair.
In developing DDM values for the array, we will focus in on the Ecs90 Hz and
Ecs150 Hz patterns; the carrier Ec will be omitted. Remember, that wherever you
encounter Ecs90 Hz or Ecs150 Hz, Ec will also be present and be approximately five
times as large to Ecs90 Hz or Ecs150 Hz. Also note that in moving from front
course centerline towards 90° either side of centerline, the same drop-off in
voltage is present. The same is true of moving 90° off the back course center-
line in either direction.
Figure 6.141 Carrier radiation pattern.
The general SIP equation is used to develop the three plots.
(6.111)
where, θ is the angular rotation from front course of runway centerline.
The RF phase radiated by the carrier pair, at a fixed distance from the array
should be the same regardless of the azimuth angle being checked. This is due
to the facts that the carrier pair operates as a SIP pair and there are no nulls in
its radiation pattern. This single phase at all azimuths classifies the carrier pair
radiation pattern as a 'uni-phase pattern'. Since the pair is a SIP Pair, the cosine
function is involved in the field strength Equation (6.111), and a maximum is
seen on centerline. As we move either side from centerline, the fall-off is slow
due to the small 'a' spacing of the carrier pair. The smallest signal is found at
90° off centerline at which point the relative field strength would be

(6.112)
Localizer antenna array radiation patterns differ primarily in beam width and
directivity. Locations having reflection interference sources may require a more
directive array with a narrower sideband beam width to reduce course rough-
ness. The eight loop antenna array provides a full back course at stations
where terrain will permit its use. Other arrays may not provide a usable back
course.
6.17.2. Sideband Pair Radiation

The two signals radiated by SB-1, SB-2 and SB-3 antenna pair are Ecs90 Hz (90
Hz sidebands; fc ± 90 Hz) and Ecs150 Hz (150 Hz sidebands fc ± 150 Hz). The
SOP Equation (6.111) used is
(6.113)
Note the 'Sine' term present in the SOP equation, as contrasted to the 'Cosine'
term used in the SIP Equation (6.111). This causes a null to be on centerline
for SOP pairs, as contrasted with the maximum that will be on centerline for
the SIP carrier pair.
Figure 6.142 Ist sideband pair.
Figure 6.143 Second sideband pair.

Figure 6.144 Third sideband pair.
The critical points (null and maximums) for SB-1 Pair can be calculated as
follows:
Null will be at whenever 'sin (190 sin θ) = 0. This will occur when
These six nulls on the SB-1 Pattern will occurs and maximum will occurs
whenever sin (190 sin θ) = 1. This will occur when 190 sin θ = ± 90° if θ = –

28.3° (331.7°), –151.7° (208.3°). In these conditions four maximum on the SB-1
will occurs.
The polar plots for the SB-2 SB-3 antenna pairs, in both cases a null exists on
extended centerline in both the front and back courses. Also there are consid-
erably more nulls and maximums in each due to the wider 'a' spacing.
Localizer radiation patterns, in general, it can be said that for SIP and SOP
pairs, adjacent lobes in the front course will be out-of-phase, if they are separ-
ated by a null. As an example, assume that we are 5,000 feet from the center of
the array and are measuring the signal from the SB-2 pair. We position
ourselves in the 10° azimuth area and measure the RF phase received and then
move toward 30° azimuth, passing through the null at 21° and start to get
some signal from the lobe centered around 33° azimuth. The signal we start
receiving will be oppositely phased (180° different) from the signal received
from the 10° lobe; the 5000 feet distance must, of course, be maintained. The
same phase inversion will take place if we move from the 10° azimuth lobe to
the 327° lobe. The Fig. 6.145 '+' or '–' has been assigned to each of the front
course lobes. The back course lobe phasing will be the mirrored image of the
front course phasing and back course lobe assignments via mirroring the front
course as shown in Fig. 6.146. Since two RF phases are seen in the various
lobes of the sideband radiation patterns, the SB-1 SB-2 and SB-3 radiation pat-
terns are classified as bi-phase patterns.
Figure 6.145 Front course assignment
Figure 6.146 Mirrored-in back course assignments.
6.17.3. Composite Sideband Pattern

The rectangular plot of the three sideband radiation patterns is for centerline to
90° of azimuth. It could represent either the Ess90 Hz or Ess150 Hz radiated sig-
nals. Relative lobe phasing is included by the lot being either positive, above
the zero line, or negative, below the zero line. For example, the SB-2 Plot starts

out at a positive phase; proceeding toward 21° we encounter a null. Moving on
above 21°, the plot goes negative indicating that the RF phase has reversed in
this lobe.
The graphs shown in Fig. 6.147 are for a LLZ using a 1.0/0.5/0.3 current ratio
APCU. If the curves for a system using a 1.0/0.5/0.25 current ratio APCU have
been used, the SB-3 curve amplitudes would be reduced considerably. An ILS
receiver in the localizer radiation field would receive the algebraic sum of the
three sideband signals. For example, if the receiver was located 10° off center-
line, the graph indicates it would receive a total sideband signal of
Figure 6.147 Three individual sideband signals.
If the receiver was located at 50° azimuth if would receive a total sideband sig-
nal of
The above value can be computed by Equation (6.111) and Equation (6.112).
Figure 6.148 is a rectangular graph, the summation of the three sideband sig-
nals for a localizer using a 1.0/0.5/0.3 Current Ratio APCU; the pattern in polar
plot of the same signal. '+' and '–'indicates that the radiated energy on the 90
Hz side of the runway is oppositely phased to the energy on the 150 Hz side. It
is noted that a null exists on runway centerline both the front and back course.
Figure 6.148 Composite three sideband signals.
6.18. V RING ANTENNA

In June 1962, Scanwell Laboratories was awarded a contract to develop an im-
proved, directional VHF localizer antenna system. The objective was to develop
a wide-aperture, multi-element antenna array with a directional radiation pat-
tern comparable to the wave/guide localizer antenna system which would
provide a back course and full scale clearances for all 360°. The antenna was
to utilize one transmitter. The array was to meet ICAO course structure and
coverage requirements with a low power (approximately 15 W) transmitter. The
new antenna system was to be compatible with the standard 200 W localizer
transmitter, so it could replace 8-loop arrays at marginal sites, where course
roughness was a problem. Most of the trouble experienced with 8-loop arrays
occurred because energy radiating at 10° to 90° off runway centerline was be-
ing reflected back to the centerline at random phases; thus the reason for the
directional array. If only a small amount of signal is radiated toward reflecting
objects (hangers, towers, warehouses, vehicles, etc.) and a considerably larger
amount are radiated directly down the runway centerline, then the reflections
will have negligible effect. The basic methods used to produce directivity are
use of a multi-element array and directivity of the individual antennas. The V
Ring antenna system consists of 15-directional antennas. Fourteen of these
antennas act as seven pairs radiating Ec and Ecs in-phase and Ess out-of-phase.
The other antenna is positioned on the centerline and radiates only Ec and Ecs.
The basic idea of the binomial array was used in the design of the V-Ring sys-
tem. The binomial array current ratios are proportional to the coefficients of a
binomial expansion. A strict binomial array produces a very narrow beam on
the centerline, but requires an infinite number of elements spaced 180° apart.
When the number of elements is reduced, the spacing and current ratios must
be modified. The V-Ring array is a modified binomial array. The primary prob-
lem with the 8-loop antenna array is the large amount of energy radiated at 10°
to 90° azimuths and the side-to-front radiation ratios for the 8-loop array is 6 to
1 for Ess energy. The V-Ring array does achieve the desired directivity. Rather
than radiating a circular pattern, a single V-Ring antenna has a maximum at 0°
and two minimums at approximately 105° and 255°, which is due to its particu-
lar construction. This is shown in polar form in Fig. 6.149. The patterns will
vary in values due to different localizer frequencies and also will be modified
due to the proximity of other antennas once they are installed.
Figure 6.149 Polar plot of the radiation from an isolated V-ring antenna.
Figure 6.150 V-ring antenna outline drawing (all dimensions are in inches).

An individual V-Ring antenna is composed of a somewhat elliptical antenna

element with a V- shaped reflector mounted in back of the element. This res-
ults in the overall antenna being directional. The radiating horizontally polar-
ized antenna elements are ellipses constructed from aluminum tubing with a 1-
inch gap in the center of one of the 'flat'; sides. The tubing is bolted to a
masthead opposite the gap. The gap is toward the runway from the mast. The
coaxial tie-lines are pulled through the mast, through one half of the ring, and
connected across the 1-inch gap via matching device. A V-shaped reflector is
mounted on the back course side of the mast with the 'point' indicating the dir-
ection to the back course. The driven element is a balanced, full wave dipole
with its ends bent around to the masthead, forming a somewhat elliptical ring.
The masthead (mounting point) is in the center of the back half of the ring
while the feed point is in the center of the front half of the ring. A
converter/matching unit, made up mostly of a coil, is used to convert from an
unbalance, 50 Ω coaxial to the balanced feed point of the antenna. Since one
end of each arm of the dipole is grounded and each arm is approximately 180°
long the current maximums will be near the mast the gap. There is maximum
radiation from front and back of the ring. The V a 90° corner reflector increased
the front radiation and decreases the back radiation. A vibration dampener is
incorporated in each end of the V arms. Elements can be obtained which have
a 400 W heater in each half of the ring.
The RF input connector to the antenna is located in the masthead. Each

masthead connector ideally has an RF input impedance equal to the Z0 of the
distribution feed line. A special heat resistant cable (collocated with a heater
within one half of the hollow V-Ring element tubing) transfers the RF from the
masthead to a Balun. The Balun matches the unbalanced RF input to a bal-
anced output to excite both sides of the feed gap, which separates the V-Ring
element halves.
6.18.1. Description of V-Ring Antenna

System
The V Ring antenna system consists of 15 antennas mounted on 7 feet masts,
and an RF power distribution unit. The center antenna, designated the OC an-
tenna, is fed only carrier signals (Ec and Ecs). The seven outside antennas on
each side are connected as pairs and radiate both the carrier signals and the
separate sideband signals. The antennas are numbered from the center pair
(1) to the outside pair (7). The individual antennas of a pair will be labeled R
(right) and L (left) as viewed from the front (radiating element) side of the ar-
ray. The paired antennas are reconnected as SIP pairs for carrier signals, Ec
and Ecs and as SOP pairs for separate sideband signals. Separate side/band
signals are not fed to the center (OC) antenna.

Table 6.9 shows the relative antenna current ratios and the 'a' spacing in elec-
trical degrees of the antenna pairs. The carrier pattern (Ec) is identical to the
carrier sideband pattern and since the modulation factor is 0.2 for the localizer,
its relative amplitude is five times as large.
(6.114)
Table 6.9 V-ring antenna feed
Antenna Signals fed Current ratio "a" Spacing
OC Ec, and Ecs 2.22
# 1 Pair Ec, Ecs and Ess 1.00 186°
# 2 Pair Ec, Ecs and Ess 0.546 481.9°
As originally intended, the composite radiation pattern produced by the V-Ring

array is directional. The forward radiation near on course is much greater than
the side radiation. This helps to reduce roughness caused by reflections from
adjacent objects.
6.18.2. Carrier Radiation Patterns

Carrier signals (Ec Ecs90 Hz and Ecs150 Hz) are radiated by all 15 antennas. The
center antenna is fed as a single antenna while the seven outside antennas on
each side are connected as SIP pairs. The center antenna is fed the largest sig-
nal, with decreasing amplitudes fed to the seven outside pairs. The relative cur-
rent ratios for all antennas are listed in Table 6.9. By knowing the relative cur-
rent ratio and 'a' spacing of each pair, it is possible to determine the relative ra-
diation pattern for each of the seven pairs. The pattern for the center antenna
would be the same as shown for a single V-Ring antenna in Fig. 6.149. All val-
ues in the Fig. 6.149 would be multiplied by 2.22 the current ratio for the center
antenna. The radiation pattern for each of the seven pairs can be calculated
using the equation developed for SIP pairs.
(6.115)
where θ is the azimuth angle.
The Equation (6.115) is for antennas that have an omni-directional pattern.

Since the V-Ring antenna pattern is not unidirectional, the Equation (6.114) is
modified by including a known factor K.

(6.116)
The K factor is obtained from the rectangular plot. For example, the K factor at
0° azimuth is 1, at 75° it is 0.4 and at 140° it is 0.3. To calculate the relative
amplitude of the 2 pairs at an azimuth of 45° obtain the spacing from Table 6.9
and the K factor and solve for E.
(6.117)
The amplitude of any pair can be calculated in a similar manner. The compos-
ite carrier patterns are the sums of the carrier energies from the center an-
tenna and those from the seven pairs. The equation for the composite pattern
is
(6.118)
6.18.3. Separate Sideband Radiation

Patterns
The sideband signals, Ess90 Hz and Ess150 Hz are radiated by only the seven an-
tenna pairs. The signals fed to each antenna of a pair have the same amplitude
but are oppositely phased. Therefore, each pair radiates as an SOP pair. As a
result, the radiation pattern from each pair will have a null at 0° and 180° of azi-
muth. All seven antennas on the left side have the same relative phase and all
seven on the right side have the same relative phase. However the relative
phase between the right and the left sides is 180°. The relative amplitudes vary
in a decreasing order form 1 to 7 pairs and Table 6.9 for the specific current ra-
tios. Knowing the relative current ratio and spacing, we can calculate the radi-
ation pattern for each of the seven pairs using the Equation (6.118) developed
for the SOP pair.
(6.119)
It is remember that the K factor has been included in the Equation (6.116). The
K factor is the same as for the carrier patterns. To calculate the relative amp-
litude of the 3 pair at θ = 30°, obtain the 'a' spacing from Table 6.9 and solve for
E.
(6.120)
The amplitude of the any pair can be calculated in a similar manner. The com-
posite separate sideband pattern is the sum of the sideband energies from the
seven pairs. The equation of the composite pattern is
(6.121)

6.18.4. Vertical Radiation Patterns
The V–ring antenna elements are mounted on 7-feet pedestals. Normally, this
would be installed at a height. Each antenna has vertical pattern depending
upon the antenna height. The antenna would be 7 feet to 35 feet above the
ground level, depending upon the site requirement. Cat-I site required that ele-
ments be on line-of-sight to the decision point on the approach path and at
Cat-II sites require line-of-sight to the approach end of the runway. The antenna
is sometimes raised to increase usable distance. The following example will
demonstrate the increased signal at low elevation angles, when the antennas
are raised. If the antenna are 7 feet high (280°h spacing), the relative signal
strength at 1000 feet over the outer marker will be
(6.122)
where,
α = tan–1 [1000 feet high, 42,000 feet from localizer array]
E ∝ sin (280° sin 1.36°) = 0.116 of Maximum
But, if antennas are mounted on 35 feet high (1400°h spacing), the relative sig-
nal strength at 1000 feet over outer marker will be
Therefore, raising the antenna increases the signal strength to the aircraft.
6.19. TRAVELING WAVE ANTENNA

(TWA)
The antenna consists of an end-fire assembly with eight folded dipole ele-
ments fed from a common balanced transmission line. The vertical element is
transmission line while the horizontal elements are the folded dipoles. Each an-
tenna assembly receives unbalanced RF energy from the RF network. The RF
enters the real Balun and is converted to the balanced RF energy. The energy
travels toward the front of the antenna on a balanced lines being radiated by
the eight folded dipoles as its travels.
Figure 6.151 Traveling wave antenna.
Figure 6.152 Functional diagram of TWA antenna assembly.


As the energy arrives at the front of the antenna, approximately 16% of the in-
put power still remains on the balanced line. This energy, 8 dB down from the
antenna input, is collected by the front Balun, converted to unbalanced RF en-
ergy and sent to the recombining circuitry on a 50 Ω monitor feed-line. The
manufacturers specification for the monitor output shall be 8 dB ± 1.5 dB, be-
low the antenna input level. The TWA radiates most of its energy in its front
lobe. The horizontal radiation depicted in Fig. 6.153. Horizontal plane directiv-
ity or the factor 'K' can be calculated using the formula shown at the side of the
Fig. 6.153. The directivity factor 'K' will be used in developing and analyzing the
composite radiation pattern of the arrays.
Figure 6.153 TWA horizontal radiation pattern.
6.19.1. Traveling Wave Antenna Arrays

The eight TWA antennas that make up the array operate as four SIP pairs for
CSB radiation and four SOP pairs for SBO radiation. Each antenna pairs radi-
ates both CSB and SBO energy. The four pairs working together focus the RF
energy in the front course so that almost all the energy is concentrated in the
required coverage area θ = ± 35°. Because of the possibility of reflection, the
less energy is radiated outside the required zone, the better. Monitoring of the
array radiated signal is accomplished by obtaining samples of un-radiated en-
ergy from each antenna and recombining then in such a manner as to provide
a relative indication of the DDM that is observed on runway centerline in the
far-field (Course), and the relative indication of the DDM that would be seen at
a 150 Hz side course width check point in the far-field (Width).

The functional diagram of TWA system is shown in Fig. 6.154. The antenna
systems consist of eight TWA, an RF network and recombining circuitry for
monitoring system operation. Two signals received from the localizer transmit-
ter, carrier with sidebands (CSB) and separate sidebands (SBO). These two sig-
nals are applied to the RF network where they are power divided into the proper
power level and phase for each of the eight antennas. The proper CSB and SBO
components are combined in the RF network and sent to the appropriate an-
tenna. Eight feed-lines connect the eight outputs of the RF network to the eight
antennas. Un-radiated samples from each of the eight antennas are routed to
the recombining circuitry in eight monitors feed lines. These signals are recom-
bined and detected in such a manner as to provide two outputs; Course, which
indicates the relative DDM that would be seen on runway centerline and Width
which indicates the relative DDM that would be seen at a course width check
point on the 150 Hz side of runway centerline.
Figure 6.154 Functional diagram TWA systems.
6.19.2. RF Network (Antenna Distribution

Unit) for TWA System
The function of RF network is to establish the proper CSB power ratios and
phases for the eight antennas, to establish the proper SBO power ratios and
phases for the eight antennas, and to combine the appropriate CSB and SBO
signals, so they can be routed to each antenna on a single coaxial line. The RF
network is of strip-line construction; its input and output port impedance is 50
Ω. The maximum RF power that can be safely applied to the network is 50 W.
The power division and combining function of the RF network are accom-
plished with sixteen strip-line 3 dB hybrid couplers. The outputs of the RF net-
work are applied to the antenna at the proper currents and phases to produce
the desired pattern when radiated from the antenna.
6.19.3. Carrier with Sidebands (CSB)

Radiation
The 'a' spacing (distance from center of array to either antenna pair) in con-
junction with the antenna horizontal directivity factor 'K' determine the sharp-
ness of the front course lobe/lobes radiated by that pair. Ecs radiation repres-
ents either Ecs90 Hz or Ecs150 Hz radiation. Ecst is the vectorial sums of the indi-
vidual four radiation pattern. Ecst is uni-phase for the azimuth sector θ = ± 40°;
its amplitude is down to approximately 11% of the peak amplitude (19 dB) at θ
= ± 40°; for evaluating Ecst for θ = ± 40° in an ideal TWA localizer is given by 
Equation (6.123). In analyzing the Equation (6.123), refer to Table 6.10 (a) and
(b) for the values of 'a' spacing and antenna current ratios for CSB in analyzing
the Equation (6.123)
(6.123)
Table 6.10 Required antenna currents
CSB
Antenna α" spacing Ics90 Hz Ics150 Hz
1L 108° 1.00 ∠0° 1.00 ∠0°
1R 1.00 ∠0° 1.00 ∠0°
2L 378° 0.363 ∠0° 0.363 ∠0°
2R 0.363 ∠0° 0.363 ∠0°
3L 648° 0.143 ∠0° 0.143 ∠0°
3R 0.143 ∠0° 0.143 ∠0°
4L 918° 0.055 ∠180° 0.055 ∠180°
4R 0.055 ∠180° 0.055 ∠180°
(a) CSB current ratio
SBO
Antenna "α" spacing Ics90 Hz Ics150 Hz
Note:
1. Currents normalized to Iss 90 Hz in pair 1

2. Iss90 Hz RF phase referenced to Ics90 Hz in 1L
3. Iss150 Hz RF phase referenced to Ics150 Hz in 1L
1L 108° 1.00 ∠–90° 1.00 ∠+90°
1R 1.00 ∠+90° 1.00 ∠–90°
2L 378° 0.363 ∠–90° 0.363 ∠+90°
2R 0.363 ∠+90° 0.363 ∠–90°
3L 648° 0.143 ∠–90° 0.143 ∠+90°
3R 0.143 ∠+90° 0.143 ∠–90°
4L 918° 0.055 ∠–180° 0.055 ∠+180°
4R 0.055 ∠+180° 0.055 ∠–180°
(b) SBO current ratio
Note: Currents normalized to Ics 90 Hz in pair 1

6.19.4. Separate Sideband (SBO) Radiations

The Ess plot is the vectorial sum of Ess1 through Ess4; it is bi-phase for the sec-
tor θ = ± 40°; reversing phase at θ = 0°. The phasing associated with the Ecs
and Ess signals will be more fully discussed in this chapter. Equation (6.124) is
for evaluating Esst for θ = ± 40°. Refer to Table 6.10 (a) and (b) for the values of
'a' spacing and antenna current ratios for SBO in analyzing the Equation
(6.124)
(6.124)
6.19.5. Composite CSB/SBO Patterns

Figure 6.155 illustrate the general phasing requirements for the antenna pair
1,2 or 3 of the TWA array. Amplitudes are not drawn to scale and only the first
lobes either side of centerline is considered. The SIP and SOP composite field
radiation patterns at the top of the Fig. 6.155 relate the desired Ecs and Ess
phases to the antenna current phasor required. The Equation (6.125) and
(6.126) for Ecs150 Hz and Ess150 Hz for the '+ θ' side (150 Hz side) of the runway.
These are the basic SIP and SOP equations
(6.125)
(6.126)
where,
φcr (150) CSB sideband current phase for the right antenna.;
φsr (150) is the 150 Hz SBO sideband current phase for the right antenna
and K is horizontal directivity factor for the antenna.
Figure 6.155 Composite CSB/SBO patterns.

The antenna current phases required developing the Ecs150 Hz and Ess150 Hz radi-
ated signals are shown in Fig. 6.155 on the phaser diagram. The 90° difference
between right antenna Iss150 Hz and radiated Ess150 Hz on the '+ θ' side of the
runway centerline. This is radiated in term ' ∠φsr + 90°' of the above Equation
(6.126) and sets up the requirement that the currents in the antenna
feed-lines be in phase quadrature to generate in phase/oppositely phase
radiated signal. The same analysis can be applied to the 90 Hz side-
bands. Remember that in relating right antenna current phasor to radiated

voltage phasor on the '+θ' side of centerline.
1. The right antenna Ics is the radiated Ecs phase for CSB radiation (SIP
equation)
2. 90° length added to the right antenna Iss phase yields the radiated Ess
phase for SBO radiations (SOP equation)

Once the right antenna Ics to Iss phasor have been established, the left antenna
current are known since the right-left antenna currents are set by the RF net-
work. The Ics currents to both antenna of a pair are in-phase; the Iss currents to
the antennas of a pair are oppositely phased. The RF network feeds pair 4 of
the array CSB signals 180° out-of-phase from pair1, 2 or 3. The resulting first
lobe phasors are shown on Fig. 6.155 (b). It should be noted that if DDM were
being checked with only pair 4 radiating, reverse sensing would be noted, since
the 90 Hz sidebands add on the '+θ' side of the runway and 150 Hz sidebands
add on the '–θ' side of the runway.
Figure 6.156 is the (Ess/Ecs) field strength plots for a 3° and a 6° course width
TWA localizer. Recall that course width is the angular width between 0.155
DDM points on the either side of the centerline. The plot could represent either
the 90 Hz sidebands or the 150 Hz sidebands. The carrier plot is not shown,
but has the same relative shape as the Ecs plot with amplitude approximately
five times more. Ess has higher amplitude than Ecs on the 3° plot at azimuth
angles greater than approximately 4° either side of runway centerline. This res-
ults in 'abnormal DDM' in these azimuth sectors. The 6° course width plot does
not indicate any abnormal DDM areas.
Figure 6.156 Composite plot.
Figure 6.157 is the DDM plots for 3° and 6° course-width TWA LLZ. It is re-
member that DDM is evaluated by
where, m is transmitter modulation index and s is space modulation factor.
Figure 6.157 DDM plots.

The reversal of the second term is necessary for it to yield a positive difference
value.
Whenever Ess become larger than Ecs, 's' exceeds 'm' and DDM = 2m or 0.4 in a
localizer. In 3° CW plot, abnormal DDM is indicated as azimuth greater than
4.1° of runway centerline. On the 6° CW localizer, Ess never exceeds Ecs so that
DDM is 'normal' at all azimuths on the graph.
6.19.6. Recombining Circuitry

Monitoring of the localizer operation is accomplished by gathering un-radiated
samples from each of the eight antennas, recombining the RF samples to sim-
ulate the relative runway centerline and relative course width checkpoint DDM
indications that would be seen in the far-field, and detecting the recombined R
signals to produce 'DC + audio' outputs (course and width) for use by the local-
izer monitor.
Figure 6.158 Monitor combining units.
RF samples from the eight antennas are fed into the monitor combining unit. It
processes the RF sample to obtain a CSB output, an SBO output and a CSB
samples output. In an ideal system, the CSB output would consist of carrier
with equal 90 Hz and 150 Hz sidebands; DDM on the monitor control unit will
be zero. This CSB signal is detected by course detector into positive DC level
with equal values of 90 Hz and 150 Hz audio. This simulates the zero DDM that

would be seen on centerline in the ideal system. In a practice localizer, there
may be some offset between the course detector output and runway centerline
DDM readings. Centerline DDM deviations should, however, causes similar
course detector output DDM deviations.
The 'SBO' monitor control unit output of an ideal system will contain 90 Hz and
150 Hz sidebands with no carrier. Some carrier is added to the SBO signal in
bridge; these enable detections of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz intelligence contained
in the SBO signal. The lower port output of the bridge is detected by width de-
tector a positive DC level with superimpose 90 Hz and 150 Hz predominant
Phasor enables optimum phasing of the SBO to CSB signals and attenuator en-
ables adjustment of the width detector output DDM. The actual DDM required
from the width detector for a normally operating localizer is determined by the
type of localizer monitor used.
6.20. GLIDE PATH ANTENNA AND

ARRAY
In this section, we will discuss the physical and electrical characteristics of a
typical GP antenna. We will also discuss the criteria for selecting the appropri-
ate antenna depending upon the siting conditions that best describes the char-
acteristics and function of the GP antenna. We will also be able to perform the
calculations necessary to determine antenna radiation pattern shape and an-
tenna heights. Glide path antenna consists of a dipole element and reflectors.
Figure 6.159 represents a GP antenna as showing the dipole antenna, the re-
flector and the antenna image antenna in the actual structure the dipole is
placed 90° in the form of the reflector.
Figure 6.159 Diagram of GP dipole antenna.
The horizontally polarized waves undergo a 180° phase reversal upon reflec-
tion from a perfectly conducting plane surface and the vertically polarized
waves are reflected without change in-phase, the relative directions of current
flow in the real and image antennas can be as indicated by the arrows. Since
the current in the half-wave dipole has maximum value at the center, the por-
tion of the dipole, which is parallel to the reflector, will contribute most to the
forward radiation. The real and image antenna can be considered as a pair of
short dipoles having the spacing a 90° and feed current of equal amplitude but
opposite in phase.
6.20.1. The Dipole with Reflector 

If both antennas for Fig. 6.159 are considered short dipoles, then, in the direc-
tions of interest in the horizontal plane, the dipole has the directivity
(6.127)
And the field strength at any point in azimuth resulting from the current I flow-
ing in the dipole is
(6.128)
It is remembered that the actual dipole current and the current assumed to
flow in the image antenna are oppositely phased; the current equations for the
real and image antennas can be written
(6.129)
The relative field strength in the horizontal plane can be obtained by vector ad-
dition of the fields from real and image antennas. It is again making use of
equivalent antenna concept. Figure 6.160 shows the relationship between the
real, image and equivalent antenna. At any distant point 'P' to the right of the
reflector, the radiation will appear to emanate from the equivalent antenna, loc-
ated at the reflector on a line joining the real and image antenna. The field from
the real antenna arrives at point P sooner and the field from the image antenna
later by an amount 'X' express in the electrical degrees. The distance 'X' from
Fig. 6.160 is 90° cos θ. Therefore, at point P the fields from the real and image
antenna can be expressed
(6.130)
where, θ is any value from 0° to ± 90°.
Figure 6.160 A horizontally polarized antenna and its image appearing as a

single antenna.

These Equations (6.130) are useful for constructing the vector diagram such
as shown in Fig. 6.161 for azimuth angle (θ – 60°). Note from the geometry of
the vector diagram that the combined field Eθ has the amplitude.
Since
Then
(6.131)
Figure 6.161 Vector diagram describing the antenna and reflector.
It can also be seen from the vector diagram that Er and Ei will always be direc-
ted so that their vector sum will be in the direction φr + 90°. Thus, the com-
bined field at any point P in azimuth of the dipole and reflector can be stated as
the vector
(6.132)
where, θ = 0° ± 90°
If only the shape of the horizontal pattern of a dipole reflectors is combination

of the horizontal directivity factor Aθ, of the equivalent antenna pattern is use-
ful. Thus, a plot of the directivity factor Aθ = (cos θ) sin (90° cos θ) has the
same shape as the pattern obtained by graphing the Equation (6.132) and we
have maximum horizontal radiation at θ = 0°, or in a direction in front of the an-
tenna. Given value Ir = 1, θ = φr = ∠0°, Eθ = 2 ∠90°. Yes we do have maximum
energy at θ = ∠0°. This azimuth angle would correspond to the 'on-course' dir-
ection with reference to the ILS runway.
6.20.2. The Vertical Pattern

The vertical plane radiation pattern for the dipole antenna with reflector will be
obtained in two steps. First, the free space pattern of the dipole with reflector
combination is obtained in terms of the equivalent antenna. Secondly, the equi-
valent antenna and its image below ground are then considered to produce the
pattern in the vertical plane. In the vertical plane, the horizontally polarized di-
pole antenna radiation pattern is essentially omni-directional in the vertical
plane. The real antenna is fed current Ir = Ir ∠(φr + 180°) can be assumed to 
flow in the image antenna. Considered alone, each antenna thus produces an
omni-directional field in the vertical plane, and the field intensities are directly
proportional to the amplitude of Ir. It means that the relative amplitudes of the
electric fields are considered equal to the relative current amplitude for
convenience.
At some arbitrary elevation angle say at α = 60° a vector diagram as in Fig.

6.160 shows the relation between the individual fields (Ei, Er) of the combined
field in the vertical plane (Ev) and the phase angle (φ) of the current fed to the
real antenna from Fig. 6.160 and the vector diagram. Note that
(6.133)
Since
From the geometry of the vector diagram it is apparent that vector E will al-
ways lie in the directions φ + 90°. Hence polar vector form
(6.134)
where, α must lies between 0° and 90°.
Thus in free space, the current I is fed to a horizontally polarized dipole an-
tenna with reflector produces fields Ev at the point P in the vertical plane as
given by the Equation (6.134). In the GP array, however, the antenna is located
near the ground, which will alter the radiation characteristics considerably. Fur-
thermore, only the radiation at small elevation angle is of actual interest, since
the nominal GP angle is 3°. With these conditions in mind, it is simple matter to
develop an equation for field strength in the vertical plan that will be useful un-
der the usual conditions of operation for the dipole antenna with reflector.
Observe that the Equation (6.134) defines the vertical plane radiation from an
equivalent antenna located at the reflector on the line joining the real and im-
age antennas, and this equivalent antenna is assumed to be in free space. If
this free space equivalent is placed near the earth surface, it can be assumed
to acquire an image antenna, just as most other antennas operated near the
ground. It the actual dipole antenna is fed the current then current
2Ir sin (90° cos α) and 2Ir sin (90° cos α) can be
assumed in the equivalent antenna and its image, respectively. Recall that the
single, horizontal polarized antenna that is omni-directional in the free space
vertical plane will produce a vertical plane field at the point P in the elevation
as given by
(6.135)
where, antenna is located 'h' degrees above the ground plane. Thus, the equi-
valent antenna of Fig. 6.162 produces the field
(6.136)
Figure 6.162 Vector diagram showing manner in which the combined field
form a dipole and its image antenna varies in amplitude with changes in
elevation angle.

Figure 6.163 Simple presentation of GP antenna.
This field adds up near the ground. Assume that the dipole is 90° forward of
the reflector and fed current and the point P is located such that
a vertical plane containing the radius line will intersect the ground in a line hav-
ing the horizontal direction θ = ∠0°.
(6.137)
Representation of the equivalent antenna of the dipole with reflector and its im-
age in the horizontal direction α = θ = 0° combining to produce the field Ev in
the vertical plane.

EXAMPLE 38
Plot the vertical pattern for a dipole which is 850° above effective ground
and is fed the current = 2.5 ∠0°
Solution
Observe that only two factors affect the shape of the pattern (a) sin (90°
cos α) and (b) sin (h sin α). The sin (h sin α) yields maximum at α = 60.8°,
18.5°, 32°, 47.5° and 72.3°: while null occurs at α = 0°, 12.2°, 25°, 39.5° and
57.9°, were it not for the factor sin (90° cos α), the relative amplitude of Ev
at each maximum would occur at α = 90°; however the factor to reduce the
value of each successive maximum as the elevation angle increases and
always makes the radiation zero at the vertical angle α = 90°. Figure 6.164
shows the actual variations in Ev in polar form. The relative phase of the
lobes is seen to be either (φr + 180°) or simply φr depending upon the al-
gebraic sign of the amplitude of Er.
Figure 6.164 Polar presentation of vertical plan radiation from a dipole

with reflector, 850° above the ground and fed current Ir = 2.5 ∠0°.
It should be noted that for small elevation angle the factor sin (90°cosα)
could be omitted from the general formula with little loss of accuracy.
Thus, for small elevation angles only, the relative field at point P in the ver-
tical plane from the bent dipole with reflector above ground can be
expressed
(6.138)
The Equation (6.138) will be used in making calculation involving the Null
reference GP array because it is only necessary to discuss the vertical radi-
ation pattern at low elevation angles. However, the general equation should
be used if it is desired to include the effect of high elevation angle on radi-
ation pattern (2.5° to 90°)
6.20.3. Vertical Radiation

Equation (6.138) can be further simplified to
(6.139)
where, h is the height of the antenna in electrical degrees and α is vertical

angle. Aθ is assigned an amplitude factor dependent upon the horizontal plane
radiation. Thus, where h is successively 45°, 90°, 135°, 180°, 225°, 270°, 315°,

360°, 450° and 540°, the vertical plane radiation for value of α from 0 to 90°,
neglecting for this discussion any changes in magnitude due to horizontal dir-
ectivity. If the glide angle is to be formed at the first sideband null and coincid-
ent with the maximum of the first carrier antenna lobe, these antennas will
have to be more number of electrical degrees in height.
EXAMPLE 39
In the case of 2.5° glide angle, the height of the sideband antenna (H) in de-
grees may be calculated from the relationship
Solution
For the carrier antenna the first maximum will fall at 2.5° when
Then
Thus, it is seen that for the lower vertical angles, two sideband antenna
lobes are enclosed within one carrier antenna lobe. This results in a sym-
metrical distribution of the combined radiation from the two antennas on
either side of the glide angle.
In the vertical radiation the first sideband null should form glide angle φ,
the second sideband null will be approximately 2φ, the third at 3φ, the
fourth 4φ and fifth at 5φ. Beyond this the vertical radiation is of negligible
importance. It should be realized that the variation of parameters sin (H sin
α), indicates that radiation lobes are compressed at low vertical angles and
spread out considerably at high angles. Angles for the upper null and max-
imums are not exact multiples of the first maximum and null. However, at
elevation angles up to 15°, the difference in null position is small and at 5φ
the error is barely noticeable. If the height ratio is correct, the carrier nulls
falls at approximately 2φ, 4φ, and 6φ.
6.20.4. Antenna Positioning

It should be clear now that raising an antenna lowers its vertical radiation
angles. To lower the glide angle, the antenna is raised and to raise the glide
angle, the antenna would be lowered. The physical height of the antenna can
be determined as shown in Fig. 6.165.
Figure 6.165 Antenna height.

EXAMPLE 40
Calculate the sideband antenna height for 2.5° using a mid-band frequency
of 332.6 MHz.
Solution
A small change in ground level would have minimum effect on an antenna

positioned at a height of 33.9 feet. This results in the null reference GP sys-
tem being relatively independent of changes in ground level.
[It will be demonstrated later that if modulation of the carrier components

is equal for both modulating frequencies, the glide angle is determine
solely by the electrical height of the sideband antenna above effective
ground.]
6.20.5. Carrier Antenna Radiation

The glide path course might be described as the loci of point where two dis-
tinct total sideband voltages are recovered in equal amplitude and with a pre-
dominance of 150 Hz below the GP line and 90 Hz predominant above the GP
line. The carrier antenna radiates a carrier component plus both of the side fre-
quency components, i.e., C, C ± 90 Hz and C ± 150 Hz and sideband radiates C
± 90 Hz and C ± 150 Hz in Fig. 6.165. From a basic relationship the modulation
factor i.e., ; where Ecs is defined as a sideband frequency voltage,
either C ± 90 Hz or C ± 150 Hz in the carrier antenna. Since the side frequen-

cies are particular interest Ecs for either frequency may be determined from the
expression.
(6.140)
If the carrier is separately, but equally, modulated by two different modulating

frequencies, then fed to the carrier antenna, the result at each null of the side-
band radiation pattern will be equal amplitudes of side frequency signals,
therefore zero deflection of the cross-pointer needle. Under these conditions
and provided also sufficient signals is received from the carrier antenna to
make the receiver operative, the glide angle is dependent only upon sideband
antenna height. Carrier antenna height affects deflection characteristics but
not glide angle.
6.20.6. Sideband Antenna Radiation

As its name implies, the sideband antenna radiates only sidebands but it
should be realized that it radiates sideband energy of both modulating frequen-
cies, i.e., C ± 90 Hz and C ± 150 Hz. Arbitrarily assigning an amplitudes factor
0.26 (applicable to secure a 1.40° path width for 2.5° glide angle) the expres-
sion for sideband antenna radiation for either side frequency becomes Ess =
0.20 sin (H sin α). In the typical GP system a Path Width Control (PWC) is
provided to set the amplitude of energy fed to the sideband antenna.
6.21. VERTICAL PLANE RADIATION

FROM CARRIER AND SIDEBAND
ANTENNAS
Except for regions near the runway, radiation from the carrier and sideband an-
tennas is a prime importance in determining the characteristics of the GP. It is
meant the glide angle, and the specific indications noted in the aircraft when
flying above and below the GP. As will be seen, equal E90 Hz and E150 Hz signals
will be recovered in the aircraft receiver when the antenna is located on the GP.
Above the path, greater recovery of E90 Hz signals should be experienced, while
more E150 Hz signals should be recovered below GP. It has been shown that a
dipole antenna with reflector, fed the current 'Ir' and having the electrical height
'h', will produce the field.
(6.141)
where, α is the elevation angle to point P. Equation (6.131) applies for small el-
evation angles in the vertical plane and for points in azimuth near θ = 0°. An air-
craft using the GP facility normally satisfies both conditions. Before writing the
specific equations for the E90 Hz and E150 Hz field, the currents fed to the anten-
nas must be known. In order to achieve the desired vertical plane distribution
of E90 Hz and E150 Hz fields, the phasing of the current associated with the two
navigational signals is different in the carrier and sideband antenna. Also cur-
rent fed to the sideband antenna are of less amplitude than the carrier antenna
currents. The ratio between the separate sidebands and carrier sidebands is
designated by A, thus, if the currents fed to the carrier antenna are
(6.142)
Then sideband antenna currents can be stated as
(6.143)
It is noted that only sideband components are denoted by the equations. The
current fed to the carrier antenna that corresponds to the carrier component
cannot be written without knowledge of modulation percentages and related
topics. It should now be clear that at point P, having the elevation four fields

are present, one from each antenna for each navigational frequency. Thus, we
can write the specific Equations (6.144) and (6.145) corresponding to these
four fields
a. Carrier Antenna
(6.144)
b. Sideband Antenna
(6.145)
The electrical heights of the carrier and sideband antennas are denoted, re-
spectively, by h and H. Typical values of A, the current ratio, lie near the value
0.3. Phase angles of the combined fields for the equations are relative values
of a properly installed and adjusted array. It is important to observe that the
E150 Hz fields radiated from both the carrier and sideband antennas are in-
phase while the E90 Hz fields radiated from the carrier antenna and from the
sideband antenna are oppositely phased. It should also be noted that both cur-
rents to either antenna are affected by adjustments, which change the length
of transmission line to that antenna. For example, the relative phase of the
fields from the carrier antenna is 0°. If 10° should shorten the transmission line
to the carrier antenna then the fields would have the relative phase angle of
10°.
6.21.1. Carrier and Sideband Antenna Pat-

terns–Normal Conditions
There are actually two fields radiated from each antenna– one for each naviga-
tional frequency. Under normal conditions of operation, the fields are equal in
amplitude, so that the radiation patterns are coincident. Thus, it is convenient
to draw a single radiation pattern to represent the E90 Hz and E150 Hz fields, but
with the phasing indicated separately for each navigational frequency. In rect-
angular coordinates, the first two sideband lobes will occur within the vertical
angle occupied by the first carrier lobe, as shown in Fig. 6.167.
Figure 6.166 Composite radiation pattern in polar coordinates.
Figure 6.167 Composite radiation pattern for a null reference GP array in

rectangular coordinates showing on the first lobe of the carrier pattern. 
The lobes shown are used in the production of the actual GP; omission of the
other lobes enabled a greatly exaggerated scale to be used in drawing Fig.
6.167.
6.21.2. Formation of the Glide path

The total field associated with one signal at a particular elevation angle, it is
only necessary to add the individual contributions, to the field from both anten-
nas at that elevation. In general terms, the total Ec and Ecs fields can be stated
in two equations:
(6.146)
Since the aircraft receiver responds only to the E90 Hz and E150 Hz fields, it is
helpful to plot both fields against elevation angle. Rectangular coordinates
were used in Fig. 6.168, to accomplish this. Figure 6.168 also shows the Ecs
and Ess fields for comparison. Further, It is clear that the E150 Hz field is predom-
inant below GP, and that the E90 Hz field is predominant above GP. This is due to
the fact that the Ecs150 Hz and Ess150 Hz signals are in phase and add below path
(Ecs90 Hz and Ess90 Hz signals are out-of-phase and subtract below path), and
likewise, the Ecs90 Hz and Ess90 Hz signals are in-phase above path the add.
(Ecs150 Hz and Ess150 Hz signals are out-of-phase and subtract above path.)
Figure 6.168 Rectangular plot of E90 Hz and E150 Hz fields.

6.21.3. Additional Paths

Additional paths will be produced for the elevation angle above the desired
path angle. These additional 'false' paths would occur at all sideband nulls if
carrier energy were also received. Provided the height ratio is proper and the
second and fourth sidebands nulls are coincident with the 1st and 3rd carrier
nulls, the false pattern will occur at 3φ and 5φ. However it is noted that path
reversed sensing occurs at the first path 3φ. At elevation angle between 2φ
and 3φ sideband antenna radiation, Ess includes C ± 150 Hz ∠ + and C ± 90 Hz
∠ – on the other hand carrier antenna radiation contains C ± 150 Hz ∠ + and C
± 90 Hz ∠ –.
Hence
(6.147)
With E90 Hz greater than E150 Hz between 2φ and 3φ, it is clear that sensing will
be reversed since fly-down will be indicated below the false path angle and fly-
up indication will result above the false path. Since the pilot always flies to-
wards the needle, reversed sensing is immediately apparent to him. If his ver-
tical position is between 2φ and 3φ the needle indicates fly-down and if pilot
follows the needle, he will be led down across the carrier null at 2φ and will
again get fly-down indication which will guide him to the true, normal path
angle. Above 3φ his indication if fly up and signifies a missed approach. A
sketch of the patterns in polar form is shown in Fig. 6.169 to indicate false
paths and sensing above the glide angle. At 5φ the phase of the radiated ener-
gies is exactly the same as at the normal glide angle. Sensing is normal but the
elevation angle is so steep that no pilot would attempt to fly this false path
since it would put the aircraft in a much steeper GP than is normal. Then under
normal ILS approach procedures, aircraft do not enter GP radiation at such
high elevations.
Figure 6.169 Polar diagram showing false path.

Figure 6.170 Rectangular plot of null reference patterns to 6φ.
At or very near these particular vertical angles little or no signal is received. All
ILS/VOR receivers have 'flag alarm' circuits, which provide a warning flag
needle to indicate the defective receiver or insufficient signal. This flag is a red
painted needle marked 'OFF' and is actuated by a separate meter movement in
the cross-pointer instrument. With insufficient receiver output current, this flag
needle extends over the tip of the deflection needle. With antenna height ratio
of 2:1 the indications at and near 2φ and 4φ is a flag alarm. On either side of
2φ or 4φ the RF phasing is such that the cross pointer deflects in the same dir-
ection. Fly-down occurs on either side of 2φ and fly-up on either side of 4φ.
Thus by proper definition no false path is said to exist at these vertical angles.
Actually, 2φ and 4φ are carrier nulls. Therefore, no carrier signal is available for
receiver operation.
6.21.4. Horizontal Radiation

GP radiation is important in one direction only, projected forward toward the
approach zone of the ILS runway. The use of reflectors in back of the antennas
reduces back radiation and concentrates the fields in the forward direction,
thus influencing the horizontal shape of the radiated pattern. There is more
than one type of GP antenna.
Most of the later antennas are more directional, i.e., the side radiation is re-
duced and the forward radiation increased. This is to reduce interference on
path due to reflections from adjacent structures such as hangars or metallic
object, etc. However, all must provide enough side radiation for an aircraft re-
ceiver to operate properly until the aircraft has touched down on the runway.
The sideband and carrier antennas are identical differing only in the mounting
position on the antenna mast.
6.21.5. Straight Line GP Considerations

The projected glideslope radiation has been considered as straight-line path.
This condition exists only if an aircraft makes an approach directly towards an
antenna mast. Since this is not the case, the path down centerline of the run-
way describes a hyperbolic path with its lowest point never reaching the run-
way. This effect is indicated in Fig. 6.171 and is particularly noticeable close to
the runway and at large azimuth angles.
Figure 6.171 Straight-line vs actual GP.
The difference between a straight-line GP and the actual path heights at vari-
ous distances for a particular case is shown by the curves of Fig. 6.171. Here,
a 2.5° glide angle is used with the equipment located 400 feet from the runway
centerline. It is noted that the difference at the middle marker is negligible, ap-
proximately ten inches. Near the approach end of the runway, the difference is
approximately four feet with the greatest difference existing directly opposite
antenna mast.
6.22. GLIDE PATH DDM AND PATH

WIDTH

The null reference GP radiation patterns produce a sideband null at the desired
glide angle. With a normal antenna height ratio of 2:1, the carrier pattern will be
at its maximum value at the glide angle elevation. As a result, there is a sym-
metrical distribution of the combined radiation from the two antennas on either
side of the glide angle. Cross pointer deflection or DDM will vary symmetrically
above and below the glide angle. DDM at 0.2° above the glide angle should
have the same value as DDM 0.2° below the glide angle. It is also desirable that
the change in DDM on either side of glide path varies at a linear rate up to ap-
proximately 1°.
6.22.1. Glide path DDM

The deflection due to 150 Hz modulation (below path) is proportional to
and for 90 Hz is . In the equipment the amplitude
of sideband antenna current, Iss, is made variable by the path width control.
With Ess made variable, the term is referred to as space modulation, 's'
determines DDM and cross pointer deflection (Normal case DDM). Below path
an increase of Ess increase the value of E150 Hz and decreases E90 Hz while
above path E90 Hz increase and E150 Hz decreases. With deflection increased by
increasing, the vertical angle at which the receiver's cross pointer would indic-
ate 150 μA would be closer to the glide angle. The width of the path, then,
would be decreased. A decrease of sideband antenna radiation, Ess would in-
crease path width. This possibility of varying path width is considered a dis-
tinct, advantage, making it possible to adjust every GP facility for the same de-
flection at a given departure from the path angle. This standard deflection is a
function of and the path angle. The relationship of these values is
termed 'A' ratio. A further analysis of relationships between DDM, path width,
and Ess or the 'A' ratio may be shown by varying and also is calculating the de-
pendent variables. To determine these relationships, it is necessary to develop
formulas, which may be used for DDM calculation. From amplitude modulation,
recall the expression.
(6.148)
where,
Therefore
(6.149)
Equation (6.149) is a valid formula for computing DDM for a normal antenna
height ratio of 2:1 and also if the height ratio is not 2:1. The DDM Equation
(6.149) can be simplified if only antenna height ratios of 2:1 are considered.
Substituting for H sin α; and for h sin α in Equation (6.149)

(6.150)
This equation can be reduced to a more convenient from by the following

process.
Let
But
or
and
(6.151)
Knowing that the DDM at the edge of path is, by definition, 0.1775 or 17.75%;
the value of A for a given glide angle can be determined
A = 0.26 for glide angle of 2.5° and it is concluded that for different glide angle
A value will vary. A much simpler formula for calculating the A ratio is
(6.152)
[Note: A is approximately 1/10 the glide angle. This formula is only valid when
the antenna height ratio is 2:1 and the path width is 1.4°]
The value of DDM for elevation angles α, up to 5φ can be calculated by using

Equation (6.151)
(6.153)
However, there is a region on each side of the glide angle where DDM changes
at a linear rate as the elevation angle is changed. This region extends approx-
imately ±1.0° from the glide angle. In this area DDM may be calculated by ratio
and proportion, a much simpler way of determining DDM.
For example: Assume the DDM at 0.7° below the glide angle (1.8° if the angle is
2.5°) is 0.178 (0.1775 rounded off to 0.178) and it is desired to know the DDM
at 0.2° below the glide angle (2.3°).
The ratio and proportion method of determining DDM and the Equation (6.151)
for DDM can only be used when the antenna height ratio is 2:1.
6.22.2. Glide path Pathwidth


Glide path receivers are calibrated for 150 μA (full scale) of deflection current
when DDM = 0.1775. The edge of path is defined as a point where the cross
pointer current is exactly 150 μA therefore; a DDM value of 0.178 also corres-
ponds to the edge of path. There are two angles where DDM = 0.178 one above
the glide angle and the other below the glide angle. The area between these
two angles is defined at the glide path sector. The path sector is always adjus-
ted for an angular path width of 1.4°. The term glide path sector should not be
confused with the term glide angle. The glide angle is the angle where DDM = 0
whereas the glide path sector encompasses all the area between 0.178 DDM
above and 0.178 DDM below the actual glide angle.
Another term, path envelope, is used to define a path sector i.e., 0.7° wide, ac-
tually one half of the path width previously described. Flight Inspection person-
nel and tolerances in the maintenance handbooks refer to path envelope when
discussing the glide path sector. Just remember that path width is 1.4° and
path envelope width is 0.7°. Determining path width when a specific A ratio is
known can be done using Equation (6.151). DDM at the edge of course by
definition is 0.178. Therefore, α is the angle at which DDM = 0.178. For ex-
ample: Determine the path width for a NRGS having a glide angle of 3° 'A' ratio
of 0.3 and m = 0.4
Substituting values in DDM equation
Remember that 'α' is an elevation angle at which DDM = 0.178. In order to de-
termine the path width it is necessary to subtract 'α' from φ and multiply by
two.
The path envelope value of 0.73° should not be confused with (φ – α) value of
0.73°. The lower edge of the path envelope sector is at 2.635°, whereas the
lower edge of the path width-sector is at 2.27°. Determining the A ratio for a
path width of 1.4° can be accomplished using the same Equation (6.151). This
equation is only valid for determining A when the desired path width is 1.4°.
6.22.3. Path Width vs. Glide Angle

The sideband antenna is lowered to raise the glide angle and the carrier an-
tenna is lowered to maintain proper height ratio, the radiation lobes, as a nat-
ural result, spread out over a wider range of vertical angles.
With such spreading out of the radiation lobes, DDM would be lowered and
near the glide angle of the path will become wider with the edges of the path
occurring farther from the sideband null. The raising glide angle increases path
width vice versa. Calculation could be made to show exact changes in DDM as
antenna heights are changed. However, the general effect is shown in the
sketch Fig. 6.172. However, by means of the path-width cover, the sideband an-
tenna radiation, Ess can be varied and compensate for any change in lobe
structure due to a change of the glide angle (antenna height), so that path
width may be maintained at a standard value of 1.4°.
Figure 6.172 Variation in width resulting from antenna heights.


6.22.4. Path width vs. RF Phase

The RF phase of the radiated energies is assumed to be correct, i.e., the side-
bands are either exactly in-phase ∠0° or exactly out-of-phase ∠180°. Since the
Ess signals are radiated separately it is possible that the RF phase may not be
correct. When the RF phase is incorrect, the recovered audio (directly propor-
tional to DDM) in the receiver due to Ess is reduced by the cosine of the angle
of misphasing.
(6.154)
where, θ is the angle of misphasing.
It should be apparent that any amount of RF misphasing will reduce DDM and
will result in the path width being wider. An extreme example would be 90° of
misphasing. This would cause DDM to be zero at all elevation angles. The
course width would be infinite or undefined. While small angles of misphasing
have a minimum effect on DDM, every effort should be made to assure correct
RF phase between the carrier and separately radiated sidebands.
6.22.5. RF Clearances
The term RF clearance is used to define the amount of predominance of one
signal over the other i.e., or . When ILS was first introduced,
the only test instrument for ground checking a facility read E150 Hz and E90 Hz
instead of DDM. It was necessary for the field engineers to divide the two read-
ings to obtain the ratio and then convert to dB. These dB values then became
the reference that is used by the field engineers to determine if the facility was
operating within tolerances. If the readings at some point were lowered than
value that corresponds to 150 μA cross-pointer deflection, it was called 'low
clearances'. Any higher readings were referred to as 'good clearances'. The
term clearances are still widely used today even thought test instruments used
now reading DDM instead of RF clearances. The use of the term clearances
doesn't necessarily mean just RF clearances, but more likely refers to some
value of cross-pointer deflection at a specific point. For example, flight inspec-
tion personnel may report low clearances on the GP at the middle marker loca-
tion while flying the lower edge of the GP sector. This would indicate that the
reading is less than full scale (150 μA) cross-pointer deflection at the middle
marker. If the glide angle is raised, the path will become wider than 1.4° as
shown in Fig. 6.171. By increasing the Ess radiation (sideband power) with the
path width control, we can return the width to 1.4°.
6.23. ILS ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS

FOR PRECISION APPROACH
ILS accuracy requirements are specified in ICAO Annexture-10 Volume-I in
terms of allowable limits of bias errors and beam bends as applied to the local-
izer and GP. Bias errors cause an angular shift in the desired course. Beam
bends are principally caused by multipath, and result in course displacements
that can cause displacement and changes in aircraft altitude. Due to bias er-
rors and beam bends, the aircraft displaced from the desired course. The cal-

culation of lateral and vertical error limits for Precision Approach (PA) requires
a conversion of bias and beam bend error limit as specified in ICAO into form
compatible for combination in Root Square Sum (RSS) fashion.
6.23.1. Derivation of PA Accuracy

Requirement
Lateral accuracy requirements: the lateral accuracy of ILS is a function of local-
izer equipment performance. The accuracy performance requirements are spe-
cified in terms of allowable alignment (bias) error and beam bend.
6.23.1.1. Localizer Bias Error Limit

As per ICAO Annexure-10, Volume-I specified for Cat-I, the localizer course line
shall be adjusted and maintained to within ± 35 feet of the runway centerline at
the runway threshold. This limit is specified to be ± 25 feet for Cat-II and ± 10
feet for Cat-III. These values have been interpreted to mean that the values
specified are at least 3σ numbers. Converting the appropriate values from 3σ
limits to 2σ values is shown in Table 6.12.
Table 6.11 PA/Landing accuracy requirements*
Category of Reference Height above Accuracy requirements

operation point surface (feet)
Lateral Vertical(feet-
(feet-2σ) 2σ)
I Cat-I DH 200 ± 56.1 ± 13.6
II Cat-II DH 100 ± 16.9 ± 5.7
III Runway 50 ± 13.2 ± 1.8

Threshold
*Based on ICAO ILS standards for good equipment assuming 3° glide path and 8000
feet distance between threshold and localizer antenna.
Table 6.12 Localizer bias error limits at runway threshold
Category of Localizer bias error limit at runway threshold (feet-

operation 2σ)
Cat-I ± 23.3
Cat-II ±10
Cat-III ±6.7
Table 6.13 ILS localizer bias error limits
Reference Distance from threshold Bias error limit ** (feet-

threshold (feet)* 2σ) 
Cat-I Cat-II Cat-
III
threshold (feet)* 2σ)
Runway 0 ± ± ± 6.7
threshold Cat-I
23.3 Cat-II
10.0 Cat-
III
Cat-II DH Point 954 ± ± ± 7.5

26.1 11.2
Cat-I DH Point 2628 ± ± ± 9.1

31.6 13.6
ILS Point "B" 3500 ± ± ± 9.6

33.5 14.4
* Assume a 3° glide path
** Assume an 8000 feet distance between the runway threshold and the localizer
antenna.
Xp is the distance from threshold to point P
or
(6.155)
Figure 6.173 Localizer bias geometry.
6.23.1.2. Localizer Beam Bend Error Limits

Allowance for bends in the ILS localizer course-line is defined in ICAO Annex-
10 in terms of a difference in DDM of signal for Cat-I in the coverage area
between ILS point 'B' and the point on the GP 100 feet above the horizontal
plane containing the threshold, the DDM should not exceed 0.015 (2σ). For Cat-
II and III, a DDM limit of 0.005 is specified for the coverage area between ILS
point 'B' and the reference datum. The above DDM limits can be converted to a
lateral displacement by using the nominal displacement sensitivity value
0.00044 DDM/feet at the reference datum. The geometrical relationship shown
Fig. 6.174 can be used to determine the appropriate sensitivity at any point.
Figure 6.174 ILS GP geometry.

Figure 6.175 Localizer beam bend geometry.
Since
(6.156)
(6.157)
The localizer beam bend error limits are given in terms of DDM that are con-
stant within a zone of coverage. Equation (6.157) allows for conversions of
beam bend error limits from DDM to a distance displacement limit at any point
P within the applicable zone, where P is at a distance Xp from runway
threshold. Using the appropriate DDM limits associated with each ILS category
of operation, the localizer beam bend error limits can be computed as a func-
tion of distance from runway threshold.
Table 6.14 ILS localizer beam bend error limits

Cat-I Cat-II Cat-

III
antenna.


Cat-I Cat-II Cat-

III
Runway 0 NA ± ±
threshold 11.4 11.4
Cat-II DH Point 954 ± ± ± 12

38.2 12.7
Cat-I DH Point 2628 ± ± ±

46.3 15.4 15.4
ILS Point "B" 3500 ± ± ±

49.0 16.3 16.3
antenna.
6.23.1.3. Lateral Error Limits

The RSS combination of the bias error and beam bend error limits are specified
in Table 6.15. Since these errors totally cause aircraft displacement from the
desired course, they will be referred to as the ILS lateral error limits. The appro-
priate lateral error limits for a particular categories of operation at the DH point
correspondingly.
Table 6.15 ILS lateral error limits

Cat-I Cat-II Cat-
III
Runway 0 NA ± ±
threshold 15.1 13.2
Cat-II DH Point 954 ± ± ±

46.2 16.9 14.8
Cat-I DH Point 2628 ± ± ±

56.1 20.5 17.9
ILS Point "B" 3500 ± ± ±

59.4 21.8 18.8
antenna.
6.23.1.4. Vertical Accuracy Requirements


The vertical accuracy of ILS is a function of GP equipment performance. As is
the case for the ILS localizer equipment performance requirements are spe-
cified in terms of allowable alignment (bias) error and beam bends.
6.23.1.5. Glide path Bias Error Limits

ICAO Annex-10 specifies that the ILS GP angle shall be adjusted and main-
tained within 0.075θ from θ for Cat-I and II, and 0.04θ from θ for Cat-III, where
θ denotes the nominal GP angle. It recommends that θ should be 3°. The ad-
justed and maintained limits specified for the GP are assumed 3σ values to be
consistent with the interpretation of the localizer specification. Using a θ of 3°
and converting the 3σ limits to 2σ results in the values as shown in Table 6.16
Table 6.16 Angular limits of glide path bias error
Category of operation Glide path bias error limits* (Deg-2σ)
I ± 0.15
II ± 0.15
III ± 0.08
The angular limits in Table 6.16 can be converted to linear displace about the
nominal GP as a function of ground range from the GP antenna. Table 6.17 res-
ults from converting the angular error limits to vertical displacement toler-
ances at specific reference points.
Table 6.17 ILS Glide path bias error limits
Reference Distance from Bias error limit ** (feet-2σ)

threshold threshold (feet)*
Cat-I Cat-II Cat-III
Runway 0 +2.3; – +2.3; – ± 1.2

threshold 2.2 2.2
Cat-II DH 954 +4.8; – +4.8; – +2.6;

Point 4.7 4.7 –2.5
Cat-I DH Point 2628 ± 9.8 ± 9.8 ± 5.2
ILS Point "B" 3500 +11.9; – +11.9; – +6.5;

11.0 11.0 –5.7
antenna.
6.23.1.6. Glide path Beam Bend Error Limits


Allowances for bends in the ILS GP are specified in ICAO Annex-10 in terms of
DDM limits, the same measure used for the localizer. The conversion for DDM
limits to lateral displacements is a function of the displacement sensitivity, the
nominal glide path angle, and distance from the antenna. ICAO Annex-10 spe-
cifies the limits of DDM due to bends on a mean ILS glide path i.e., correctly ad-
justed. The values are listed in Table 6.18. It also specify that an angular dis-
placement sensitivity of for all ILS categories. Table 6.18 are
the angular displacement limits that result from setting the GP angle (θ) at 3°
and using the angular displacement sensitivity to convert the DDM limits to an-
gular limits. The angular error limits for ILS GP beam bends can be converted
to liner vertical displacements from the nominal GP as a function of distance
from the GP antenna. Table 6.19 lists the GP course bend error limits in terms
of vertical displacement at specific reference points.
Table 6.18 Glide path beam bend DDM limits
Category of ICAO DDM Area of applicability Angular limits

operation Limits (2σ) (Deg-2σ)
I 0.035 ILS coverage limit to ± 0.144

Cat-II DH
II 0.023 ILS Point "B" to refer- ± 0.095

ence datum
III 0.023 ILS Point "B" to refer- ± 0.095

ence datum
Table 6.19 ILS glide path bias bend error limits
Reference Distance from Bias error limit ** (feet-2s)

Runway 0 NA ± 1.4 ± 1.4

threshold
Cat-II DH point 954 ± 4.6 ± 3.0 ± 3.0
Cat-I DH point 2628 ± 9.4 ± 6.2 ± 6.2
ILS point "B" 3500 +11.4; - +7.7; - +7.7;

10.3 6.8 -6.8
antenna.
6.23.1.7. Vertical Error Limits

Beam bend errors as well as bias error contribute to aircraft displacement from
the desired course. The RSS combination of the allowable limits of these errors
as shown in Table 6.20 will therefore be referred to as the ILS vertical error
limits.
Table 6.20 ILS vertical error limits
Reference Distance from Bias error limit ** (feet-2σ)

Runway 0 NA +2.7; – ± 1.8

threshold 2.6
Cat-II DH 954 ± 6.6 +5.7; – +4.0; –

Point 5.6 39
Cat-I DH Point 2628 ± 13.6 ± 11.6 ± 8.1
ILS Point "B" 3500 +16.5; – +14.2; – +10.1;

15.1 12.9 –8.9
antenna.
6.24. ILS LOW VISIBILITY CONDITIONS

AND ITS PARAMETERS
Landing in low visibility condition is perhaps one of the most exciting ways to
operate an aircraft but is certainly the most demanding. Such progress in civil
aviation was made possible by huge improvements in aircraft automatic con-
trol systems over the last forty years coupled with stringent requirements for
airfield equipments and crew qualification. In Cat-III pilot sees the runway
lights only few seconds (about 5 seconds) before touchdown. Therefore, there
is no margin for error. The basis for Cat II/III operation such as aircraft certific-
ation or airline operational demonstration ensures a high level of safety.
Moreover, approach success rate in actual in-line services is now nearly 100%.
Cat-II/III equipment represents a significant cost for airlines. However, it is only
way to keep in-line services during the whole year without any diversion.
Weather conditions mainly depend on the airfield location, nevertheless actual
Cat-II or III condition may occur at any airfield during some periods of the year.
Diversions are expensive for airlines: directly by passenger compensation
costs but also by the resulting bad 'image'. For these reasons getting opera-
tional approval for Cat-II and Cat-III approaches may be considered as a neces-
sary step in the evaluation of a modern airline.
6.24.1. Category-II
The Cat-II is a precision approach corresponding to low weather minima. The
ICAO definition given below:
A category-II approach is a precision instrument approach and landing with de-

cision height lower than 60m (200 feet.) but less than 30 m (100 feet.) and a run-
way visual range not less than 350 m (1200 feet)

The main objective of Cat-II operations is to provide a level of safety equivalent
to other operations, but in more adverse weather conditions and lower visibility.
The desired level of safety is achieved through
i. airborne equipment
ii. non-visual aids (ILS facility)
iii. visual aids (runway marks, lighting systems)
iv. flight crew training
v. flight crew procedures
vi. ATC procedures
vii. Aircraft maintenance
viii. Airfield maintenance
ix. Criteria for obstacle clearance
Cat-II weather minima has been established to provide sufficient visual refer-
ence to Decision Height (DH) to permit the manual landing or a missed ap-
proach to be executed (it does not mean that the landing must be made
manually)
6.24.2. Category-III
A Cat-III operation is a PA at lower than Cat-II minima. It is divided in three sub-
categories i.e., Cat-IIIA, Cat-IIIB and Cat-IIIC associated with three minima levels.
a. Cat-IIIA : An approach is a precision instrument approach and landing with

no DH or a DH lower than 30 m (100 ft) and a runway visual range not less
than 200 m (700 feet).
b. Cat-IIIB : An approach is a precision instrument approach and landing with

no DH or a DH lower than 15 m (50 feet) and a runway visual range not
less than 200 m (700 feet), but not less than 50 m (150 feet).
c. Cat-IIIC : An approach is a precision instrument approach and landing with

no DH and no runway visual range limitation.
The main objective of Cat-III is also to provide a level of safety equivalent to

other operations but in the most adverse weather conditions and associated
visibility. The minima only permit the pilot to decide if the aircraft will land in
the touch–down zone (basically Cat-IIIA) and to ensure safety during roll-out
(basically Cat-IIIB). Therefore an automatic landing system is mandatory to per-
form Cat-III operation. Its reliability must be sufficient to control the aircraft to
touchdown in Cat-IIIA operations and through roll-out to a safe taxi speed in
Cat-IIIB (and Cat-IIIC when authorized).
An automatic landing system is only equipment providing automatic control of

the aircraft during the approach and landing and is not related to particular
weather conditions. This system is mandatory for all Cat-III operations. How-
ever, it is common practice to perform automatic landing in good visibility but
in that case, the ILS performance must be sufficient and ILS signals protected.
As for Cat-II operations, the desired level of safety is achieved with more strin-
gent condition. The Regulatory Bodies have their different requirement as
presented in Table 6.21.
Table 6.21 ILS categories requirement by different regulators
ICAO FAA JAA

ICAO FAA JAA
Cat- DH 100 ft ≤ DH ≤ 200 100 ft ≤ DH ≤ 200 100 ft ≤ DH ≤

II ft ft 200 ft
RVR 350 m ≤ RVR 350 m ≤ RVR < 350 m ≤ RVR

800 m
1200ft ≤ RVR 1000 ft ≤ RVR
1200 ft ≤ RVR <
2400 ft
Cat- DH No DH or DH < No DH or DH < DH < 100 ft (2)

IIIA 100 ft (2) 100 ft (2)
RVR 200 m ≤ RVR 200 m ≤ RVR 200 m ≤ RVR (1)
700 ft ≤ RVR 700 ft ≤ RVR 700 ft ≤ RVR
Cat- DH No DH or DH < 50 No DH or DH < 50 No DH or DH <

IIIB feet. feet. 50 feet.
RVR 50 m ≤ RVR < 50 m ≤ RVR < 75 m ≤ RVR <

200 m 200 m 200 m
150 ft ≤ RVR < 150 ft ≤ RVR < 250 ft ≤ RVR <

700 ft 700 ft 700 ft
Cat- DH No DH No DH
IIIC
RVR No RVR No RVR

Limitation Limitation
(1) 150 m for aircraft compliant with JAR AWO321(B) (3) is proposed by JAR OPS1
NPA-10
(2) DH ≥ 50 feet if fail safe passive.
6.24.3. Decision Height (DH) and Alert

Height (AH)
For Cat-II/III regulations, two different heights are defined i.e., the Decision
Height (DH) and the Alert Height (AH).
6.24.3.1. Decision Height Definition

DH is the wheel height above the runway elevation by which a go-around must
be initiated unless adequate visual reference has been established and the air-
craft position and approach path has been accessed as satisfactory to con-
tinue the approach and landing in safety (JAA). There is no significant differ-
ence in DH definitions according to other regulations. In this definition, runway
elevation means the elevation of the highest point in the touch–down zone. Ac-
cording to the JAA, the DH recognition must be by means of height measured
by radio altimeter. But FAA leaves the choice for Cat-II DH recognition (radio al-
timeter, inner markers or barometric altimeters).
6.24.3.2. Visual Reference at DH

Because the term of adequate visual reference could be differently interpreted,
JAA has defined criteria for Cat-II and Cat-III for visual reference DH which is
now commonly accepted.

For Cat-II and Cat-IIIA, a pilot may not continue the approach below DH unless a
visual reference containing not less than a 3-light segment of the centerline of
the approach lights or runway centerline or touchdown zone lights or runway
edge lights is obtained. For Cat-IIIB the visual reference must contain at least
one centerline light.
6.24.3.3. Alert Height (AH) Definition

An alert height is a height above the runway, based on the characteristics of
the aircraft and its fail-operational automatic landing system, above which a
Cat-III approach would be discontinued and a missed approach initiated if a
failure occurred in one of the redundant parts of the automatic landing system,
or in the relevant ground equipment (ICAO). In other AH definitions, it is gener-
ally stated that if a failure occurred below the AH, it would ignore and the ap-
proach continued.
6.24.3.4. Decision Height (DH) and Alert Height (AH)

Concept
(a) DH concept:
It is a specified point in space at which a pilot must make an operational de-

cision. The pilot must decide if the visual references are adequate to safely
continue the approach.
If the visual reference has not been established, a go-around must be

executed.
If the visual references have been established, the approach can be contin-
ued. However, the pilot may always decide to execute a go-around if sud-
den degradations in the visual reference or a sudden flight path deviation
occur.
In Cat-II operations, DH is always limited to 100 feet or obstacle clearance

height (OCH), whichever is higher. In Cat-III operations with DH, the DH is lower
than 100 feet. (typically equal to 50 feet for a fail passive automatic landing
system and 15-20 feet for a fail operational automatic landing system)
(b) AH Concept:
AH is the height defined for Cat-III operation with fail-operational landing

system.
Above AH, a go-around must be initiated if a failure affects the fail–opera-

tional landing system
Below AH, the approach will continue (except if autoland warning is

triggered)
AH is only linked to the probabilities of failure (s) of the automatic landing sys-
tem. Operators are free to select on AH lower than the AH indicated in Auto-
matic Flight Management (AFM) but not higher value. Airbus industries proced-
ures include both AH and DH concept for all fail operational Cat-III operation.
6.24.4. Runway Visual Range (RVR)

Definition
RVR is the range over which a pilot of an aircraft on the centerline of the run-
way can see the runway surface marking or the lights delineating the runway or
identifying its centerlines.
6.24.4.1. RVR Concept


Cat-II or Cat-III operation requires rapidly updated and reliable reports of the
visibility conditions which a pilot may expect to encounter in the touchdown
zone and along the runway. RVR measurement replaces the use of the reported
visibility value (RVV) which is not appropriate for conditions encountered dur-
ing the final approach and landing in low visibility, because the visibility obser-
vations are often several miles away from the touch–down zone of the runway.
Note: RVR is not the Slant Visual Range (SVR). SVR is the range over which a
pilot of an aircraft in the final stages of approach or landing can see the mark-
ings or the lights as described in RVR definitions.
6.24.4.2. RVR Measurements

For Cat-II and Cat-III operations, the RVR measurements are provided by a sys-
tem of calibrated transmission meter and account for the effects of ambient
background light and the intensity of runway light. Transmission meters sys-
tems are strategically located to provide RVR measurements associated with
three basic portions of a runway i.e., the touch–down zone (TDZ); the mid run-
way portions (MID); and the roll out portion or stop end.
For Cat-II operations the TDZ measurement is required, and for Cat-III operation
the TDZ and MID measurements are mandatory. But for Cat-III operations with
lowest weather minima, the three measurements are normally required by FAA.
For Cat-III without DH, JAR OPS-1 requires only one RVR measuring point on
the runway.
6.24.4.3. Establishment of RVR Minima

In Cat-II and Cat-III operations, the minima are expressed in terms of DH and
RVR. It is relatively simple to establish the DH but it is more difficult to estab-
lish the RVR to be associated with the DH in order to ensure the required visual
reference (three-light segment). When establishing airfield operating minima, it
is recommended to refer to acceptable minima as per ICAO Annex-6. The use
of those minima has resulted in a high approach success rate.
6.24.4.4. Theory of RVR Determination: ECAC

Document
'The basic principles for the establishment of RVR minima are that the scale of
visual reference required by a pilot at and below DH depends on the task that he
has to carry out and that the degree to which his vision is obscured depends on
the nature of the metrological phenomena which creates the low visibility condi-
tions'. Minimum visual segments at DH have been established for each cat-
egory. Typical values are 60 m for Cat-III and 90 m for Cat-II automatic landing
system and 225 m for Cat-II with manual landing. The visual segment is the
runway segment that a pilot can see from his position.
6.24.4.5. Correlation between Visual Segments: RVR

vs SVR
A formula can be used to compute the SVR required for the pilot to acquire
visually the specified visual segment, at the DH for a particular operation.
(6. 158)
where,
v is visual segment (m)

h is pilot eye height above ground level (m) w is cockpit cut-off angle-pitch
(degrees)
For Cat-II operations with auto pilot down to DH = 100 feet and manual control
below, the required visual segment is 120 m. The required SVR for such opera-
tion is 247.6 m.
Using Equation (6.158), we find SVR = 180 m at 120 feet above ground level,
SVR/RVR is expected to be 0.68 or more, so we obtain a required RVR equal to
265 m
(6.159)
The same method may also be used to evaluate the visual segment for a given
RVR.
Figure 6.176 (a) Illustrate DH concept, and (b) AH concept.
6.24.4.6. Additional Information on Pilot's Eye

Position
Pilots must realize the importance of eye position during low visibility condi-
tions approaches and landing. A too low seat adjustment may greatly reduce
the visual segment. When the eye reference position is lower than intended, the
already short visual segments are further reduced by the cut-off angle of the
nose. Airbus industries aircraft are equipped with an eye position indicating
device. The optimum eye position is obtained when the pilot sees the red indic-
ator ball covering the white ball.
Figure 6.177 (a) RVR and SVR concept, and (b) Pilot eye positions.
6.24.4.7. Additional Information on Landing Light

Use of landing lights at night at low visibility can be detrimental acquisition of
visual references. Reflected lights from water droplets or snow may actually
reduce visibility. Landing lights would therefore not normally be used in Cat-III
weather conditions.
6.25. Summary
This chapter starts from historical development and growth of the concept
with various techniques of the ILS with signal generation for lateral and vertical
guidance to the aircraft. ILS consist of 5 equipment i.e., Localizer, Glide path
with collocated DME, Inner, Middle and Outer markers. The requirements of ILS 
and its various concepts are also discussed. Among these, the Localizer and
Glide path have been discussed in detail separately. The special antenna used
for this system with various configurations to generate the required signal and
the calculation of the ILS requirement for precision approach as per runway
length and its bias error is discussed. A discussion for lateral visibility condi-
tion and its parameters can also be found in this chapter.
6.26. Objective Questions

1. The frequency band of the localizer operation is
a. 112 to 118 MHz
b. 108 to 112 MHz
c. 324 to 335 MHz
d. 130 to 150 MHz
2. The localizer aerial is located at
a. About 1200 feet from threshold
b. About 500 feet from ILS reference point
c. About 1200 feet from stop end of the runway
d. About 200 feet away from the glide path
3. Normally the height of the localizer aerial above ground is
a. 0.5λ
b. λ
c. 0.75λ
d. 2λ
4. If the side-band power is increased, keeping the carrier with sideband sig-
nal constant, the course width of localizer will
a. Increase
b. decrease
c. remain the same
5. An approaching aircraft receiver demodulates localizer radiates and meas-

ure 150 Hz tone more than 90 Hz tone. The aircraft is located:
a. Left of the runway centerline
b. Right of the runway centerline
c. Below glide path
d. Above the glide path
6. If a dipole pair (0.75λ) is fed in RF phase there will be
a. One lobe per quadrant
b. 0.5 lobe per quadrant
c. 0.75 lobe per quadrant
d. Two lobes per quadrant
7. If aerial in mounted λ above ground, the number of lobes above the ground
will be
a. 1 
b. 2
c. 0.5
d. 2.5
8. The depth of modulation by each navigation tone in localizer system is
a. 10%
b. 20 %
c. 15.5 %
d. 40%
9. Localizer flag in airborne display is affected by
a. DDM
b. Mod-Sum
c. RF Strength
d. None of the above
10. If an aircraft is located outside localizer course sector, the pilot will
observe
a. one dot fly left indication
b. Two dot fly right indication
c. Full five dot deflection
d. On course indication
11. The course alignment accuracy specification of Cat-II localizer at ILS refer-
ence datum is
a. ± 35 feet
b. ± 10 feet
c. ± 25 feet
d. ± 5 feet
12. Station identification signal is radiated from
a. Glide-path
b. Markers
c. Localizer
13. 15.5% DDM of localizer radiation will produce
a. 175 microampere current in airborne display
b. 150 microampere current in airborne display
c. 100 microampere current in airborne display
d. 15.5 microampere current in airborne display
14. Voice signal can be radiated on
a. Localizer radiation
b. Glide-path radiation
c. Markers radiation
d. DME radiation
15. Glide angle is normally adjusted within


a. 3 to 5°
b. 2 to 4°
c. 5 to 8°
d. 0 to 2°
16. For glide path system having θ glide angle, 17.5 % DDM is adjusted at
a. 0.12 θ above and below GP
b. 0.24 θ above and below GP
c. 0.48 θ above and below GP
d. At GP
17. In GP system the depth of modulation by each navigation tone is
a. 20%
b. 17.5 %
c. 40%
d. 15.5%
18. The height of the upper most aerial of side band reference glide path hav-
ing 3° glide angle is
a. 5λ
b. 15λ
c. 7.5
d. 10λ
19. The ground measurements are taken at 180° phase point because
a. There is no other place for ground measurement
b. It give correct tone predominance
c. The displacement sensitivity is same as distant field
d. The Mod-sum is correct at this place.
20. In a glide path system, height of ILS reference datum is 55 feet and glide
angle is 3°. The back set distance of glide path aerial from threshold will
be
a. 1000 feet
b. 1500 ft
c. 1200 ft
d. 1100 ft
21. In clearance region of localizer radiation
a. DDM varies linearly from 0 to 18%
b. DDM remain greater than 15.5%
c. MODSUM is less than 40%
d. DDM remain less than 15.5%
22. Foreground requirement for beam forming is minimum in
a. Null reference GP system
b. Sideband reference GP
c. M-array GP 
23. The number of lobes of sideband used in null reference GP is
a. 4
b. 2
c. 3
d. 1
24. The number of lobes in vertical planes used by localizer system is
a. 2
b. 3
c. 1
d. 4
25. A category–II ILS approach may be made if
a. All ground equipment meets Cat-II requirements
b. The aircraft meets Cat-II requirements
c. The pilot meet Cat-II requirements
d. All the above requirements are met.
26. If the vertical cross-pointer indicator is to the right of center the pilot
should
a. Continue descend
b. Turn right
c. Turn left
27. The localizer dipole is mounted on aerial structure with a support of in
length. This is done to
a. Match the aerials with feeder cable
b. Present ground at dipole input
c. Present open circuit between aerial structure and dipole
d. Radiates RF signal properly
28. If SBO signal is absent in the radiated field
a. Flag alarm will appear
b. Zero DDM will appear every where
c. Range will reduce
d. Zero DDM will not be any where
29. Decrease in transmitter power
a. Will reduce the range
b. Will affect the course line
c. Will affect the clearance DDM
d. Will shift the eight degree point beyond ten degrees
30. If number of dipole is increased
a. The range will increase
b. The azimuth coverage will increase
c. Clearance signal will improve 

d. Course width will be reduced.
31. In localizer on the centerline of the runway we have maximum of
a. Course SBO
b. Clearance CSB
c. Course CSB
d. Clearance SBO
32. In two frequency LLZ system the minimum difference in the frequencies is
kept at
a. Above 10 kHz
b. Above 25 kHz
c. Above 5 kHz
d. Above 15 kHz
33. In localizer clearance signal is provided
a. To make displacement sensitivity linear
b. Only to suppress the sideband in CSB
c. To straighten the course line
d. To extend the azimuthal coverage up to the required limits
34. An M-array should be provided
a. If there is down trend slope in the front
b. If there is minor obstruction in the front distance of about 5000 feet
c. The reflecting terrain in front of the antenna is short
d. None of the above.
35. Glide path aerial normally can be located
a. At 1000 feet away from the central line
b. At 450 feet away from the central line
c. At 150 feet away from the central line
36. In null reference GP decrease in the height of the lower aerial
a. Decrease the angle
b. Increase the angle
c. Will not affect the angle
d. Will change the Mod–sum at glide angle
37. Predominance of 90 Hz modulations in aircraft receiver for GP will

indicate
a. Fly-down
b. Fly-up
c. Fly-left
d. Fly-right
38. Increase in height where zero DDM is obtained, at 160° monitoring posi-
tion indicates
a. No change in glide angle 

b. Increase in the glide angle
c. Increase in the sector width
39. In field measurement at 540° point for null reference GP will reveal
a. Same at threshold
b. Infinite sector width
c. No glide angle
d. Reverse sensing
40. When reciprocal ILS is provided for same runway
a. Frequencies of operation of GP should be same
b. Should be different
c. No restriction
41. Field measurement for wide aperture (24 dipoles) localizer should be
taken at a distance more than
a. 10 times the aperture
b. 15 times the aperture
c. 20 times the aperture
d. 25 times the aperture
42. In integral monitoring
a. Reduction in SBO level is not reflected
b. Deviation in course width is not reflected
c. Deviation in course-line is not reflected
d. Variation in the reflecting terrain is not reflected
43. In localizer if course width is correct but the DDM at eight degrees falls be-
low 18% indicates
a. CL/SBO level is low
b. CL/CSB pashing is incorrect
c. CR/SBO level is low
d. CL/SBO phasing is incorrect.
44. The GP adjustment of modulation balance control will
a. Vary the modulation level
b. Vary the sector width
c. Vary the course structure
d. Vary the angle
45. In localizer varying the modulation balance control will affect
a. Course-line
b. Course-width
c. Modulation sum
d. Coverage
46. Increase of SBO will


a. Increase the course width
b. Decrease the course width
c. Increase the modulation level
d. Decrease the modulation level
47. Insertion of the length in the CSB cable will result into
a. Decrease in the modulation %
b. Increase in the modulation %
c. No zero DDM anywhere in the far-field
d. No zero DDM everywhere in the far-field
48. The phase difference between 90 Hz and 150 Hz lines in the mechanical
modulator can be adjusted by
a. Physically adjusting the relative mounting positions of 90 Hz and 150

Hz blades
b. By trimming the RF cables feeding 90 Hz and 150 Hz modulations
c. By alignment of AF bridges
d. By varying the RF feeds to mechanical modulator
49. In the log periodic dipole antenna for localizer the desired front to back
gain ratio should be
a. Nearly 14 dB
b. Nearly 28 dB
c. Nearly 35 dB
d. Nearly 42 dB
50. In the RF bridges one of the arms is
a. 90° longer than other
b. 135° longer than others
c. 90° shorter than other
d. 180° longer than other.
51. Strip-lines are used for
a. Effectively reducing the cable length
b. For preventing the RF dissipation
c. To make RF bridge and circuits using printed circuit Technique
d. To reduce the attenuation
52. Modulation tones of 90 and 150 Hz for Cat-I shall be within
a. ± 2.5%
b. ± 2.0%
c. ± 1.5%
d. ± 1.0%
53. Frequency tolerance in case of two frequency localizer is
a. 0.005%
b. 0.002%
c. 10 kHz 
d. 14 kHz
54. Within ± 10° sector of localizer the DDM shall increase
a. Linearly up to 10°
b. Linearly up to 15.5% and shall not fall below 15.5% up to 10°
c. Linearly up to 18.0% and shall not fall below 18.0% up to 10°
d. Linearly up to 18.0% and shall not fall below 15.5% up to 10°
55. In glide path Mod–sum shall not deviate outside limit of
a. 78% to 82%
b. 75% to 85%
c. 76% to 84%
d. 77% to 83%
56. DDM below ILS GP shall
a. Increase smoothly up to 17.5% and shall not fall below 17.5% up to

0.45θ
b. Increase linearly to 17.5% up to 0.45θ and shall not fall below 17.5%
up to 0.3θ
c. Increase linearly to 22.0% up to 0.45θ and shall not fall below 22.0%
up to 0.3θ
d. Increase linearly up to 22.0% and shall not fall below 22.0% up to 0.3θ
57. For Cat-I ILS GP angular displacement sensitivity shall be adjusted and
maintained within
a. ± 25% of nominal value selected
b. ± 20% of nominal value selected
c. ± 17% of nominal value selected
d. ± 10% of nominal value selected
58. Height of ILS reference datum for Cat-I performance is
a. 50 feet ± 10 feet
b. 50 feet + 10 feet
c. 50 feet – 10 feet
59. An aircraft can use Cat-I, ILS signal from coverage limit to point:
a. 50 feet above horizontal plane containing runway threshold.
b. 200 feet above horizontal plane containing runway threshold.
c. 100 feet above horizontal plane containing runway threshold.
d. Zero feet above horizontal plane containing runway threshold.
60. Lateral displacement of GP aerial from runway centerline depends upon
a. Glide angle
b. Height of glide path reference datum
c. Slope of ground reflecting surface
d. Obstruction of clearance limit practices.

61. Suppose the operating frequency of GP is 300 MHz, the upper aerial of null
reference of GP will be mounted at height of
a. 5 m
b. 30 m
c. 10 m
d. 15 m
62. During flight calibration of localizer, flight inspector reported course-width

as 4.9° and desired course width is 4°. As ground engineer you will
a. Increase transmitter power
b. Decrease SBO power
c. Adjust mod balance control to increase 90 Hz modulations.
d. Adjust mod balance control to increase 150 Hz modulations.
63. In null reference GP, decrease in the height of the lower aerial
a. Decrease the angle
b. Increase the angle
c. Will not affect the angle
d. Will not change the Mod–sum at glide angle.
64. If the dipole pair (2.25λ) is fed in RF anti-phase there will be
a. Two lobes per quadrant
b. 2.25 lobes per quadrant
c. 4.5 lobes per quadrant
d. One lobe per quadrant
65. Flight inspector during flight calibration of localizer reports flag at 20 NM,
you will
a. Increase SBO power
b. Adjust mod depth
c. Increase transmitter power
d. Increase clearance power
66. For null reference GP having 3° as glide angle, the height of upper and
lower aerials are
a. 7.5λ and 15 λ respectively
b. 2λ and 4λ respectively
c. λ and 2λ respectively
d. 5λ and 10λ respectively
67. At an airport, there is a hillock of 500 feet. AMSL in the approach path at
the distance of 1NM from touchdown, which GP system you will select
a. Null reference
b. Sideband reference
c. Type M array without clearance
d. Type M-array with clearance
68. A GP system has ILS reference datum at 60 feet above the ground. If DDM
measurement is carried out at threshold, 0 DDM will be obtained at the
height of
a. 30 feet 
b. 50 feet
c. 200 feet
d. 60 feet
69. During preparation of type M-array glide path for flight calibration, ground
engineer finds VSWR of 3.0 for middle aerial. You will initiate which of the
following actions
a. Increase height of middle aerial
b. Decrease height of middle aerial
c. Increase power being fed to middle aerial
d. Decrease power being fed to middle aerial
e. None of the above
70. Maintenance engineer during ground check measurements reports DDM

of 10% of 150 Hz and Mod–sum of 50% at 9°. As an expert which course
of action you will choose
a. Adjust monitors
b. No action as measurement are within ICAO tolerance limits
c. Adjust clearance signal phasing
d. Adjust clearance power
71. The coverage specification of localizer within ± 35° is
a. 17 N.M.
b. 25 N.M.
c. 20 N.M.
d. 75 N.M.
72. At half course width angle of localizer, the value of DDM is adjusted to
a. 17.5%
b. 15.5%
c. 40%
d. 80%
73. If runway length is L (feet) and distance of localizer aerial from stop end of
runway is D (feet), the half course width angle is given by
a. θ = tan–1 350/L
b. θ = tan–1 350/(L + D)
c. θ = tan–1 350/D
d. θ = sin–1 350/(L + D)
74. In null reference glide path system (glide angle = θ), false glide path exists
at
a. 2θ
b. 4θ
c. 3θ
d. θ/2
75. During maintenance of null reference glide path, engineer observes for-
ward power of 9 W and reflected power of 1 W for lower aerial. VSWR is

a. 1.25
b. 1.8
c. 2.0
d. 2.5
76. After installation of localizer, phasing of CSB and SBO signals are carried
out, field measurement shows correct displacement sensitivity but tone
predominance is reversed i.e., 90 Hz > 150 Hz at right side of runway while
approaching. The possible reason for this is
a. High VSWR of aerial system
b. Less power out of carrier
c. Less power of CSB signal
d. CSB. cable is 180° too long
77. In GP system, the value of Mod–sum is adjusted to
a. 40%
b. 60%
c. 80%
d. 20%
78. Two frequency 12-element localizer has been installed at an airport. Flight
inspector reports that system course structure does not meet Cat-I re-
quirements. As an expert which course of action you will advise
a. Changeover to 24 elements array
b. Changeover to 6 elements array
c. Changeover to single frequency 12-element system
79. Minimum azimuth coverage for localizer as per the ICAO requirements is
a. ± 3.5°
b. ± 4.2°
c. ± 5.0°
d. ± 6.0°
80. A number of operating aircraft, during ILS approach report that localizer
takes them to the left of centerline. Immediate action for resolving this
problem is
a. Check up transmitter power
b. Take field measurement readings
c. Adjustment of monitors
d. Check up aerial system
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1/9/2021 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM | McGraw-Hill Education - Access Engineering

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Airport Ground Navigation

Table of Contents Figures (177) Tables (21)

View: Table of Contents Tools

The function of Instrument Landing System (ILS) is to provide guidance to and

a. Azimuth approach guidance.

b. Elevation approach angle.

c. Distance from the touchdown point.

6.1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

6.1.1. Principles of Fixed-Beam Low-Ap-

Figure 6.1 Typical airfield layout for ILS equipment.

 Open in new tab (/mhe-lookup/tab-link/ch06fig01/6076385)

To indicate progress along the approach path, use is made of 3 marker

6.1.2. ILS Avionics

Figure 6.2 Typical ILS aircraft indicator.

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6.1.3. Basic Concept of Localizer

Figure 6.3 Localizer system employing mechanical modulation.

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The modulation has been accomplished by both electronic and mechanical

Figure 6.4 Mechanical modulator alignment.

 Open in new tab (/mhe-lookup/tab-link/ch06fig04/6076385)

6.1.4. New Approach of ILS

Figure 6.5 Early LOREZ ILS systems.

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Figure 6.6 (a) Localizer coverage (b) GP coverage.

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6.2. ILS WAVEFORMS GENERATION

6.2.1. Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

Figure 6.7 Vector presentation of the CSB signal.

 Open in new tab (/mhe-lookup/tab-link/ch06fig07/6076385)

Figure 6.8 CSB signal presentation.

 Open in new tab (/mhe-lookup/tab-link/ch06fig08/6076385)

In addition, it is necessary to produce signal, known as SBO in which the carrier

where, V is amplitude of the total signal, Vc is amplitude of the carrier signal,

If the carrier is suppressed, then

Lower sideband (LSB) i.e., cos (ωc – ωm)t

Upper sideband (USB) i.e., cos (ωc + ωm)t

Figure 6.9 Modulation and demodulation waveform.

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Figure 6.10 Phase variation of SBO signal.

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6.2.2. Carrier/Sideband Phasing

The CSB signal consists of an RF carrier, modulated with 90 Hz and 150 Hz

(b) Modulation Depth of the Glide Path

6.2.3. Basic Concept of Waveforms

Case-1 Addition of Two Audio Frequencies, (f0, 2f0)

cilloscope with a sweep speed of the oscilloscope will algebraically add

Figure 6.11 (a), (b) and (c) Graph of (f0, + 2f0).

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is decreased to the oscilloscope presentation will be as shown in

Case-2 Addition of Two Audio Frequencies (f0, –2f0)

cilloscope presentation with sweep speed synchronized to . If oscillo-

scope sweep speed is decreased to the pattern of Fig. 6.12 (c) is

Figure 6.12 (a), (b) and (c) Graphs (f0, – 2f0).

 Open in new tab (/mhe-lookup/tab-link/ch06fig12/6076385)

Case-3 Addition of Two Audio Frequencies (f0, 2f0, –22.5°)