Elastic limit:- Point E represent the elastic limit Even if the specimen is stressed beyond point P and

upto E. it will regain its initial size and shape when the load is removed. This indicases that the material is
in elastic stage upto point E. Therefore E is called elastic limit.

Proportional limit:: Within proportional limit stress is directly proportional to strain Hence, the
material will regain its original shape after unloading. The stress corresponding to the load is known as
limit of proportionality.

Ultimate tensile Strength: After yield point y plastic deformation increases. The material becomes
stranger due to strain hardening and higher and higher load is required to deform the material finally the
load and stress reaches a maximum value as given by point U. The stress corresponding to paint U is
called yield strength.

Yield Stress (Point Y):: The loading beyond E cause plastic deformation and material start yielding.
During this stage it is not possible to recover the initial size and shape of the material on removal of load
it is seen from the diagram beyond point E strain increases at faster rate up to y- The stress corresponding
to yield point y is called yield strength.

Stress Concentration: Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section, the
simple stress distribution no longer holds good and the neighbourhood of the discontinuity is different.
This irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress concentration.
concentration can not be totally eliminated but it may be reduced to some extent. A device or concept
that is useful in assisting a design engineer to visualize the presence of stress concentration and how it
may be mitigated is that of stress flow lines, as shown in Fig. The mitigation of stress concentration means
that the stress flow lines shall maintain their spacing as far as possible.

Factor of Safety
It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.
Factor of safety = Maximum stress /Working or design stress

In case of ductile materials e.g

Factor of safety = Yield point stress /Working or design stress

In case of brittle materials

Factor of safety = Ultimate stress or design stress

Selection of Factor of Safety

1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these properties during service ;
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to actual machine parts ;
3. The reliability of applied load ;
4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure ;
5. The extent of simplifying assumptions ;
6. The extent of localised stresses ;