oe METAL: CUTTING ok . “> Back rake angle 9 > Side vake angle Ge > end cutting ealge angle ps > Side cutting edge angle By > end relief angle Ps > side vel'ef angle d > 90-c, > Appreach angle “ Princtpol culting edge angle. © 6 > Wedge angle a see Rake angle f=. =- == a # Rake angle Cent je Rabe angle (42 : i ' | S$ Lip angle Ct as on a (> Bere My Ss Cutting forces beg ‘hs toot Lefe CY) ects > Tool Life ON | MRR CH hd gti mike OD # positive Rake angles Ore used for soft & ductile oveet * Negative yoke angles are user for hard & prttile motenale Be Carbide 4 Zero Rake angles are Ex OT Bross a EPLecKds of clearance angles + Too Small Values results frichionl rubbing > Too large Values Olecreases the strength ofy the -tool. Secor, tee pe Bates of fee Ps aoner4 ke VOrSs > For better susace finish end culling edge le should be yeducea Soe cublong woth edge angle oO large os poss ble optimum angle Prae= 5-15° (Psdor = 0°45"an Iheey = vohere fe fee tn mer frev tang + cot Ke he Roughneds helght to mm Ra = Average Roug hnem height Ra = 7 From valley te peak. * Effects ef Nose Radius? cutting edge Is tneltned of an : Oo = Ceo aac yake ang le ancy ¢ ios side vere angle H Y, = end > rel’ef aagle > Ildth of Cubling edge may @” may not’ be width of wlp. —> Three force Components exists # ORTHOGONAL CUTTINGS cutting edge (S " perpenakcu lr => Chip flows per pend cular > Utelth of cutttag eaige es > Two force Components are exist. 1 porting , Slottirg i @, = Auxitlarg Cabling edge anja ‘AB = = principal Cullteg edge arg. 1 @ 2 Nose Radkus de the aktvection ef ool travel 4 divection 4o the culttng eo greater than width of wip. ; inuous chips « | Continuity * Chips . = phile machthi “ y ile machining Los hile machining eile wnachining Hard &% Brittle t 1 ; lor Bri ' ductlle matervals t ductile materials” tt . ' phew Cong Sree ie high Culling Speeds '-> Low cullcng speco4 > low feed > high feed > coarse feed ‘ ; a> Small “ales i= Large rake angle Sy Sralt yake angle , : i . 1 ‘ : i4 Width of uneut chip (w) =a Bue: > UW) rake angle => Trereasing -the culling spec > Tncreasing Side Cubling edlge angle. sin + Theckness of Uncut chip t,= fsind % %=chip thickness Rartlo = ge ae aa cose b= chip veduction Coeffrcrent: maton G [-¥stnof = Shear angle Ne = Chip velocity Ng =Shear Veloety Vz cutting Ve lockty tonpe Hop + tan (pee) = & Fe singer Fy cose N 5. & Cost ~ Ft sth Fe = Fe Cosp ~ Fe SINg Fay = Fe sine thE C05 B S t kee R cos (PtB-X) ¥ Area of shear plane = Sona Fe = Ros (p-&) Cp = $80. kp ES. * ma = Rosin Corp) ° Bes) Gig)* specific power Consumptton = eo Fev _ > 1000 VPA nn * Merchant Relactioe? Qgtp- = U5. > Sheay fakes place In Sach @ divectton Whith vesulls fo mintmisteg of power Consumption. . dt shear Strate rate!- a= NS. Ay= Shear thickness ay SE SHEAR STRAIN i E= cot g + tan (a-«D é: via t@ } TH d aoe ol-o.ws for HSS 2-004 for Carbides ou- 06 for Ceramic 7 be “ye, > Crater Ulear start at some dl tsfance from total tp on yake face bez temp *S max ot that vegron. 22 2F GA LAA BWAAA Hh or BA aoa i wm eS Ow XT for min Cote ioe é io Topt : Ce c QP ete oe elle for mar rodney, idle cost ko y P im [ay -1) mesa Sheps Toph = : 1 fo eS Vag e Yo r Mes, ' : cost i cuating Speed Cv) es pralutin Prefaimee Took MATERIALS é- > Plata carbon steels > Hss [18% tungsten + uz Chromium + Un Yana drum] > setellites [oe Cobo alloy] > carbides [cemented carbitles ] —> ceramics [ Cemented oxtdes] > Cubic Goran Nitride [Boraze7] +> UCON = si-Al-O-N —> made out a yityiunm sonide is Cooling Jabrécaton of stliten Netrtte + Ads # cutting Sluid » primary ales C Becondary alm ts se Flank wear takes place ot the Ccuthag edge of she -teol- # Croter ylear occurs ok some distance from dhe gulleing ecge 07 wake face./ CASTING Drag —ylower moulding flack © los ' * Cope —r4ppss mouldirg flosk Cheek —Intermectiole Slash + chaplet -* Tosupporl! cores «chills —3 metallic objects to fnerease Cooling rode. «padding —> Topering of hinner seciton towards thicker section a Shim bob — A trop placed In ths how’ 2entol GATE + Shrinkege Allowance C+ve) Shrinkage ene + liquid shrinkage + solids + Solid shrinkage-» by « Bismuth — Negliqrble + Cast ron —tomm|rn + Aluminium | =13rnm] en 15mm [ro = 14mm | — 20mm |mn + Bross * Copper + steel Lead % fine —* enon] Al—> mar li uid folic ifitcalion 2 a Shrinkage « , steel 7 rat sLead atin sshrinkage allowance dimensions + * Drodt ollawente — 2 mothinang ‘oy i flint thing ol . ShaKng od plik «Distortion wry, te single piece PF . opit piece powers oh, patter « math pl A. cae nq + Loose piece potter + follow board. potera Pea pattern — mieyeggeine ete voter Srap3s “Pernt Crpreeeeh as ‘ficahion shrinkage bog giser shuinkoge Sllowo.nce- ota shrinkage omy raw sol’ Shrinkage ts mode by Adding -o external & internal re ave sack em! Pop ?G allousnce ~O 1 ove vow] : op, over WOY [eupressed. 28% O Be acted] yp properties of mipubling. Darl | # properties of mow : lcty to sRefracloriness f obi withstand high temperatures » permeability: obi lity +0 allow gaser to eScape 501.24 Pr Pace © PAT V= 2000cm> H=p= S:08¢m Pe gmjem T= minute. oHlowari lity s- abtithy of Sand do-fleus: i inf ONE YS. TW* Cove clesign:. \ 3 Cove Sand = eg + organic binders 4 Clnsed etl, molaser , dleatrinete) 4 net bovyancy force = v9 Clim - Pe) F ; ve volume of Core. Cm = density of Ivgucel metas i f= density of Core. ; + moulding Sande. HAddlitive st ; silica —> W567 - 85%. i“ clay —> fe-goy. : Salniclest _» olla psiti lity t water —> 2-8/ wood flour © Permeable y t t Adeitives F167 oe molasis' 1 ood les a Gibliogy clesigat. dextrin Gacling desegn Should be | | 3 Cool dust —> Surface Finish € t proper to ayo'ld evos'on, turbulence x splashing # Leleal chope of sprue & € dctton So that|porabolc bet clue to difficulty ¢ th manufacturing , tapered Sprit Jed) are made’ to avord alr aspiration q@ atr aSpir non ferrous metals can also be easily Cali + Casting Yield Ve ev actual Casting mass Va + VG moM Of metol poured. « Runner —> trapezor'dat Ksle tS having minimum friction head loss ss cureslar x-Sle ctronsfer. ts best -for minimum heof e -ryees “of Grater: 1. Toe GATES used for Casting of ferrous materials, toa —> There so favoro-ble’ tem perature qracie iy cthere is a eplat turbulence Y Splashing oF Vigutd metal art ~A ARAM MAAMRA RO Oe ‘ time = Vin Mo pouring pm a Ne Ay Ayah' ' , ’ ) vuvvvvvuvrevwe wwwverrvse Botlom fo used for Non-ferrout metals > unfavourable Temperature vadienk. pouring lime = hy = total herght hen = height of mould - MM ohmehp then (ee Lon’ + fluidity? Ability of Nguid metal -to-f “ Bt es -the property op liquid metal % Can be by “spiral test < «choke Areat minimum xrS[e Area Ul toto the cavity. determined Line] property| fluidity among “the gatiag elements. “| eemed [et] sunpressurised Gracting i a, | viscaseyy [A] ~S “+ choke Areas Spree wires { 3 een s YY => Veloctty of ligucl metal i pop wai AY enteriag tS (ets 5. | surface |p . Bt -—s usec for Non—ferrots metals Rarsh +> possibiitty of Air —-Aspreetion { ° pressurised Gating: + choke Area 1s\at the gocte > used -for ferrous metals are > No posstbil'ty of Aie-Asprat(on | Seemetrd Maven. V4 | cube als Gating Rotto = AstArthe, . |_Spbere | 2/6 cep, | ged = 1 2h cylinder D ao + unpressurt : |" CH=) | le Pethgr Th) ; a slag "LR mh y cayee 2.( Abe + pressurised = 3+ aeriby ; a ! mae ont pesseed opettvnum! conciedtions, stderisey| h=d Kady, -top Riser he dh x =p,mMetheds of Riser | designs- ls Vol of wiser 2 3x 2 Of Shrinkage volume Cy casting . 2. Catne!s me thod:- Freezing ato = Vo reser V/A easting 5 B. Modulus methed = (More, = [2 Casting, (Heer ehe (Peasting «Shape factor :- Gre “tw " E cube = QtA- 9 a Sphere =2 tinder =) H+2 cqtinde * i " # claseeficartiong, casting, Techaugues =~ (Expandable moulds Sand moulding use Shell moulding Thvestment Casting full moulding COy mouleling. _ Ds permanent moulds Centrifugal : Die, casting Slush casting Squeeze Casting + Shell moulding:- Good Curface dihish q move accuracy > Fine grat piltea cane ,. phenolic Resin <— Phenol formaldehyde —> Reps” Cylinder blocke of Tc Engihe; Grea formal clehycle Rocker arms F ea + TaveStement Casting t- max casting Sloky CEapencitable/ Lost > pattern —> Kiax wax pattern) ! = starry > Ethy| silicad, siltco.flour, woter. > opps + Complex shapes ; Turbine blades , et engine Gold ornaments a High Accuracy & Surtkace -frnis, '' t #De ec ashog: a. grautty ale Casting t- “gravity force onl = CNet gravity force only a thieknen of carting) t = ONE TS — simple shape object — high Mp aU) ‘nat. ravity (ext moulding! Ecraporatir Ext moat taling~ Zavity (ess moulding Evoporatire patleo castle] > pattern —> polysterene Lost foam Pp recess 5 => prc > Epory, foam opp :- Fillings, lock Components. lding :- Sodiam stli'cate Nasi, + C% «TH ts used when Apes t- large sited castings - edd with Sand NS arse 2 teen = tO, PNQ6%, . che mould veges high stogtt 4% Aascloun w= QTTN tifugal castteg?- Go” —Hollow cylinder pies Nmax aa te Uf mar Speed x 2, mo ’ — Gun barvels Nan 2 9123 | of mia Speed — cg linder (ners ~~~ rg — pulley « g : Grfactot = “Fe # Slush casting - Thin casting S, fgg = vd V =r Cre or JE hollow -thin castings He Squeeze Castiogs t- aa annie es bigy eCrugible furnace +- — pesto Ie e péston Cs! seq for melting of No» b- pressave die casting t- ww ttot chamber — lead, rin, Zine aly -fervous alloys. # Cupola -furnace s- — plumintom act used | topat metal? Pg A™ Lea of Ms cHickIhng flux t- Coletvurs Caxkonate- # col charnber ctenclengy- — Ugh Mop maferial xertratk Cast Troo From comted pig ron, — Al, Cu, Brass Ht Electric Are furmace:~ = not used for | cpus + pug-Fron Ane ferrous lel inne yous materials oukpu Steet.* Cleaning of castingss- W) Pe Labi WW) Shot} cand blortig: IW CASTING DEFECTS i tGas defects W) Blow holes WW) Scors (ity Buster 2+ Bu laling materials defects :- dy Drop @ Dire h) cuts & Washes (tiy Scab @) Rot toatl. 3. Gating desig s- W Shrinkage Cavthes. @ 1 u. pouring metal defects? wy mesruo (thy) Coll Shut Ge Metallurgical defects :- uy) Hot tears & Cracks @ Aligomenk lefectsé- (it mould Shéft (ii) Cove Shik teTe quia Ste tL Arttogencous Vg eel Heteragenos Explosive , L C Brazing fre] Resistance So Henisg. j Friction p> Flan tL ssubmerged Forge Diffusion Loshie ded i TG ~ - Bs Pah) enecoted of tt Are Welding *- * cathede C-> > ygee total beat Sg vt oe otal heat "§ genre it. . Anode CH) OS eacted—y ! | + De Aw weld ty strorght potently {iy Reverse. poldcity « DceEP 2 DCEN a ~ move wepth oF penern bo perth of pene ‘09 + Low weld dleposttion role Reale i ° high cthiekaeas & high mip 8 weld deposrttoo vo§ ‘ y as fs more’ modercals aw weide emer 3 Louw M‘P motervale x welded » i e@=1—| lp + Are blows due to. deflection. of electro CI mognette Field Plu inex dousarals vl p- —> Trcan => by Flux Coasting of opposite Charge: —> b ‘ 2g ede rao FY curvert intensity. sc welding with bare electrode be minimised bey providing metal blocs ot ene. LPR TDITF PETROL IMED)ELEFED IE© Types oF ueleling mac hine t- \. constant Current ype to 2, Constant - voltage -lype. Caroop) a tela a. 3 Tt ‘ x “smanually operated” mjc + Automatic weldeng mle 1 Vays ov - Of 2 For mat power se VeVa catbda | Var ~42 i Ts For man power | | ‘de > ope P-0 rae | anime a cli Fer linear power Source (const. vo [tage 14 Pe) Paac= VI here V= OC¥ = Vo | . >} | pe SO 2 os . 2 a e Duty eyclet = fre on time —ee ware on-time + tle time t*D onstant e Shielded gas Are welding t- inert gos —> non-consumable tungsten u Tha aa quate?) e ‘ect rode. »pcen Cstratght polarct4) usedforall except Alemg. «DCEP Creverse 4% D Known 04 ,Cothecte cleaning, «Ac gource is used for Al &mng + Used fo wseld Al emg UTES alloys ta OES in ect » ovtorobile Gy chemical tndusttce s+' 2. MiG —» metal * Spray ctransfer —> ot high current — growty + * Tnert gas atmesph next ctrode Pore ert gas —% Consumable electrode tn th Porm + Droplet Cea! oplet transfer —> of low current —s only grawity force magnetic force - ere oS provided (ne, Ar, Cos. 2 used. 4o weld Ad,mg /Cu & tts allogs ZB) plasma Arc tale ldling 2- s mat temp (000°C a. + high depth of penetr + used for weloing ' © soll . itan tum ) Hy Submerged Arc wwe lading 2 A granular flux is SYP ation @ GAz fs he , nrcwel, Cobalt F Stain (ess Stal plied: «Arc ts under Flux. « mtotimum heat loss g Mak focus on WIP: perp wth high curves! Ss used - ne = mesatame - HS = ay CVE tose Cy Ha" +O 7 2 COT Hy 44h Ah vig Cor Nat 20,7 aCOn tt iiaes Saco wot th Coty +2 Or Be ie) Sound] 6. Mewlal'-$e » Danew Cov _ ms, cL, Jow carbon Os — Co He | Re 2008 stee! ge mediam Carbon Steel -a tele aad 3 Oxutalising flame z- CReoxing Sound) *cInner Cone —>3? oo’ * Cv, = Brass: = iste be * Oo cH Ga bwrising Flame t- : Inner Core * v.90" + Alickel alloys, High Carbon Stee! 6 Or = 0.95 10085 Cy He * Resistance well ng &- 4). spot welding + smc AT tmb WRE 4y-g = RT 2 HbR Len = hs 5B geom welsitg = fe CL electrodes + welding speed Is high - © projection Welding s- ojectionS are moole by, embosing technique: « used for only moss production &) Flash bes Welelagin A to A000 A one movable copptt | | | af = Go000 ee electrede ore Used s Used Per -ferrors mote rviak \rke lead, tin, Zinc. la stots “welding s- 4 ts Explostve: we lating :- + Target plot > Fin jarget pl ene » lower veloc'ty explesi rraterial Ss placed Above flyer plok. : é G G « vitrasonte welding? « fiz20 to 60 kN + Heat4 generated dua to [20 yubbing action, ¢ Ig. Fetction Uleleling?- +N = Yyooo-6ee° FP é 6 + P > ho -4oo Mpe- 2 Ore ts fined wlp Z3G@ other &S roteteo: c ty Foxge wleldinas « Exactly strotlar ~to& heacictash blacksmith & q forging opecortion o tt ts usel for vi lag & level agricutusal q opplicat'ons only» © We ldi'ag q 2 Both heat & pressure simu taneouly aptiect e Accuracy, & Strength ts very hig h. 7 [Sy Diffuston e os PP LLDODDH soliet] Liguct Stak weld Bro etng Capillary] sunate <-sfiller < Woe Mep Mp © flux Borax: + Copper eT to tag t= Soldering. (gravit D di fillering « usc Brote weldirg epiller 2p leads To | * shen ont l Golde) prepare tee fe possrbit- flux > gntltN s gabey ps eronte Gcu +} i at Electron Beam Ute lating 8- + Electric beam ts focused usteg magnetic lens: sno flux, no filler + Vaccum — necessarg. - welding clkisstmilar * Loser Beam ate }dlilng &~ * Loser beam ts focused usicg optico! leos: emrero We lang « No vaccum needed - e «lela aeseimilar emetal weld . whieh are oieeccult +o metals, Atrcroft engines ' He uleldabiledys- Ten 1 a L L v wleldabil’ty eur Cu nit, 95,77 rere ena mart PEPEeA CEINING Oe ece ot # machening time’ tn" #4 => FXN = Feed! velocity -m os SV ETON hy mimin > Hf Mor “ gtr? toke D Coefault) 1000 > PF Youg © given take Doug * Spindle speed Recto fa) (n=no-of spina (&) Cometrre prog ressteo ora ae eos + Teo! settlog erevi- Cruveing) cf- cep &. pei = host t | erp cot pty = Mocto (3) { Copp = Cact a = Cat 7 cur = = Sep tO tthe conatttoss of rake angle % Clearance) & The In Gortng, angle — ore oppostte +o turning. | a Maas (oP HB) xfXN ev Vi Pelz 1000 roel * For threading » feed ener where = no-of Store | pe prtch cThyeod chasing =p lathe mle =p External high gual'y threads Ns Po Os = Ny Pry) where S= scree 4jhreact 07 bw lp Le Lead screw > N= pm pe etch nane-of Start - ) * Broaching!- used for producing, erlarging «non- crredtoy holes pitch ’ tm = ES > Lez lathst ly bre Me oe Ly Splice -— ~~ Vv w vw wwvveveiwveveveiwvwvewvwwwewvreweewwvy ns depth of cuft by “boots ' “Plane per -bhooth a Hh~ Oper Turning Uy use mpouhd Sloe ; gi C G oe using COMRekOO) WW aera tee) Drax = Devin ‘ 7 7 oo Tooke t poze 4 Le —— ak = semi -taper angle: é we usec for furatng short (aternal 2 External -lopers wth © ¢ large angle of ctaper- + “Tollstock offset methects- Small tapers orer long lengthe Ye Ly Sto fs) ree aper , plana nar &- —> bp constant > Toot Slicer. —> short wlp Shaper planas —> ullp mores. —> Tool Constant t= Sf = mo] stroke 8 Fin N= stroke [min Br width of wip. = VR00° stroke [min < AF Voorwerd 2) LCIta) Wes tin =e ieGite) = 2 ns eS N V¥1O0O # Hydraul’c Shaper ¢s more regi ¥ heavier FSpeed of dhe Sticke vemarns constant for most lecgth of stroke. & mee = PALN A milling $- #& Symmetric foce eee :] Approach k= t(e Voto * yasyenmet re face motte ng, az $[o- VEE GD J PHAMHRDMANDANANDHAANANAAAANAAN PMHw wo vTvwvovwsvwTwsovwrwTFe FT welmUmUPMTCUTTNTNvCrOUYvTeCUh Tw VY feeat ve loct'ty tne SEN Prem|min. machining dime timo le Le , dee be. min Sm SLeZN AP shot milling pohere Pefeed "pias aay xe Ph z-no-of tooth N= Ypm stpheripheral railing F- as Vato d= certh ger ae mon. Chip Pheekness tno * she JS * upmilliog os + Direction each other Fe Surfyoce pintsh Ss Daaa of ca tler 2S tog 72; tminizO 97% tog Zn of cutter % workplece will be opposite -to peo wchip thieknes mn Fo 7K > Toot wear \s high will be Same- & Dow? milling § _ privectloo of cutter gy wlp swe low: “sy Joo! wear will &© . > Pe tps finish 75 better ~palttag Hee + > chip thickness mon. -fo mtn Le EN a Todening* € Le = LH etATO Dire ctiBnde ning = 24 a os D Stenple tndlewing = UO |. 1 = nM ton (€) at ao for thee 22 hole He: n=050 for Bhd Helin angle =man- rake ange : + rake angk tsimin ot athe chisel edge + wake Angle iS mom ot the pheriphary - « soft wlp * Poack se > point angls CL) Retin ang le 4) > point angle CN) Helte angle Gh) | |AN ” Radel _mitling més Veverttcal speed oy arm = Nxf Seed= PP ¢ tne te q ¥, é * Reaming —> seating & finishing a hole +o ts given alimensions ioteroal¢ best--finishing proces wed -for —finiébing cylendirical Susfa.ces ¥ Tre panning $- prodactng age dia intecnal threads # Honing — holes + Tapping t Used to prociuce AG inating £- used for finishing operation . ton. ~ na nr nr nana —> highest Sp. power Consum; —> highest cutting speed: * sp. curting energy = ro RNa TYreec® VPA ; * MRR is Low # Negative vake. angk ts used. Volume of marerial vemoret | * Gwineding Roctte = Volume of wheel usear ( * Glazing grinding wheel becomes dull (‘worn out groin) » Leading: grinding chips gets lodged into the spaces blo the gros ‘ # Dressing 2. Abrasive groin -to make them Sharp ‘ w spectiteatton of Gwinding wheel” ; fAtack Gete +o Hove aSeat in Bore R forse — Grraio Hardy Struck. Bondi: : Size e- ca |cdxbicle very hard wlp A @Aseo3 — steel ymediium wlp ferrous ollogs Dp > otamend — VYeETy bard wip Cnen—-ferrous)) ) Grain size Gasn | Brains ae ) ————} to-9u | Coarse : \ 30-60 | medium 1 Roug hqrirding Gust Gs ) Sor lk piisels ) : aad 4 finish grinding 920 ~ 600 verg Fine H+ Howalnesss- Ant —tsoftwehee! — tard pole ) I-p —- mediitre ys meckurn wip a > Hard wheel —* soft ele i Ht Structure % ) ond > Dense Sructure finish g rindling ; ele —? Ofer structere _—> Rough gniedirg: etile ) at Bonds + eo. a Most used threads Most Used ye vetrified Lanett bi. Mer ao harol 2 bY opt bond R — Rubber bond >, FOr potshing — Si s _. silicocte bowl > water gion — > Filar'she7 kniferel —> mc tg cteels bord —> High Suse finish 1 Bond. made from, syot Such o * Bakelite —e— *shellac etic yess ab Rest'ne pod ty both the drectiou Mecdras4 > Bear ( treoklon > Berth Vice Bear (ood 4a 7 ear hob cuter. weler. | ACME “=? 29° pustrenr <> 60 => obbing + enteral geors both external i 4 interrial —> Gear Shop'eg # Geo h # Geo shaping >Y USM UTM, ATM —? Mechanical Erosion —y particle tf lui motlafs + Fleckro-chemfcal —STante dissotutton —» Eleckeee current ¢ CHM —y Covreston —> Corrostve agent é + LBM,£eM, EDM, PAM —> Fusion & Vapourtsotion é HEom: Mi —ehtgh current, lew voltage proce. Gq > Follows law of electrolysés- ¢€ Teot— Cathode meee 42 ps faracey Conttaut ¢ ——— mrs Alp Anode (ReAa £ = %6,£00 é A= Atomic betght € eep Mens A Meg = valency . e PzF rae Z 4 é Current clens Mg ps Fly é A” fe ¢ # €lectroce feed rale = sp Mer x current density ¢ = fly m/e ‘ P2e fo L é ye EDM i. High voltage’ ~ low current procest ‘ ~t , Va= ve fr-e Ire] EBM t- « == Energy = 0 gh — used for produang fire hea Bhi . = MRA ts (ow 4 power « & = Clah > Tt ‘ye querer Vaccum ‘ z Qt, For max: pouer # LEM fs + rr doesn't requrre 4 Va = O:F6%) . Vocutm 4 mee is low : LOM 4 EBM< USM < EOM< Bot ¢ lo Kya Ch)? Teal Ea (Y)

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