Name: Grace Higgins

Explore the ways in which intense feelings are portrayed in Dark House by
Alfred, Lord Tennyson, and in one other poem. You must relate your discussion
to relevant contextual factors. [30]

Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s In Memoriam is an elegiac poem dedicated to his late friend Arthur
Hallam, containing the lyrics Dark House and By Night We Linger’d on the Lawn. Dark House
reflects an intense period of overwhelming grief experienced by Tennyson during the lengthy
grieving process for Hallam, utilising Gothic and rejecting Romantic traits to achieve this effect.
By Night We Linger’d on the Lawn embraces elements of Romanticism to show a hopeful
outlook towards life, embracing religion and being comforted by the supernatural, an
experience which results in an all-encompassing sense of enlightenment.

As it was placed towards the eulogy section of In Memoriam, Dark House explores an
overwhelming sense of grief experienced by Tennyson, additionally showing moments of
religious doubt as a result. The ABBA structure throughout the poem creates a cyclic impression
of his grief, suggesting the feeling is relentless and never ending, an idea which is supported by
Dark House having been written after more hopeful additions to In Memoriam such as By Night
We Linger’d On The Lawn, showing that his progression through the grieving process is a
lengthy and difficult one. The repetition of the l-sound in “Here in the long unlovely street”
places emphasis on the location, a common trait within Victorian literature, which further
demonstrates the lack of Arthur Hallam’s presence. Tennyson’s use of caesura on “So quickly”
creates a sense of desperation created by his intense grief. The repetition of “a hand”, divided
by a line break could further show the divide between Hallam and Tennyson, and the latter’s
desire to reconnect with his friend. It could be said that this creates potential for a homoerotic
reading of Tennyson and Hallam’s friendship, but this could be disproved given the highly
patriarchal society at the time, whereby homosocial relationships were viewed higher than
heterosexual relationships as men were seen as superior and intellectual in comparison to
women. The placing of the two “hand”s as divided between stanzas could be said to mirror
Michaelangelo’s The Creation of Adam, whereby God creates the first man. This reference could
be supported through the context of Hallam’s support for Tennyson’s artistry very early on in his
career, once again showing the poet’s high regard for his deceased friend. Additionally,
Tennyson believed that Hallam was an almost perfect human, something which would be
mirrored in evolution. This is supported by the very early developments in knowledge of
evolution, as Darwin’s revolutionary theories had not yet been published at this time. To
further suggest an overwhelming sense of loss, Tennyson seemingly makes an intertextual
reference to Shakespeare’s Macbeth with the line “And like a guilty thing I creep”, connoting the
aftermath of King Duncan’s death. This interpretation would further demonstrate the high
1
Name: Grace Higgins

amount of respect that Tennyson had for Hallam, even long after his death. The end stop on “He
is not here;”, creates an almost God-like connotation of Hallam, with the capitalised pronoun.
Furthermore, it suggests that Tennyson acknowledges that the divide between Hallam and
himself is definite, and unfixable, creating a sense of pathos as Tennyson remains on the “long
unlovely street” despite knowing that Hallam is no longer there. Tennyson’s depiction of “the
noise of life” suggests a sense of intrusion, and that his life seems to be lacking with the
overbearing sense of loss he is experiencing. The introduction of “noise” suggests a contrasting
quiet, isolated life Tennyson is forced to endure without Hallam, once again linking to the
patriarchal views on male friendship, enforced by their friendship being regarded as a meeting
of souls. It could be said that there is a sense of hopefulness in this poem, due to “but far away”,
suggesting Tennyson’s desire to be reunited with Hallam. This links with the religious doubts he
experienced, having been brought up in a religious family, suggesting the Christian idea of
heaven is providing some (although limited) comfort during the grieving process. Furthermore,
“ghastly thro’ the drizzling rain” contrasts the highly popular Romantic ideals of nature
providing consolidation. This was likely enforced due to the high mortality rate throughout the
Victorian era due to numerous diseases and medical knowledge being fairly minimal. “Ghastly”
creates a gothic image of the street and the people on it, the pathetic fallacy emphasising the
extent of the sorrow Tennyson feels due to his loss. In the final stanza, the image of the “bald
street” breaks the meter, with hard stresses on “bald” and “blank”. This was likely done by
Tennyson to show his metaphorical lack of order, struggling with his relentless grief, further
rejecting Romanticism in the process. Although this ending is likely interpreted as a somewhat
nihilistic outlook on life, it could be argued that there is a sense of optimism, as the “blank day.”
offers a sense of possibility, potentially linking back to the allusion of Michaelangelo’s painting,
as unbeknownst to Tennyson at the time, writing about his grief for Hallam would establish him
as a prominent figure in literature, becoming poet Laureate not long after the publication of In
Memoriam.

Contrasting to Dark House, the intense feelings explored in By Night We Linger’d On The Lawn
seem to be less permanent, but still just as powerful and emotive. Initially, Tennyson’s depiction
of comforting surroundings suggests a reversion to Romanticism, with the “genial warmth” and
“silvery haze of summer drawn” depicted. The “silvery haze” emphasises the idea of darkness
still having light, suggesting that Tennyson is near recovery from this intense period of mourning
for Hallam. The image of the “tapers burn[ing]” further supports this idea, alongside enforcing
the lack of sound or disturbance in the scene. Tennyson’s description of “The brook alone far-off
was heard”, enhances the sense of serenity, as implied further with the use of primarily
monosyllabic words. The focus of the poem shifts from the still surrounding the “filmy shapes''
that “haunt the dusk”, an almost gothic depiction of the bats around him, perhaps a reference
to the intrusion of darker thoughts, or moments of grief that occur despite his progress through

2
Name: Grace Higgins

mourning. Additionally, his inclusion of moths with “woolly breasts and beaded eyes” seems to
individualise a creature synonymous with death, perhaps symbolic of his constant admiration of
Hallam despite his passing. An alternative reading which could evoke an emotional response is
that the moths Tennyson describes are Hallam, seeking the light (or life), trying to reconnect
with his friend despite the divide. Further imagery of light punctuating darkness occurs with the
“light after light” that went out surrounding Tennyson, perhaps hinting at the upcoming
enlightenment he experiences later on in the poem. Tennyson describes how “A hunger seized
[his] heart”, with “seized” connoting conflict, suggesting the emotional turmoil he was
experiencing at the time, perhaps ambiguously as it does not seem clear as to whether or not
this is a conflict he will win. The almost primal description of his grief creates a strong sense of
sorrow, perhaps linking to the popular Victorian feature of melancholy, which was unfortunately
far from uncommon given the high rates of mortality. The personification of nature, as
demonstrated with “the trees/Laid their dark arms about the field”, shows a return to
Romanticism within the concept of nature providing comfort during periods of loss. Given the
high mortality rate at the time, it is likely that this technique was favoured by poets, including
Tennyson with the grief that he experienced as a result of the passing of Hallam. Furthermore,
the return to Romanticism suggests a sense of hopefulness, propelling the verse towards the
eulogy of the traditional Greek elegy structure. The sudden intrusion of the breeze which
“began to tremble” builds tension with the use of alliteration, contrasting the previous
tranquillity of the scene. Tennyson’s inclusion of the “sycamore tree” has significant links to the
Ancient Greeks, notably for its connotations of strength, protection and reliability. This, when
additionally reflected upon the previous Romantic imagery, suggests a promising outlook for
Tennyson in his grieving process, once again outlining nature as a protective force. “Rock’d the
full-foliaged elms” further enforces a sense of unity through nature, perhaps a macrocosm for
the feeling of reconciliation he is experiencing upon recalling the letters from Hallam when he
was still alive. The abundance of nature, as then demonstrated through the description of the
“heavy-folded rose, and flung/the lilies to and fro” could perhaps imply the image of growth,
showing Tennyson’s progression in recovering from Hallam’s loss, despite this lyric not being the
last to be written for In Memoriam. The end stop on “flung” places emphasis on the strength
and transformative nature, once again linking to the Romantic concept of nature as a consoling
force, as lilies are symbols of rebirth and roses are associated with love and admiration.
Tennyson’s frequent referrals to nature could perhaps symbolise a religious connection, given
the Tennyson family’s links to religion. The emphasis on the flowers and the trees could connote
references to the garden of Eden, a reference perhaps made to further show Tennyson’s
admiration for Hallam, viewing him as his creator, given Hallam’s influence on Tennyson’s early
success and later success as a result of In Memoriam. A further sense of hopefulness is created
with the supposed dialogue from the breeze, stating, “The dawn, the dawn,” showing the

3
Name: Grace Higgins

inevitable progression from darkness to light, and the definite article once again proving the
significance and power of nature.

To conclude, the strong feelings which Tennyson experiences are emphasised through his
surroundings, either by cold, unwelcoming urban places or the serenity provided by nature.
Although these feelings are presented as powerful in each lyric, there is arguably a sense of
hope and optimism underlying each one, perhaps outlining the experience of grief as
temporary, something which with time and reflection can be worked through, perhaps linking to
religious faith and the consolidation of nature as a comforting force.