Employee Training and Development/ Designing and Evaluating Training Systems

Source: https://drive.google.com/file/d/10E91fTrUsdHstQlFxL-cnzKwpVGUUyeM/view

Determining Training Needs (Kars)

● Conducting a needs analysis is the first step in developing an employee training system (Noe, 2013).
○ The purpose of a needs analysis is to determine the types of training, if any, that are needed in
an organization, as well as the extent to which training is a practical means of achieving an
organization’s goals.
● Three types of needs analysis are typically conducted: organizational analysis, task analysis, and
person analysis.

Organizational Analysis
● The purpose of organizational analysis is to determine those organizational factors that either
facilitate or inhibit training effectiveness.
○ For example, an organization may view training as important but may not have the
money to fund its training program, may be unable to afford the employee time away
from work to be trained, or may not wish to spend money on training because employees
leave the organization after a short period of time.
● A properly conducted organizational analysis will focus on the goals the organization wants to
achieve, the extent to which training will help achieve those goals, the organization’s ability to
conduct training (e.g., finances, physical space, time), and the extent to which employees are
willing and able to be trained (e.g., ability, commitment, motivation, stress)
● An organizational analysis should include a survey of employee readiness for training.
○ For example, a large organization recently had several rounds of layoffs and had not
given its employees salary increases in three years.
○ When the organization introduced a new training program, it was surprised to find that
the employees were so angry at the company that they were “not in the mood for
training.”
 ○ Thus, training will be effective only if the organization is willing to provide a supportive
climate for training, it can afford an effective program, that employees want to learn, and
the goals of a program are consistent with those of the organization

Task Analysis
● If the results of the organizational analysis indicate that a positive organizational climate for training
exists, the next step is to conduct a task analysis.
○ The purpose of a task analysis is to use the job analysis methods discussed in Chapter 2 to
identify the tasks performed by each employee, the conditions under which these tasks are
performed, and the competencies (knowledge, skills, abilities) needed to perform the tasks
under the identified conditions.
● The most common job analysis methods used for this purpose include interviews, observations, and
task inventories. If an organization has detailed and current job descriptions already written, the task
analysis process is fairly easy and does not take much time.
● Once the tasks and competencies for a job have been identified, the next step is to determine how
employees learn to perform each task or obtain each competency.
○ For example, due to a rigorous employee selection process, we might expect employees to be
able to perform many of the tasks at the time they are hired. Some tasks might be so simple that
they can be performed without the need of previous experience or future training. For other
tasks, we might have formal training programs to teach employees the necessary competencies
needed to perform them.

Person Analysis
● The third and final step in the needs analysis process is determining which employees need training
and in which areas.
● Person analysis is based on the recognition that not every employee needs further training for every
task performed.
○ For example, trainers at Applebee’s restaurants test management trainees on essential
on-the-job tasks.
○ When the trainees demonstrate proficiency, the training ends.
○ Thus, some trainees complete the management training program in half the time it takes others.
● A person analysis should also include an evaluation of an employee’s readiness for the training.
● To determine the individual training needs for each employee, person analysis uses performance
appraisal scores, surveys, interviews, skill and knowledge tests, and/or critical incidents.

1. Performance Appraisal Scores

● Perhaps the easiest method of needs analysis is to use employees’ performance appraisal scores.
○ Low ratings on a particular dimension for most employees may indicate that additional training
in that dimension is needed.
○ Conversely, if most employees score high on a particular dimension, relatively little training time
is needed.
● Although using performance appraisal scores appears fairly easy as a method of needs assessment,
three problems can interfere with their use.
○ First, as discussed in the previous chapter, several types of rating errors can reduce the
accuracy of performance appraisal scores.
■ The most relevant here are leniency errors and strictness errors.
■ If the performance appraisal scores are consistently high because of leniency error, a
human resources professional might incorrectly conclude that employees are proficient
in a particular area and thus need no training.
 ○ The second problem is that rarely are there situations in which all employees score either high
or low on a dimension.
■ Instead, it is more common for only a few employees to score poorly.
■ In this case, a person examining the average performance appraisal scores might
conclude that training in a particular dimension is unnecessary. But that conclusion
would be only partially correct.
■ True, not everyone needs training in that dimension, but concluding that training should
not be conducted would be incorrect.
○ Third, the current performance appraisal system may not provide the type of information needed
to conduct a training needs analysis.
■ As discussed in Chapter 7, performance appraisal systems must be specific to be useful.

2. Surveys
● Another common approach to determine training needs is to design and administer a survey
that asks employees what knowledge and skills they believe should be included in future
training.
● Surveys offer several advantages.
○ First, they eliminate the problems of performance rating errors, which were discussed
previously.
○ Second, employees often know their own strengths and weaknesses best.
■ Thus, to determine what employees need, ask them.
○ Finally, training needs can be determined with surveys, even when the organization has
not previously made an effort to design an effective performance appraisal system or
adequate job descriptions.
● The main disadvantages of surveys are that employees may not be honest and the organization
may not be able to afford the training suggested by the employees.
● As with any type of survey, training needs surveys can be conducted in many ways.
○ The most common method is a questionnaire that asks employees to list the areas in
which they would like further or future training.

3. Interviews
● The third method of needs analysis is the interview, which is usually done with a selected
number of employees.
● Interviews are not used as extensively as surveys, but they can yield even more in-depth
answers to questions about training needs (Patton & Pratt, 2002).
● The main advantage of interviews is that employee feelings and attitudes are revealed more
clearly than with the survey approach.
● The main disadvantage of interviews is that interview data are often difficult to quantify and
analyze (Brown, 2002).

4. Skill and Knowledge Tests

● The fourth way to determine training needs is with a skill test or a knowledge test.
○ Some examples of areas that could be tested to determine training needs include
knowledge of lending laws for loan officers, knowledge of company policy for new
employees, free-throw shooting for basketball players, and the dreaded midterm exam
for this course.
● If all employees score poorly on these tests, training across the organization is indicated.
● If only a few employees score poorly, they are singled out for individual training.
 ● The greatest problem with using testing as a method to determine training needs is that
relatively few tests are available for this purpose.
● Skill Test - a test that measures an employee’s level of some job-related skill.
● Knowledge Test - a test that measures the level of an employee’s knowledge about a
job-related topic.

5. Critical Incidents
● The fifth method for determining training needs is the critical-incident technique.
● Although not a commonly used method, it is relatively easy to use, especially if a proper job
analysis is available.
● To use this technique for needs assessment, the critical incidents are sorted into dimensions
and separated into examples of good and poor performance.
● Dimensions with many examples of poor performance are considered to be areas in which
many employees are performing poorly and in which additional training is indicated.

Establishing Goals and Objectives (Khiz)

The establishment of goals and objectives is a critical step in developing a training program, as it
determines resource allocation, delivery methods, and evaluation criteria.

❖ Goals should align with what the organization aims to achieve within the allocated time and resources.
➢ For instance, if limited time is available, goals should be realistic, such as identifying
common causes of conflict rather than mastering conflict mediation skills.
❖ Specificity is key in setting objectives, replacing vague goals with clear, measurable targets.
❖ Objectives should state what learners are expected to do, under what conditions, and to what standard.
➢ For example, objectives could include increasing customer contacts by a certain
percentage or completing tasks within a specific timeframe and with a specified level of
accuracy.

Choosing the Best Training Method (Kars)

● Once goals and objectives have been established, the next step in developing a training program is to
choose the training method that will best accomplish those goals and objectives.
● Because most training programs have multiple goals and objectives, the best training programs often
use a variety of methods so that employees will understand the reasons for doing a certain task, how it
should be done, and in what situations it should be done (Lawson, 2000).

1. Using Lecture to Provide Knowledge

● Lectures are a good training source if the goal is for employees to obtain knowledge, but unless
they are accompanied by such techniques as simulations and role-plays, they are not usually
effective at teaching skills.
● An important part of any training presentation is the handouts to the audience.
○ The purpose of handouts is to provide material that the trainees can take back to their
jobs.

2. Using Case Studies to Apply Knowledge

● Once employees have received the information they need through lecture, it is important that
they be able to apply what they have learned.
○ One way to do this is through the case study.
● Case Study - a training technique in which employees, usually in a group, are presented with a
real or hypothetical workplace problem and are asked to propose the best solution.
 ● Case studies are similar to leaderless group discussions and situational interview problems
(which were discussed in Chapter 5), and are considered to be good sources for developing
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation skills
● For case studies to be most successful, the cases should be taken from actual situations.
○ Living Case - a case study based on a real situation rather than a hypothetical one.
● In addition to being realistic, case studies should be interesting.
○ They are best when they are written in the form of a story, contain dialogue between the
characters, use realistic details, are descriptive and easy to follow, contain all information
necessary to solve the problem, and are difficult enough to be challenging
● To increase the effectiveness of case studies, trainees should first be taught the principles
involved in solving a particular type of problem, helped to use those principles in discussing the
case, and then have the principles reinforced after reading the case study.

3. Using Simulation Exercises to Practice New Skills

● Whereas case studies are effective in applying knowledge and learning problem-solving skills,
simulation exercises allow the trainee to practice newly learned skills.
● Simulation - an exercise designed to place an applicant in a situation that is similar to the one
that will be encountered on the job
● Simulations offer the advantage of allowing the trainee to work with equipment under actual
working conditions without the consequences of mistakes.
○ For example, using a cash register or taking a customer’s order is easy to learn.
○ But it is a much more difficult task with a long line of angry customers or irritable
coworkers.
● Simulation exercises allow the trainee to feel such pressure but without actually affecting the
organization’s performance.
● Like all training methods, simulation exercises come in many different forms.
○ Some, such as airline simulators, are extremely expensive and complex to use, but
others, such as a simulated restaurant counter, are relatively inexpensive.
● Whatever the method used, a simulation exercise can be effective only if it physically and
psychologically simulates actual job conditions.
○ For example, dummy simulators are a standard part of cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR) training provided by the American Red Cross.

4. Practicing Interpersonal Skills Through Role-Play

● Whereas simulations are effective for learning how to use new equipment or software programs,
role-play allows the trainee to perform necessary interpersonal skills by acting out simulated
roles.
● Role-play - a training technique in which employees act out simulated roles.
● Role-play is used in many types of training situations, from supervisors practicing performance
appraisal reviews to sales clerks taking customer orders.
○ One interesting variation of the role-play exercise has an employee playing the role of
“the other person.”
○ For example, a supervisor might play the role of an employee, or a sales clerk might play
the role of a customer who is frustrated with recently purchased merchandise.
○ In this way, the employee can better understand the reasoning and feelings of the people
with whom he works.
● Though role-plays allow employees to practice what is being taught, they are not for everyone.
○ Many employees feel uneasy and embarrassed about being required to “act.”
 ○ This reluctance can be reduced to some extent by using warm-up exercises and praising
employees after they participate.
● Farber (1994) thinks that role-play should be replaced by “real play,” in which employees
practice their skills on actual customers.
○ For example, salespeople can be trained by having the sales staff sit around a
conference table and take turns making calls to actual/potential customers.
○ The group then discusses the technique of the person making the call.

5. Increasing Interpersonal Skills Through Behavior Modeling

● One of the most successful training methods has been behavior modeling (Taylor, Russ-Eft, &
Chan, 2005).
● Behavior Modeling - a training technique in which employees observe correct behavior,
practice that behavior, and then receive feedback about their performance.
● Behavior modeling is similar to role-play except that trainees role-play ideal behavior rather than
the behavior they might normally perform.
○ The behavior modeling technique begins with a discussion of a problem, why it occurred,
and the employee behaviors necessary to correct the problem.
○ These behaviors are called learning points and are essentially rules to follow in solving
a problem.
○ Next, trainees view videos of employees correctly and incorrectly solving the problem.
○ The trainees take notes during the video and are given an opportunity to ask questions.
○ After viewing the video, trainees mentally rehearse the solution to the problem in the way
that the employee solved it on the video.
○ Finally, employees role-play (behaviorally rehearse) situations and receive feedback on
their performances.
○ Employees are also given the opportunity to play the role of the “other” person so that
they will gain the same insight they would have by role-play training.
○ Employees then discuss ways to apply their new skills on the job.
○ By this procedure, employees will already have had experience dealing with the problem
in the proper way when they encounter the same situation on the job.
○ In other words, a positive transfer of learning will have occurred.
● Of course, for behavior modeling to be successful, the videos must represent commonly
encountered problems and situations—thus demonstrating the importance of a thorough job
analysis.
○ By observing and interviewing employees and by collecting critical incidents, the
necessary problems and situations can be obtained.
● For example, a specific situational skill would be handling a bank customer who is angry about a
bounced check.
○ The related generic skill would be calming any angry customer.
○ Obviously, generic skills are more difficult to teach and require the modeling of many
different types of behavior in many different situations.

a. Motivating Employees to Attend Training

● Once the training program has been developed, the next step is to motivate employees
to attend the training.
● The most obvious way to “motivate” employees to attend training is to require them to
attend training “on the clock.”
● Here are some strategies to motivate employees to attend training:
○ Relate the training to an employee’s immediate job.
 ■
Employees are more likely to attend when the material covered in training
will directly affect their immediate job performance.
○ Make the training interesting.
■ Employees are more likely to attend when they know they will have a
good time as well as learn something useful.
○ Increase employee buy-in.
■ When employees play a role in choosing and planning the types of
training offered, they are more likely to attend.
○ Provide incentives.
■ Common incentives for attending training include certificates, money,
promotion opportunities, and college credit.
○ Provide food.
○ Reduce the stress associated with attending.
■ To encourage employees to attend training, organizations should provide
workload reductions or staffing assistance.
Delivering the Training Program (Khiz)
Delivering a training program effectively is essential for ensuring that employees gain the necessary
skills and knowledge to contribute effectively to an organization's goals. The three primary methods of
delivering training;
➢ Classroom-based
➢ Distance learning, and
➢ On-the-job training

Each offers unique advantages depending on the organization's needs and resources.

Conducting Classroom Training

Initial Decisions
- Prior to conducting classroom training, several decisions need to be made by an organization.

Who will Conduct the Training?

This decision may involve weighing the expertise of in-house trainers against the potential benefits of
hiring external trainers or utilizing instructional videos. In-house trainers are valuable for topics specific to the
organization or when training sessions are frequent. On the other hand, external trainers may be necessary
for specialized topics or when developing training internally is cost-prohibitive. Videos offer a cost-effective
option for repeated training sessions. Additionally, organizations may leverage local colleges and universities
for training needs, benefiting from lower costs, access to quality facilities, renowned faculty, and the potential
for employees to earn college credit.

The importance of these decisions lies in optimizing the effectiveness and efficiency of the training
program. By carefully selecting the delivery method and the individuals or resources involved in conducting the
training, organizations can ensure that employees receive high-quality instruction tailored to their needs. This,
in turn, enhances employee performance, job satisfaction, and overall organizational success. Additionally, by
aligning training initiatives with organizational objectives and employee skill requirements, businesses can
remain competitive in their respective industries and adapt to evolving market demands. Therefore, thoughtful
consideration of training delivery methods is paramount for fostering a skilled and motivated workforce capable
of meeting the challenges of today's dynamic business environment.

Where will the training be held?

 Training can be held either on-site or off-site. On-site training is typically less expensive, but off-site
locations offer the advantage of removing employees from their usual work environment, allowing for better
concentration and focus on training.

Off-site advantages: Off-site training locations, such as hotels, universities, or conference centers, can
provide a conducive environment for learning and may serve as incentives or rewards for employees,
fostering motivation and engagement.

How long should the training be?

The duration of training sessions impacts learning effectiveness. While longer sessions may seem
cost-efficient, shorter, distributed sessions lead to better retention and engagement. Massed learning,
cramming information into a short timeframe, is less effective than distributed learning, which spreads material
over time. Just as cramming for exams yields poor results compared to consistent study sessions, training
benefits from spaced-out, manageable chunks of information. Therefore, prioritizing distributed learning
enhances training outcomes and employee performance.

Preparing for Classroom Training

Adjusting for the audience.
Preparing for classroom training involves adjusting to the characteristics of the audience, including size,
demographics, and ability levels. Factors such as audience size impact the delivery methods, with larger
groups requiring different strategies than smaller ones. Demographic considerations, such as gender and age,
influence audience reactions to examples and exercises.

Tailoring the training pace to accommodate varying ability levels ensures engagement and
effectiveness. Trainers typically maintain a moderate pace to balance the needs of diverse audiences.
Effective training relies on factors such as audience brightness, self-efficacy, motivation, and goal
orientation.

Delivering the Training Program

Introducing the Trainer and the Training Session.
When delivering the training program, introductions are crucial to establish the trainer's credibility and
set expectations for the session. The introduction should be concise and highlight the trainer's credentials.
Clear communication of training objectives, schedule, and rules ensures smooth proceedings. Breaks and
meal times should be incorporated into the schedule for optimal engagement and comfort.

Providing tips on audience etiquette contributes to a productive learning environment.

Effective preparation and presentation are key to successful classroom training sessions.

Employment Profile Career Workshop: Audience Etiquette (Fech)

There is a difference between technical and nontechnical training.

- Soft-skills training and technical training are very different types of training. I find it much more
challenging to present technical material over soft-skills material. Eight hours of statistics training can
be quite boring.

Trainers are like wine—they get better over time.

 - For your first training program, start by practicing in front of a mirror, then making the move to present
in front of your friends or family, and finally taking the plunge into your first training.

Get to know your audience prior to the training.

- It is very important to have a firm understanding of who is going to be in the training session.

Know the material.

- It is very important that you have a thorough understanding of the material prior to presenting

Use icebreakers and energizers.

- Following the introduction of the trainer, most training programs start with some sort of icebreaker or
energizer.

Don’t make up answers.

- You will quickly lose the credibility of your participants if you provide answers that are not true.
- Never make up an answer on the spot just to answer the question. This will come back to haunt you!

Use different formats while presenting.

- Use such things as PowerPoint, group activities, videos, group exercises, roundtable discussions, web
demos, and case studies. This not only will make your training program more interesting, but it will help
participants learn the materials.

Wear good shoes.

- A poor pair of shoes will make for an extremely uncomfortable training experience.

Be prepared.

- Always check that you have all of your materials and information prior to walking out the door. I like to
use a checklist of all the things I need to take with me prior to the training.

Use stories and experiences.

- It helps to present the material and apply it to real-life settings.

Humor goes a long way.

- People like to be amused and entertained when they come to a training session. Effective use of humor
can be a great way to engage and entertain your audience. This will help break up the monotony of the
session.

Motivating Employees to Learn During Training (Khiz)

Providing incentives for Learning
 Enhances employee motivation and performance during training programs. Incentives can take various
forms, including financial rewards, job security, self-improvement opportunities, career advancement, enjoyable
training experiences, and chances to enter new career paths. Skill-based pay is a common incentive method
where employees participate in training programs to acquire specific skills needed for promotion or salary
increases. Mastery of these skills is typically required for advancement, ensuring that employees demonstrate
competency beyond attending training sessions. Skill-based pay plans may focus on vertical, horizontal, depth,
or basic skills, tailored to organizational needs. For example, at FedEx, employees undergo interactive video
training on customer contact annually, with performance linked to salary increases based on test scores.
Skill-based pay not only motivates employees but also yields cost savings and performance improvements for
organizations, as demonstrated by a General Foods plant that saw significant decreases in quality reject rates
and overhead costs after implementing a skill-based pay program.

Interest
Motivating employees to engage in training requires making the material interesting and providing
effective feedback. Interesting topics naturally captivate employees, but trainers can enhance engagement by
relating content to employees' lives, incorporating activities, employing various training techniques, injecting
humor, and encouraging audience participation.

Feedback
Is crucial for learning, providing specific information on task performance. While some tasks naturally
offer feedback, others require deliberate feedback mechanisms. Effective feedback helps employees
understand their performance, identify areas for improvement, and refine their skills. However, a balance must
be struck between giving too little and too much feedback to optimize learning outcomes.
➢ Positive feedback reinforces correct behavior
➢ Negative feedback, accompanied by specific suggestions for improvement, is essential for
correcting errors and enhancing performance.

Ensuring that training programs are both interesting and feedback-rich promotes employee motivation
and learning effectiveness.

Ensuring Transfer of Training (Fech)

Transfer of training The extent to which behavior learned in training will be performed on the job.

Use Realistic Training Programs

- Employees will also be motivated to apply what they learned in training if the training program has a
reputation among them as being effective and useful (Switzer, Nagy, & Mullins, 2005). This is not
surprising given that employees talk with one another about training, and when they find a training
program useful (or not), they certainly pass that information on to other employees.

Have Opportunities to Practice Work-Related Behavior During the Training

- The term overlearning does not have the same meaning in training that it has on most college
campuses. In training, overlearning means practicing a task even after it has been successfully learned.
Many students, however, think of overlearning as the negative consequence of “studying too hard.”
Although it is commonly believed that one can study too hard and “overlearn” the material, research
does not support the conclusion that this type of overlearning occurs or has negative consequences.

Provide Employees with the Opportunity to Apply Their Training

 - For information learned in training to transfer to behavior on the job, employees must be given the
opportunity and encouraged to apply what they have learned (Broad, 2000; Ford, Quiñones, Sego, &
Sorra, 1992; Tracey, Tannenbaum, & Kavanagh, 1995). Employees are more likely to be given
opportunities to perform what they learned if their supervisor perceives them to be competent and the
organizational climate is supportive (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Ford et al., 1992).
- One other method for getting employees to apply what they have learned in training is to train all the
employees in a work area (team) at the same time

Ensure Management Is Supportive of the Training

- An important factor in employee motivation to apply training is the atmosphere set by management.
That is, employees are most likely to apply their new knowledge and skills if supervisors encourage and
reward them to do so.

Have Employees Set Goals

- The use of knowledge and skills learned in training can also be encouraged by having employees set
goals.

Putting It All Together (Fech)

- Employees must have the skills and abilities to complete the training successfully.
- There should be minimal outside factors (e.g., work or family problems) that might distract the
employee and keep him from concentrating on the training program.
- Employees must be motivated to learn. That is, they must perceive that training is needed, that the
training program meets their expectations, that they have the ability to complete the training
(self-efficacy), and that there will be some reward for performing well.
- The training method (e.g., programmed instruction, behavioral modeling, lecture) must be a good match
for the employee’s learning style, ability, and personality.
- The training method must be a good match for the type of material being learned (e.g., knowledge vs. a
physical skill). The training program must allow for goal setting, positive feedback, distributed practice,
overlearning, and the chance to practice and apply the material learned (transfer of training). There
must be an opportunity and encouragement to use the newly acquired knowledge at work.

Evaluation of Training Results (Kars)

● As discussed in Chapter 1, one important characteristic of industrial psychology is its reliance on
research.
● Evaluating training results is a good example of this reliance.
● Because training programs can be costly in both time and money, it is essential that they be evaluated
to determine if they can be improved, should continue to be offered, and whether they significantly
increase performance or affect positive changes in behavior

1. Research Designs for Evaluation

● There are many ways to evaluate the effectiveness of a training program, and two factors
differentiate the various methods.
● The first involves practicality, and the second is concerned with experimental rigor.
● Although scientifically rigorous research designs are preferred, their use is not always possible.
○ Yet a practical research design without scientific rigor yields little confidence in research
findings.
● The most simple and practical of research designs implements a training program and then
determines whether significant change is seen in performance of job knowledge.
● To use this method, performance or job knowledge must be measured twice.
○ The first measurement, a pretest, is taken before the implementation of training.
○ The second measurement, a posttest, is taken after the training program is complete.
● Pretest - a measure of job performance or knowledge taken before the implementation of a
training program
● Posttest - a measure of job performance or knowledge taken after a training program has been
completed.
○ A diagram of this simple pretest-posttest design is as follows:

● Although this method is fairly simple, its findings are difficult to interpret because there is no
control group against which the results can be compared.
○ That is, suppose a significant difference in performance is seen between the pretest and
the posttest.
○ If a training program has occurred between the two tests, it would be tempting to credit
the training for the increase.
○ The increase, however, may have resulted from other factors, such as changes in
machinery, in motivation caused by non training factors, or in managerial style or
philosophy.
● Likewise, suppose no significant increase in performance is observed between pretest and
posttest.
○ The natural conclusion might be that the training program did not work. Without a control
group, that interpretation is not necessarily correct.
○ The same changes noted above for an increase may have caused a decrease in
performance in this second case.
○ Thus, it is possible that the training program actually did increase performance but that
other factors reduced it, which resulted in no net gain in performance from training.
● To overcome these problems, a control group should be used.
○ For training purposes, a control group consists of employees who will be tested and
treated in the same manner as the experimental group, except that they will not receive
training.
○ The control group will be subject to the same policy, machinery, and economic conditions
as the employees in the experimental group who receive training.
○ The diagram for a pretest/posttest control group design looks like this:

● Even though this design is an improvement on the first, it too has its drawbacks.
○ First, except for training manipulation, it is almost impossible to treat a control group the
same as the experimental group.
○ Control groups often consist of workers at other plants or on other shifts at the same
plant.
○ Such groups are used because there often is no alternative. But the fact that they are in
different environments reduces confidence in the research findings.
 ● With both of the above designs, the pretest itself presents a problem. That is, the mere taking of
a test may itself lead to increases in performance.
○ Because of this, a rather complicated method called the Solomon four-groups design
can be used (Campbell & Stanley, 1963).
○ Solomon Four-groups Design - an extensive method of evaluating the effectiveness of
training with the use of pretests, posttests, and control groups.
■ With this design, one group will undergo training but will not take the pretest, a
second group will undergo training but will take the pretest, a third group will not
undergo training but will take the pretest, and a fourth group will neither undergo
training nor take the pretest.
○ The diagram for this design is as follows:

○ This design allows a researcher not only to control for outside effects, but also to control
for any pretest effect.
■ This is the most scientifically rigorous of the research designs used to evaluate
training, but even this has a serious drawback: It is often not practical.
● That is, four groups of employees must be used, two of which do not
receive training.

2. Evaluation Criteria
● There are six levels at which training effectiveness can be measured: content validity, employee
reactions, employee learning, application of training, business impact, and return on investment
(Phillips & Stone, 2002).
● Content Validity - at times, the only way that training can be evaluated is by comparing training
content with the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform a job.
○ In other words, the content validity of the training can be examined.
○ For example, if a job analysis indicates that knowledge of electronic circuitry is
necessary to perform a job, then a seminar that is designed to teach this knowledge
would have content validity.
○ Although content analysis may ensure that a training program is job related, it still does
not indicate whether a particular training method is effective.
● Employee Reactions - a method of evaluating training in which employees are asked their
opinions of a training program.
○ The most commonly used method to evaluate training is measuring employee reactions
to the training.
○ Employee reactions involve asking employees if they enjoyed the training and learned
from the training.
○ These ratings tend to be most influenced by the trainer’s style and the degree of
interaction in the training program, but are also influenced by the motivation of the
trainee prior to training as well as perceptions of organizational support for the training
○ Employee reactions are important because employees will not have confidence in the
training and will not be motivated to use it if they do not like the training process.
 ■ However, even though positive employee reactions are necessary for training to
be successful, positive employee reactions do not mean that training will lead to
changes in knowledge or performance
○ Because trainee reactions constitute the lowest level of training evaluation, they can
often be misleading.
■ For example, most seminars conducted by outside consultants are informative
and well presented, so employee reactions are almost always positive, even
though the training may not actually affect knowledge or future performance.
● Employee Learning - evaluating the effectiveness of a training program by measuring how
much employees learned from it.
○ Instead of using employee reactions as the criterion in evaluating training performance,
actual employee learning can usually be measured.
○ That is, if a training program is designed to increase employee knowledge of
communication techniques, then creating a test to determine whether an employee
actually learned is possible.
■ This test will be administered before training and then again after the training has
been completed.
■ The measurements that will be used for the pretest and posttest, as with
selection tests, must be both reliable and valid.
○ Thus, if the purpose of a training program is to increase job knowledge, an appropriate
job knowledge test must be constructed or purchased.
● Application of Training - measurement of the effectiveness of training by determining the
extent to which employees apply the material taught in a training program.
○ The extent to which employees actually can use the learned material.
○ Learning and memorizing new material is one thing, and applying it is another.
■ For example, if employees learn how to deal with angry customers, their ability to
apply this material can be measured by observing how they treat an angry
customer while they are actually working.
● Business Impact - a method of evaluating the effectiveness of training by determining whether
the goals of the training were met.
○ Business impact is determined by evaluating whether the goals for training were met.
■ For example, a restaurant such as Buffalo Wild Wings conducts a training
program designed to increase sales of top-shelf liquor.
■ A week after the training, if sales of liquors such as Knob Creek bourbon and
Absolut vodka increase, and sales of liquors such as Pepe Lopez tequila and
Aristocrat vodka decrease, the training would be considered successful because
it has had the desired business impact.
● Return on Investment - the amount of money an organization makes after subtracting the cost
of training or other interventions.
○ After accounting for the cost of the training, did the organization actually save money?

On the Job: Applied Case Study: Training at Pal’s Sudden Service (Sab)
● Pal's Sudden Service, headquartered in Kingsport, Tennessee, is a quick-service restaurant chain with
over 25 locations and is renowned for its excellence and quality, being the first to receive the Malcolm
Baldrige National Quality Award and winning the Tennessee Excellence Award multiple times.
● Pal's focuses on quick and accurate service, achieved through a unique training program
encompassing 120 hours of training for each hourly employee, including face-to-face and e-learning
sessions. Employees are versatile, capable of filling various roles.
 ● Store managers offer continual coaching, and employees undergo pop quizzes at shift beginnings, with
additional training for those scoring less than perfect.
● Through their comprehensive system, Pal's has drastically reduced errors from one in 450 transactions
to one in 3,360 and lowered service time from 23 to 18 seconds.
● Pal's attention to detail, like using Hoshizaki ice cubes to keep iced tea cool, underscores their
commitment to customer satisfaction.
● Pal exemplifies how focusing on training, assessment, and feedback can elevate service quality and
customer satisfaction, earning them recognition and loyal patrons.

Focus on Ethics: The Ethics of Using Role-Play in Employee Trainings (Sab)

● Role-plays serve as effective teaching tools for training employees in soft skills, encompassing
interpersonal abilities like conflict management, stress management, and customer service.
● Some role-plays involve demonstrating the wrong and right ways to handle a situation, followed by
discussion and improvement.
● Trainees may also enact scenarios based on learned techniques, followed by critique and suggestions
for improvement.
● Ethical concerns arise regarding the mandatory nature of role-plays, which can cause anxiety and
discomfort for participants.
● Some role-plays may present challenging or distressing situations, raising questions about their ethical
implications.
● Advocates argue that role-plays are essential for preparing employees for real-life scenarios and
improving their soft skills. Merely listening to lectures or exercises may not adequately equip employees
for real-life situations, making role-plays crucial for skill application and development.
Chapter Summary
● The first step in the training process is to conduct a training needs assessment that includes an
organizational analysis, task analysis, and person analysis.
● Training methods take many forms. Classroom learning techniques include seminars, audiovisual aids,
programmed instruction, case studies, and critical incidents. Sample job performance techniques
include simulation, role-play, behavior modeling, and job rotation. Informal training techniques include
apprentice training,coaching, and performance appraisal.
● Such psychological principles as modeling, distributed practice, and transfer of training must be
considered when conducting a training program.
● It is important to evaluate training success by measuring trainee attitudes, knowledge, ability to apply
newly learned material, and improved performance.