Unit 9 Religion and Society

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected
to:
1. Define religion
2. Differentiate the different Sociological perspectives of Religion.
3. Distinguish among the different types of religious organization

9.1 Definition of Religion

One of the most often quoted definitions of religion was formulated in 1912 by
Emile Durkheim. He defined religion "as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative
to sacred Wings, uniting into a single moral community all those who adhere to those
beliefs and practices (The Elementary Forms of Religion, p.47) According to Emile
Durkheim, religion is the beliefs/practices separating the profane from the sacred uniting
adherents into a moral community. Sacred refers to aspects of life having to do with the
supernatural that inspire awe, reverence, deep respect, or deep fear. While profane
refers to the ordinary aspects of life.

9.2 Animism

The term animism was introduced by Tylor. This refers to the that certain
inanimate objects have life and personality: they are called spirits. These beings behave
just as people do and have consciousness, will, and emotions. These spirits reside in
features of the physical environment such as trees, stones, and animals (Nanda,
1991:367-368).

Several our indigenous cultural communities have animistic beliefs. The Aetas or
Negritos of Negros Oriental believe that unseen beings inhabit trees, streams, and rivers.
These spirits have no name but people respect them and are also scared of them (Oracion,
1963:65). Demetrio (1978:91-93) wrote about engkantos believed to be good looking and
powerful, who can cure or cast spells and can be appeased only by sacrifices. Demetrio
also said that indigenous as well as Christian Filipinos believe that the souls of the dead
survive and return to the living on the third, ninth, and fortieth day after burial and
subsequently on every anniversary of their death, and that the dead come during the
novena prayers and will eat the food set aside for them.

In his book, The Traditional World of Malitbog, F. Landa Jocano (1969:321-323)

talks also about Christians and non-Christians alike believing in spirits called engkantos.
The farmers believe that these engkantos have power and authority over certain aspects
of human life. and thus, the people, even the educated ones, are convinced that the spirits
really exist and can play tricks or doing harm to them. In fact, people in the rural areas
say. "Makikiraan po, tabi noo-no" or "May I pass O spirits," when they cross streams or
rivers or walk in the woods, forests, or swampy places.
 Sociological theories hold that religion stems from sociological needs and that
certain aspects or conditions of society generate responses consider religious. Through
the peoples' religious beliefs and practices, cohesion and continuity of the society are
attained (Ember and Ember, 1988:270 Tylor said that religion may stem from such states
as dreams, trances, and death. The imagined persons and animals suggest a dual
existence for a thing, that is, having a physical visible body and psychic invisible soul. The
view was criticized as being too intellectual and devoid of the c component of religion.
Another anthropologist, Bronislaw Malinowski, held that religion is universal because it is
a response to anxieties and uncertainty that affect individuals personally, thus posing a
threat to society. To him death is only a disruption and not final as a person's personality
continue even after death (Ember and Ember, 1988:268-270).

9.3 Sociological Perspectives of Religion

Major sociological perspectives present different views on the relationship

between religion and society. The three major perspectives. the functionalist, conflict,
and symbolic interactionist-have different approaches proven to be useful in the study
of religion.

1. Functionalist perspective was formulated by Emile Durkheim in his book, The

Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912). He held that religion plays an
important function in society and that all religion have social rather than
supernatural origins. He pointed out that all social institutions, including religion,
contribute to the harmony and stability society. In religion the people are held
together in the rituals observe and religion provides a standard belief system and
a common morality which help to unite them. The set of symbols that a religion
has, like the Christian cross or the Holy Qur'an for the Muslims, reminds the
member of their common faith and unity. Thus, religion serves certain functions
for its members, such as cohesion, social control, and provision of a purpose or
goal (Curry, 1995:362-363).

2. Conflict perspective as held by Karl Marx views the religion doctrines and political
values as embodiment of the way the world of to be. These ideologies justify the
status quo; thus, they hinder social change. The capitalists can dominate the
workers using religious doctrines. The workers are made to believe in an afterlife
in which they will be rewarded for their sufferings and misery in life. This is
expressed in the statement that religion is the "opiate of the masses." Religion
soothes the masses. Relief is thus illusory.

In his book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Max Weber pointed
out that John Calvin taught the doctrine of predestination, the belief that even
before they bom, people are divided into the saved and unsaved. God knows who
the elect are who will go to heaven. Those who have faith will work hard, save
their money, and not spend it unwisely. Money is invested in land, equipment,
and labor, thereby making the person wealthy. This is a sign of God's approval of
their hard work and morality. As for the poor, if they work hard and live morally,
they will reap their reward in another life. This promise, which has the weight of
sacred authority, encourages people to be obedient and complacent, making
them better and valuable workers (Kendall, 2000:356- 357; Curry, 1995:364-365).

Society and Culture

Page 51 of 58
Module 9

USMKCC-COL-F-050
 3. Symbolic interactionist perspective, religion is important as an individual's social
identity. One's religion serves as a reference point and a means of identifying with
others. People thus try to live their lives according to the ethical and moral
precepts of their church. There are individuals though who keep religion confined
to a specific area of their lives. In this case, they may follow the norms and
traditions of other religions (Curry, 1995:365).

9.4 Elements of Religion

The French sociologist Emile Durkheim identified the four major elements of
religion as expressed in his definition of religion:

1. Sacred objects- religions are symbolic systems, the range of objects deemed
sacred can vary widely. The sacred object can be a supernatural being of force or
a ghost or spirit endowed with supernatural power. It can be a moral principle, or
a particular object that symbolizes deep-seated feelings. For example, a tribe may
consider a forest as a supernatural being while monotheist believe in a single deity
called "God", "Yahweh", or "Allah". Sometimes the supernatural element may
simply be a "force" which may reside in a tree, a lizard, an oddly chapped stone, a
totem, a crucifix, or a statue of saint. Sacred things give the members of a religion
a shared sense of the reality of the supernatural, or of what is sometimes called
"the holy"

2. Sacred beliefs- sacred things derive their meaning from the beliefs that sustain or
underlie them. A crucifix is deemed sacred to Christians because it presupposes a
belief in the resurrection. The Bible is sacred to Christians because it presupposes
the belief that it contains the words of God.

3. Rituals- sociologists regard rituals as the visible and symbolic expressions of a

religion. It refers to prescribed ways of performing religious acts. Examples: group
prayers, bible study, evangelizing, singing spiritual songs, or using drugs or magic,
food offerings to the gods.

4. Religious community. The religious community is composed of those unique

social characters of religion. This community is composed of those who share
common beliefs and practices about the sacred which bind them together within
a large social whole. To Durkheim, “the idea of society is the soul of religion.” He
felt community and religion were inseparable for two reasons: religion both
celebrates and creates community.

9.5 Functions of Religion

In the last century and the beginning of the present century, many anthropologists
sought to know the origin of religion. Theorists offered various explanations, but they all
seemed inadequate. Recently, anthropologists gave up their efforts to know how religion
started. Rather. they directed their efforts to understand the functions of religion. It is
assumed that such knowledge will have something to do with both the origin and the
continued existence of supernaturalism (Dubbs and Whitney, 1980:240)

Society and Culture

Page 52 of 58
Module 9

USMKCC-COL-F-050
 1. One function is cognitive: it gives explanations or knowledge about the occurrence
of certain phenomena. From the beginning of time people have asked questions
like, Where did I come from? Why do I exist? What happens after death? How did
the earth begin? Why is there lightning? Thunder? Why do I get sick? In the olden
times, religion provided satisfying answers based on supernatural activities.

2. Religion maintains the social order and promotes group solidarity. As Durkheim
averred, in all societies the realm of the sacred brings the community together,
reaffirms its values and strengthens its social bond, and the church is a moral
community formed by all believers. Religion teaches the people that they have a
place in society and a relationship to it Through the ideology and rituals of
religions, people gain a sense of identity, and that life is meaningful. Religion
strengthens the bonds attaching the individual to the society of which he is a
member, since the god he believes in is only the figurative expression of the
society. It simultaneously expresses the unity of society as a collective
representation and specifies the limits of acceptability to the collective will
(Waters, 1994:150).

3. Religion offers support, consolation, and reassurance to it members. In the face

of pain, misery, frustrations, problems, sickness or death, religious beliefs and
rituals offer solace and reassurances that come from having some way to explain
and cope with the troubles and uncertainties of life. Magic or prayer to the
supernatural brings healing, help in times of sickness, insurmountable problems,
war, and others. Thus, the person derives psychological comfort from being able
to do something that holds some promise of coping successfully with troubles
(Dubbs and Whitney, 1980:241).

2. Religion validates the people's customs and values. Religious beliefs and
convictions are important as powerful support for things they believe they should
do or not do and as cultural traits. Religion integrates and maintains the
fundamental values, from the ultimate value of God to the subordinate, material,
and practical values. Thus, Catholicism considers marriage as a sacrament and an
inviolable institution. It upholds respect for the law and humanity and emphasizes
adherence to the Ten Commandments and the laws of the church to salvation.

3. Religion provides guidance and becomes a means of social control. The norms of
conduct and codes of behavior set forth by a certain religion provide guides for
the individual's behavior. Religion delineates what is right and what is wrong and
prescribes a system of reward and punishment. Expectations of what would result
from doing good, fear of sin, concept of the life hereafter. and concepts of heaven
and hell motivate an individual to do what is good to be at peace with his maker.
Thus, to a devout follower, religion is a deterrent to wrongdoing and a motivation
for doing good.

4. Religion performs welfare and recreation functions. Aside ministering to spiritual

needs, some religions also attend to the temporal and bodily necessities of their
members. Religious organizations carry out welfare activities and social action
programs, stress philanthropy and operate charitable institutions, hospitals,
orphanages, and medical and dental clinics.

Society and Culture

Page 53 of 58
Module 9

USMKCC-COL-F-050
9.6 Types of Religious Organization

The body of beliefs plus the rituals and practices produced are what we call religious
organizations. Yinger, (Religion, Society, and individual) and other sociologists like the
German sociologists, Ernst Traeltsch (1930) recognize three major forms of religious
organizations: ecclesia or church, sect, and cult.

1. SECT- it is small, exclusive, uncompromising fellowship of individuals seeking

spiritual perfection. Members are voluntary converts, and the sect largely controls
their lives. Traeltach found that sects are usually characterized by ascetism
disciplined lifestyle. Often, they discourage their members from extensive
participation in austere worldly affairs because they consider the world outside
the sect to be decadent, comp and sinful Sects arise by breaking away from an
ecclesia or church. For a religious movement to be a sect, individuals who leave
one religious in order to find a new group and do found it. Sects often claim they
are the authentic, cleansed version of the faith from which they split. Examples of
sects in the Philippines are the Iglesia ni Kristo and Protestantism.

2. CHURCH OR ECCLESIA- it is a large, conservative universal religious institution. Its

growth increasingly comes from those born into the group, not from conversions.
Its demands on church members diminish, and the church becomes more tolerant
of other religious groups. Because it is large, it tends to acquire a certain amount
of social and political power, and often it retains that power by becoming
associated with the government of ruling class and it tends to support the status
quo. Examples are the Church of England, the Catholic Church in Spain and the
Philippines, and the Muslim Shiites in Iran.

3. CULTS are religious movements that are at odds with their social environment and
which have no prior ties with an established religious body in a given society Starks
and Bainbridge described three types of cults, based on how tightly they are
organized:

a. Audience cults- have practically no formal organization. The "members"

are consumers of cult doctrines delivered over the airwaves or in books,
magazines, and newspaper columns.

b. Client cults- have religious leaders who offer specific services to those who
follow them. Although the leaders are well organized, the clients are not.
An example of a client cult is scientology, which used an organized network
of staff to dispense cult doctrine to groups of clients

c. Cult movements- are client cults which become larger and more tightly
organized. Examples are the Transcendental Meditation and Reverend
Moon's Unification Church. In the Philippines, the Rizalistas is an example
of the cult.

Society and Culture

Page 54 of 58
Module 9

USMKCC-COL-F-050