Milking Process

How Milk Gets from the Cow to the Store

Although some dairies have their own unique methods of milk production, most dairies in the
United States follow the eight-step process seen below.

1. Rearing
2. Harvesting
3. Storing
4. Transportation

5. Lab Testing
6. Processing
7. Packaging
8. Selling

Step 1: Rearing
Dairy cows typically spend their days eating, sleeping, and ruminating (chewing their cud).
Cows in some dairy farms wander around and eat fresh grass (grazing). In other farms, they
are fed grain, hay, or silage (conserved forage) and remain all day in close quarters known as
confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs), some of which house thousands of animals.

Many large dairy farms utilize growth hormones and antibiotics during the rearing process to
artificially increase a cow’s milk production and to decrease the spread of infectious diseases
among their cows.

Step 2: Harvesting
Hand-Milking

A cow is ready to be milked when her udder is full. The farmer has some flexibility when
making a schedule of cow milking times. Usually, cows are milked in the early morning and
again in the late afternoon. It is possible to milk a cow by hand. However, milking a whole
herd of cows twice a day in this manner would take a great deal of time and energy. Before
the invention of milking machines, people milked their dairy cows by hand by squeezing
gently on the cow’s teats using the thumb and forefinger. Some people continue to milk by
hand.

Machine-Milking
Cows are normally milked at least twice a day. Milking time takes about five minutes per
cow depending on the type of machine and the amount of milk the cow is producing. Most
dairies have enough machines to milk more than 20 cows at one time. Milking machines
mimic the action of a young calf by creating a pulsating vacuum around the teat, which
causes the milk to be released from the udder.

Step 3: Storing
Koichi Oda, “A Milk Plant,”

Milk storage vats or silos are refrigerated and come in various shapes and sizes. Milk is
usually stored on the farm at 39 degrees Fahrenheit, or colder, for no more than 48 hours.
Vats and silos are agitated to make sure that the entire volume remains cold and that the
milkfat does not separate from the milk. After milk has been collected, storage vats and
stainless steel pipes are thoroughly cleaned before the farmer milks again.

Step 4: Transportation
Source: Alberta Milk, “How Does the Milk Get Transported from the Farm to the Processor,”
albertamilk.com

Milk is collected from the farm every 24 or 48 hours. The tankers that are used have special
stainless steel bodies which are heavily insulated to keep the milk cold during transportation
to the processing factory. Milk tanker drivers are accredited milk graders, qualified to
evaluate the milk prior to collection. Tanker drivers grade and if necessary reject milk based
on temperature, sight, and smell. A representative sample is collected from each farm pickup
prior to being pumped onto the tanker. After collection, milk is transported to factory sites
and stored in refrigerated silos before processing.

Step 5: Lab Testing

Tests for Dairy Producers

Samples of milk are taken from farm vats prior to collection and from the bulk milk tanker
upon arrival at the factory. Samples from the bulk milk tanker are tested for antibiotics and
temperature before the milk enters the factory processing area. Farm milk samples are tested
for milkfat, protein, bulk milk cell count and bacteria count. If milk does not meet quality
standards it is rejected. Most farmers are paid on the quality and composition of their milk.

Step 6: Processing
“Production of Milk Concentrates,”

Whole milk, once approved for use, is pumped into storage silos where it undergoes
pasteurization, homogenization, separation and further processing.

Pasteurization:

Every particle of milk is heated to a specific temperature for a specified period of time and
cooling it again without allowing recontamination.

Homogenization:

Raw milk is pushed through an atomizer to form tiny particles so that the fat is dispersed
evenly throughout the milk, stopping the fat from floating to the top of the container.

Separation:

The milk is spun through a centrifuge to separate the cream from the milk. After separation,
the cream and remaining milk are remixed to provide the desired fat content for the different
types of milk being produced.

For whole milk the cream is reintroduced until the fat content reaches 3.25%. For low fat
milk the fat content is 1%. For skim milk (sometimes called nonfat milk) the fat content
is .05%.

Further Processing:
This step may involve micro-filtration, increasing the storage life by ultra high temperature
(UHT) treatment, and mixing or culturing milk for flavored and yogurt products.

Step 7: Packaging

F
arm and Dairy, “Milk Processing,” farmanddairy.com (accessed Mar. 25, 2020)

Now the milk is ready to be packaged for delivery to the stores. The milk travels through
pipes to the automatic packaging machines that fills and seals the milk into paper cartons or
plastic jugs. As the containers move through the assembly line, a date is printed on each of
them to show how long the milk will stay fresh.

Step 8: Selling
“For Sale at a Super Market

After packaging, the milk is finally ready for the customers, and it is stored in a big,
refrigerated room until it is delivered to stores to be sold.
MILK PROCESSING IN PLANT

In the dairy, raw milk passes through several stages of treatment in various types of
processing equipment before reaching the consumer in the form of a finished, refined
product.

Process-

Generalized block chart of the milk pasteurization process.

MAIN STEPS OF MILK PROCESSING-

 Milk Tanks: The milk tanks are the prime components in any milk processing plants
that used to store raw milk, skimmed milk or cream. The pre-stack tanks, milk tanks,
interim tank and mixing tanks are mainly used in processing plants to provide good
quantity milk.
 Pasteurizers: Pasteurization is the process of heat treatment of a product to reduce
enzymatic activity and kill pathogenic bacteria. This process can be done by using
pasteurizers The main purpose of pasteurization in dairy plants is to make the product
safe for use and to extend product shelf life.
 Separators: After pasteurizers, the separators come as third main equipment in milk
plants that ensure the excellent products quality and high performance in milk
skimming by preventing intake of destructive air.
 Homogenizers: At last, the homogenizer helps to achieve the different variety of
products, improves the texture, taste and viscosity of cream or juice-based drink and
prevents a cream line and sedimentation in the milk products.

HOW TO PROCESS-

Flow Chart-
MILK COOLING

Fig 1.9
Milk must be cooled to 4°C as soon as possible

Milk leaves the udder at a temperature of around 37 °C. Fresh milk from a healthy cow is
practically free from bacteria but it must still be protected from being contaminated after it
has left the udder. Microorganisms capable of spoiling the milk are everywhere – on the
udder, on the milkers’ hands, on airborne dust particles and water droplets, on straw and
chaff, on the cow’s hair and in the soil. It is common to filter the milk before it enters the
milk tank.
Efficient cooling of the raw milk after milking is the best way to prevent bacterial growth
(Figure 1.9). Various cooling systems are available; the choice depends on the produced
volume of milk. An in-can cooler, shown in Figure 1.10, is suitable for small producers. It is
much favoured by users of chilled water units and producers using direct-to-can milking
equipment. An immersion cooler is designed for direct cooling of the milk in churns as well
as in tanks. The condensing unit is mounted on a wall, Figure 1.11.
The evaporator is located at the lower end of the immersion unit. The immersion cooler can
also be used for indirect cooling, i.e. for cooling water in insulated basins. The milk is then
cooled in transport churns immersed in the chilled water. Insulated farm tanks for immersion
coolers are available in both stationary and mobile types (Figure 1.12). When road conditions
prevent access by tanker truck, a mobile tank can be used to bring the milk to a suitable
collection point. Mobile tanks are easy to transport and thus suitable for milking in the fields.
Direct expansion tanks as shown in Figure 1.13, can also be used for cooling and storage of
the milk. Careful attention must be paid to hygiene in order to produce milk of high
bacteriological quality. However, despite all precautions, it is near impossible to completely
exclude bacteria from milk. Milk is an excellent growth medium for bacteria; it contains all
the nutrients they need. Thus, as soon as bacteria get into milk, they start to multiply. On the
other hand, the milk leaving the teats contains certain original bactericides which protect the
milk against the action of microorganisms during an initial period after extraction. It also
takes some time for infecting microorganisms to adapt to the new medium before they can
begin to grow.

It is important to keep the milk at low temperature during storage. The activity of the
microorganisms will easily increase again if the temperature is allowed to rise some few
degrees above recommended storage temperature. Figure 1.14 shows the rate of bacterial
growth at different temperatures over time. Spray or immersion coolers are commonly used
on farms, which deliver milk to the dairy in cans. In the spray cooler, circulating chilled
water is sprayed on the outsides of the cans to keep the milk cool. The immersion cooler
consists of a coil, which is lowered into the can. Chilled water is circulated through the coil to
keep the milk at the required temperature.
Where milking machines are used, the milk is commonly collected in special milk tanks at
the farm. A wide range of milk tanks of various sizes are available with built-in cooling
equipment designed to guarantee cooling to a specified temperature within a specified time.
These tanks are often in most cases equipped with equipment for automatic cleaning to
ensure uniform high standard of hygiene. On large farms, and in collecting centres where
large volumes of milk (more than 5.000 litres) must be chilled quickly from 37 °C to 4 °C,
the cooling equipment of the bulk tanks may be inadequate. In these cases the tank is mainly
used to maintain the required storage temperature; a major part of the cooling is carried out
by means of a heat exchanger in line in the delivery pipeline (Figure 1.15).

Zoom
Fig 1.10
An in-can cooler is placed on top of the milking bucket or any type of milk can

Zoom
Fig 1.11
The immersion cooler is placed directly on the transport churn

Zoom
Fig 1.12
The insulated farm tank can be filled in the field and easily transported to the chilled unit

Zoom
Fig 1.13
Direct expansion tank used for cooling and storage of milk

Zoom
Fig 1.14
The influence of temperature on bacterial development in raw milk

Zoom
Fig 1.15
Milk equipment on a large farm with heat exchanger (1) for rapid cooling from 37 ºC to 4 ºC

PASTEURIZED MILK PRODUCTS

Pasteurized milk products are liquid products made from milk and cream intended for use
directly by consumers. This group of products includes whole milk, skim milk, standardized
milk and various types of cream..

In most countries, clarification, pasteurization and cooling are compulsory stages in the
processing of consumer milk products. In many countries, the fat is routinely homogenized,
while in others homogenization is omitted because a good “cream-line” is regarded as
evidence of quality. De-aeration is practised in certain cases when the milk has a high air
content, as well as when highly volatile off-flavour substances are present in the product.
This may occur, for example, if cattle feed contains plants of the onion family.
Processing of market milk products requires first-class raw material and correctly designed
process lines in order to attain end products of the highest quality.. Gentle handling must be
ensured so that the valuable constituents are not adversely affected.
To ensure milk quality, there are microbiological standards for intra-community trade in milk
within Europe, set by the Council of the European Union (EU) to safeguard human and
animal health. These standards are shown in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1

EU standards for maximal bacteria count in milk

 Product Plate count (CFU/ml)
Raw milk 100 000
Raw milk stored in silo (6 °C) at the dairy for more than 36 hours 300 000
Pasteurized milk after incubation for 5 days at 6 °C 50 000
UHT and sterilized milk after incubation for 15 days at 30 °C 10/0.1 ml
CFU = Colony Forming Units

Another measure of raw milk quality is the amount of somatic cells that can be tolerated in
raw milk. Somatic cell count is used as a criterion for ascertaining abnormal milk. Raw milk
intended for intra-community trade must not contain more than 400,000 somatic cells per ml
according to the EU directive.

Processing of pasteurized market milk

Depending on legislation and regulations, the design of process lines for pasteurized market
milk varies a great deal from country to country and even from dairy to dairy. For instance,
fat standardization (if applied) may be executed in-batch before pasteurization or in-line
where the standardization system is integrated into a pasteurization unit. Homogenization
may be total or partial.
The simplest process is to pasteurize the whole milk. Here, the process line consists of a
pasteurizer, a buffer tank and a filling machine. The process becomes more complicated if it
has to produce several types of market milk products, i.e. whole milk, skim milk and
standardized milk of varying fat content, as well as cream of varying fat content.

The following assumptions apply to the plant described below:

 Raw milk
– Fat content 3.8%
– Temperature +4 °C
 Standardized milk
– Fat content 3.0%
– Temperature +4 °C
 Standardized cream
– Fat content 40%
– Temperature +5 °C
 Plant capacity
– 20 000 l per hour
– 7 hours per day

Figure 8.1 shows a typical process flow in a market milk pasteurization unit. The milk enters
the unit through the balance tank (1) and is pumped to plate heat exchanger (16), where it is
pre-heated before it continues to the separator (5), which produces skim milk and cream.
Zoom

Fig. 8.1

Pasteurization unit for market milk with partial homogenization.

1. Balance tank
2. Product feed pump
3. Flow controller
4. Deaerator
5. Separator
6. Constant pressure valve
7. Density transmitter
8. Flow transmitter
9. Regulating valve
10. Shut-off valve
11. Check valve
12. Homogenizer
13. Booster pump
14. Holding tube
15. Flow diversion valve
16. Plate heat exchanger
17. Process control

18. The standardization of market milk takes place in an in-line system of the type already
described in Chapter 6.2. The fat content of the cream from the separator is set to the
required level and is then maintained at that level, regardless of moderate variations in
the fat content and in the flow rate of the incoming milk. The fat content of the cream
is usually set at 35 to 40% for whipping cream, but can be set at other levels, e.g. for
production of butter or other types of cream. Once set, the fat content of the cream is
 kept constant by the control system, consisting of a density transmitter (7), a flow
transmitter (8), regulating valves (9) and the control system for the standardization
system.
19. In this example, partial homogenization is used, so only the cream is treated. The
reason for choosing this system is that it can manage with a smaller homogenizer (12)
and thus consume less power, while still maintaining a good homogenization effect.
The working principle of the system, also described in Chapter 6.3, will be: After
passage of the standardization device, the flow of cream is divided into two streams.
One, with the adequate hourly volume to give the market milk the required final fat
content, is routed to the homogenizer and the other, the surplus cream, is passed to the
cream treatment plant. As the fat content of the cream to be homogenized should be a
maximum of 18 %, the ordinary cream of, say 40 %, must be "diluted" with skim milk
prior to homogenization. The capacity of the homogenizer is carefully calculated and
fixed at a certain flow rate.
In a partial homogenization arrangement, the homogenizer is also connected with the
skim milk line so that it always has enough product for proper operation. In that way,
the relatively low flow of cream is compensated with skim milk up to the rated
capacity. Following homogenization, the 18 % cream is eventually mixed in-line with
the surplus volume of skim milk to achieve 3 % before pasteurization. The milk, now
with standardized fat content, is pumped to the heating section of the milk heat
exchanger where it is pasteurized. The necessary holding time is provided by a
separate holding tube (14). The pasteurization temperature is recorded continuously.
A booster pump (13) increases the pressure of the product to a level at which the
pasteurized product cannot be contaminated by untreated milk or by the cooling
medium if a leak should occur in the plate heat exchanger.
If the pasteurization temperature should drop, this is sensed by a temperature
transmitter. A signal activates the flow diversion valve (15) and the milk flows back
to the balance tank. See also Chapter 7.
After pasteurization, the milk continues to a cooling section in the heat exchanger,
where it is regeneratively cooled by the incoming untreated milk, and then to the
cooling section where it is cooled with ice water. The cold milk is then pumped to
buffer tanks and then to the filling machines.

Standardization

The purpose of standardization is to give the milk a defined, guaranteed fat content. The level
varies considerably from one country to another. Common values are 1.5% for low-fat milk
and 3% for regular-grade milk, but fat contents as low as 0.1 and 0.5% also occur. The fat is a
very important economic factor. Consequently, the standardization of milk and cream must
be carried out with great accuracy.
Some options applicable to continuous fat standardization are discussed in Chapter 6.2.

The purpose of standardization is to give the milk a defined, guaranteed fat content.
Pasteurization – the heat treatment

Along with correct cooling, the heat treatment is one of the most important processes in the
treatment of milk. If carried out correctly, these processes will give milk a longer shelf life.
Temperature and pasteurization time are very important factors which must be specified
precisely in relation to the quality of the milk and its shelf-life requirements. The
pasteurization temperature for homogenized, HTST pasteurized milk is usually 72 – 75 °C
for 15 – 20 seconds.
The pasteurization process may vary from one country to another, according to national
legislation. A common requirement in all countries is that the heat treatment must guarantee
significant reduction of spoiling microorganisms and destruction of all pathogenic bacteria,
without the product being damaged.

Table 1. Pasteurization conditions used for milk products.

Typical Holding
Pasteurization Type Typical Product Temperature
Storage Time
Batch, vat Milk Refrigerated 145°F (62.8°C) 30 min
Viscous products, or
products with more
" " 150°F (65.6°C) 30 min
than 10% fat or added
sweetener
Egg nog, frozen
" " 155°F (68.3°C) 30 min
dessert mixes
Continuous, high
temperature short time Milk " 161°F (71.7°C) 15 sec
(HTST)
Viscous products, or
products with more
" " 166°F (74.4°C) 15 sec
than 10% fat or added
sweetener
Egg nog, frozen
" " 175°F (79.4°C) 25 sec
dessert mixes
" " " 180°F (82.2°C) 15 sec
Continuous, higher heat
Milk " 191°F (88.3°C) 1 sec
shorter time (HHST)
" " " 194°F (90°C) 0.5 sec
" " " 201°F (93.8°C) 0.1 sec
" " " 204°F (96.2°C) 0.05 sec
" " " 212°F (100°C) 0.01 sec
Refrigerated,
Continuous, 280°F
Milk and cream extended 2 sec
Ultrapasteurization (137.8°C)
storage
Aseptic, ultra high Milk Room 275-302°F 4-15 sec
temperature (UHT) temperature (135-150°C)
240°F
Sterilization Canned products " 20 min
(115.6°C)

Homogenization

The purpose of homogenization is to reduce the size of the fat globules in the milk, in order
to reduce or prevent creaming. Homogenization may be total or partial. Partial
homogenization is a more economical solution, because a smaller homogenizer can be used.

Determining homogenization efficiency

Homogenization must always be sufficiently efficient to prevent creaming.

The result can be checked by using the homogenization index. The index called NIZO value
is commonly accepted by the industry. It Is measured according to the method described in
Chapter 6.3. The required NIZO value varies depending on the expected shelf life of milk, for
example 70% for pasteurized milk and 80% for ESL milk.

Shelf life of standard pasteurized milk

Shelf life is the period of time during which food products

 Remain safe
 Retain desired sensory, chemical, physical and microbiological characteristics
 Maintain a composition that complies with the label declaration
when stored and handled under the recommended conditions.

In other words, shelf life is a period of time in which food products are stable and viable for
consumption.

Factors limiting shelf life

There are at least four kinds of stability that influence the limits of the shelf life of a food
product:

 Microbiological stability – growth of microorganisms

  Biochemical stability – enzymatic or similar changes
 Chemical stability – oxidation, colour changes, flavour degradation, etc.
 Physical stability – separation, sedimentation, etc.

The shelf life of pasteurized milk is always dependent on the quality of the raw milk.
Naturally, it is also most important that production conditions are technically and
hygienically optimized, and that the plant is properly managed.
When produced from raw milk of sufficiently high quality and under good technical and
hygienic conditions, ordinary pasteurized milk should have a shelf life of 8 – 10 days at 5 – 7
°C in an unopened package.
The shelf life can however be drastically shortened if the raw milk is contaminated with
microorganisms such as species of Pseudomonas that form heat-resistant enzyme systems
(lipases and proteases), and/or with heat-resistant bacilli such as Bacillus cereus and Bacillus
subtilis which survive pasteurization in the spore state. Post-pasteurization re-contamination
of milk with, for example, Gram-negative bacteria also reduces the shelf life, therefore it
must be avoided by all means.

Extended Shelf Life (ESL) milk

There is no single definition of ESL, as it is a concept involving many factors. What it means,
in essence, is the ability to extend the shelf life of a product beyond its traditional life by
reducing the major sources of reinfection and maintaining the quality of the product all the
way from milk producer to the consumer.
There are three main processing technologies for ESL treatment. The choice of technology
depends on the type of product and the desired outcome.

 Pasteurization combined with bactofugation or double bactofugation

 Pasteurization combined with microfiltration
 High heat treatment (HHT)

If the existing shelf life is less than 7-10 days, better control of environmental and operational
factors will improve the result.
Further prolongation by 3 to 5 days can be achieved by pasteurization combined with single
or double bactofugation.
The bactofugation process is based on centrifugal separation of microorganisms. Although
the reduction effect of double bactofugation on bacteria spores is up to >99 % (see Chapter
14, Cheese), this is not considered sufficient if the intent is to prolong the shelf life of
pasteurized milk beyond 14 days. When the desired shelf life is 2 to 4 weeks, microfiltration
with a 1.4 μm filter or HHT is required. Reduction effects of up to 99.99 % of bacteria and
spores can be achieved in systems with micro filter membranes with pore sizes of 1.4 µm.
Implementation of 0.8µm membranes increases the reduction up to 99.9999 %.
A general flowchart of the pasteurization unit including, among other techniques,
microfiltration is illustrated in Figure 8.2.
Zoom

Fig. 8.2

Milk processing including a microfiltration (MF) plant.

1. Balance tank
2. Pasteurizer
3. Separator
4. Standardization unit
5. Plate heat exchanger
6. Microfiltration unit
7. Homogenizer

Since the small pore size is needed for effective retention of bacteria, and small pores also
trap milk fat globules, the MF module must be fed with skim milk, so a separator is included.

In addition to the MF module there is a high temperature treatment module for the cream.
The cream is heat treated at up to 130 °C for a couple of seconds and remixed with
microfiltered skim milk via the standardization module. After re-mixing, the standardized
milk is homogenized and finally pasteurized at 72 °C for 15 – 20 seconds and cooled to +4
°C.
 In modern systems partial homogenization is also possible.

For ESL milk, remixing of MF retentate is not recommended but is common in cheese
manufacturing as shown in Figure 8.2.

To achieve a shelf life longer than 4 weeks and a low rate of potential defects, microfiltration
with 0.8 µm filter or HHT are the available choices
In some markets, the requirements of long shelf life and retaining the sensory quality typical
for standard pasteurized white milk may be very important. In such situations, microfiltration
is the preferred technology. In some specific cases an optimized HHT may be considered, for
instance with a temperature-time combination of 130 °C for 1 second.

All ESL processing technologies have two main purposes:

 To eliminate all pathogenic microorganisms

 To reduce the number of spoilage microorganisms (including spores) to a level
securing required shelf life and acceptable defect rate

Holding the milk at low temperatures after final heat treatment is critical for ESL milk
quality, therefore the process line downstream from the pasteurization step should be
designed to maintain a cold product throughout the entire process.

The temperature of storage and the whole distribution chain (all the way to the consumer) is
critical for the shelf life of the product. If post-processing storage and product distribution
temperatures in a specific market are expected to be higher than 8 °C, application of ESL
technologies is not recommended.

METHODS OF DRYING
There are many different methods for drying of foodstuff, each with their own advantages for
particular applications; these include:

 Freeze drying
 Drum / roller drying
 Shelf dryers
 Spray drying
 Bed dryers
 Supercritical drying
 Dielectric drying
 Etc
Production of cream

Cream for sale to consumers is produced with different fat contents. Cream of lower fat
content, 10 – 18 %, is often referred to as half cream or coffee cream and is increasingly used
for desserts and in cooking. Cream with a higher fat content, typically 35 – 40 %, is
considerably thicker. It can be whipped into a thick froth and is therefore referred to as
“whipping cream”. Whipping cream is used whipped or unwhipped as a dessert, for cooking,
etc.

Whipping cream

In addition to tasting good and keeping well, whipping cream must also have good
“whippability”, i.e. it must be easy to whip and produce a fine cream froth with a high
increase in volume (overrun). The froth must be firm and stable, and must not be susceptible
to syneresis. Good whippability depends on the cream having a sufficiently high fat content.
Whipping cream with 40 % fat is usually easy to whip, but the whippability decreases as the
fat content drops to 30% and below. However, it is possible to produce good whipping cream
with a low fat content (about 25 %) by adding substances which improve whippability, such
as powder with a high lecithin content made from sweet buttermilk.
Unintentional air inclusion must be avoided in the manufacture of the cream. Air pickup
leads to formation of froth and destabilisation. If cream is subjected to excessive mechanical
treatment, especially just after it has left the cooling section, the fat-globule membranes will
be damaged, resulting in fat coalescence and formation of clusters. Creamlining takes place
when roughly treated cream is stored in the pack. The layer of cream will be dense and
sticky. This “homogenization effect” greatly impairs the whipping characteristics of the
cream.
Air is intentionally beaten into cream when it is whipped. This produces a froth full of small
air bubbles. The fat globules in the cream collect on the walls of these air bubbles.
Mechanical treatment destroys the membranes of many fat globules, and a certain amount of
liquid fat is liberated. This fat makes the globules stick together.
The fat globules must contain the correct proportions of liquid and crystallized fat in order to
obtain a firm froth. Warm cream contains liquid fat, which makes whipping impossible.
Cream for whipping must therefore be stored at a low temperature (4 – 6 °C) over a relatively
long period of time to obtain proper crystallization of the fat. This storage period is
called ripening time. Cream is usually ripened in jacketed process tanks with scraper
agitators. Heat is released during crystallization. However, cooling and agitation should not
start until about two hours after the process tank has been filled. The reason is that during this
period of fat crystallization the fat globules can easily be split, releasing free fat and causing
lump (cluster) formation. At cooling the agitation must be gentle. See also Figure 8.3,
concerning the progress of crystallization of 40 % cream. Slightly lower final temperatures
can be used in the summer, when the milk fat is usually softer than during the winter.
Fig. 8.3

The crystallization process for 40 % cream at 8 °C.

The whipping method

The best whipping result is obtained when the temperature of the cream is below 6 °C. The
whipping bowl and instrument should also be correctly proportioned in relation to one
another so that whipping is completed as quickly as possible. Otherwise the temperature may
rise appreciably during whipping, resulting in an inferior froth (butter may be formed in the
worst case).
Whipping time and volume increase , or overrun, are two criteria that should be measured to
check whipping properties. An adequate whipping bowl (holding one litre) and instrument
(preferably an electric beater) are required for this test. A suitable volume of cream (say 200
ml) is cooled to +6 °C ±1 °C and then poured into the bowl.
The height of the cream is measured before whipping starts. The beater is stopped when the
froth has reached acceptable firmness (which means that it will not start to run when the bowl
is inverted).
Whipping time is measured with a stopwatch, which is started and stopped simultaneously
with the beater.
The height of the whipped cream is measured to establish the overrun. If, for instance, the
height was 5 cm initially and is 10.5 cm after whipping, the overrun will be (10.5 – 5) x 100 /
5 = 110%. With 40% cream, the whipping time should be about two minutes and the overrun
between 100 and 130%.
The quality of the froth is measured by the leakage of liquid after two hours at 18 – 20 °C and
75% R.H.
Directly after whipping and measurement of overrun, all the whipped cream is placed on a
plain metal net. The froth is formed, as shown in Figure 8.4, and the net is placed over a
funnel of adequate size, which in turn is placed over a graduated measuring glass. The
amount of liquid that has accumulated in the glass is read off after two hours’ storage at the
abovementioned temperature and humidity.

The judgement criteria are:

0-1 ml Very good
1-4 ml Good
>4 ml Poor

FIG. 8.4

Test of leakage of whipped cream after 2 hours at 18–20 °C and 75 % R.H.

The whipping-cream production line

The Scania method

The process stages in the manufacture of whipping cream include heating of the whole milk
to separation temperature (62 – 64 °C) separation and standardization of the cream fat content
to the required value, and pasteurization and chilling of the cream in a heat exchanger before
it continues to a process tank for ripening.
Treatment of cream with a high fat content involves several problems which must be
carefully considered when the process line is designed. The most serious problem is how to
avoid shearing and turbulence during crystallization of the fat. The fat in the globules is in
liquid form at higher temperatures, and fat globules seem to be unaffected by treatment at
temperatures above 40 °C.
The fat starts to crystallize as soon as cooling begins in the process line. This is a fairly slow
process; some crystallization still continues after four or five hours. Crystallized fat has a
lower specific volume than liquid fat, so tension forces are generated in the fat globules
during crystallization. This makes the fat globules very sensitive to rough treatment at 10 –
40 °C.
The progress of crystallization of 40% cream cooled to 8 °C is illustrated in Figure 8.3. The
cream must not be agitated while the processing tank is being filled. Agitation and cooling
start about two hours after the tank has been filled.

Fig. 8.5

Production line for whipping cream according to the Scania method.

1. Holding tank
2. Product pump
3. Pasteurizer
4. Booster pump
5. Holding tube
6. Ripening tanks
7. Product pump

Crystallization releases heat of fusion, causing the temperature to rise by 2 – 3 °C. Final
cooling in the processing tank is absolutely essential. The cream is normally cooled to 6 °C,
or even lower. The fat globules seem to be less sensitive to rough treatment at these
temperatures, but they are still more sensitive than at temperatures above 40 °C.
The biggest problem in processing whipping cream is the formation of clusters, which reduce
the emulsion stability of the cream. Clusters occur when fat globules with partly crystallized
fat and weak membranes are subjected to rough mechanical treatment. Reduced emulsion
stability of cream is responsible for product defects in whipping cream, such as cream plugs
in containers, reduced whippability and lipolysis.
Figure 8.5 shows a process in which great care has been taken to eliminate rough treatment of
the whipping cream. This method, developed in collaboration with some Swedish dairy co-
operatives, is called the Scania method.

The standardized cream may have come from a dedicated cream production line, or may be
surplus cream from a market milk production line of the type shown in Figure 8.1. In either
case, the separation temperature should be 62 – 64 °C, to guarantee the highest possible
cream quality (i.e. the lowest amount of free fat).
The standardized cream is fed from above to a holding tank (1) at separation temperature.
The optimum holding time in the tank is 15 – 30 minutes before pasteurization starts. The
flow rate at pasteurization should be very close to the average rate of infeed to the holding
tank. This makes it possible to collect small flows of surplus cream in the holding tank over a
period of time, ensuring minimum mechanical agitation of the cream.
The holding tank has no agitator, and about 50 % of the air content in the cream is naturally
eliminated there. Volatile off-flavours are removed at the same time, and the risk of fouling
in the pasteurizer is reduced. Holding the cream at about 63 °C in the tank inactivates most
lipase enzymes and stops hydrolysis of free fat. The maximum holding time, including filling
and emptying, should be about four hours. For longer production runs, two holding tanks
should be installed and used alternately, with intermediate cleaning of one tank while the
other is in use.
From the holding tank, the cream is pumped to a regenerative heating section in the heat
exchanger (3). The booster pump (4) then pumps the cream through the heating section and
holding tube (5). Since pumping takes place at a high temperature (over 60 °C), at which the
cream is less sensitive to mechanical treatment, both product pump (2) and booster pump (4)
can be centrifugal pumps.
After pasteurization, typically above 80 – 95 °C for up to 10 seconds, the cream is pumped to
the cooling sections in the heat exchanger where it is concurrently cooled to 8 °C in the deep
cooling section before continuing to the ripening tanks (6). Cooling in the heat exchanger to
an average temperature of 8 °C seems to be optimum for cream with a fat content of 35 – 40
%. At higher fat contents, higher cooling temperatures must be used to prevent the cream
from clogging the cooling section due to rapidly increasing viscosity. This produces a sharp
rise in the pressure drop over the cooling section, which in turn causes damage to the fat
globules and possibly even leakage of butteroil from that section. The process must then be
stopped and the system flushed out, cleaned and restarted.
Because of the instability of the freshly chilled fat globules, shearing and turbulence should
be avoided (no pump and adequately dimensioned piping) during transportation from the
cooling section of the heat exchanger to the processing tank for final cooling and fat
crystallization. The pressure for this transport must therefore be provided by the booster
pump.
After ripening, the cream is pumped to the packaging machines. The temperature is now low,
and most of the milk fat is crystallized, which means that the cream is now less sensitive to
mechanical treatment. A frequency-controlled centrifugal pump can be used at low pressure
drops, up to 1.2 bar, provided that a pressure transmitter is also integrated into the system.
Lobe rotor pumps running a maximum of 250 – 300 rpm are recommended at pressure drops
from 1.2 – 2.5 up to 3 bar.
Half- or coffee cream

Cream containing 10 – 18% fat is known as half- or coffee cream.

Figure 8.6 shows a process line for half-cream. Untreated milk from the storage tanks is
heated regeneratively in the heat exchanger to separation temperature, 62 – 64 °C. The milk
then flows to the separator for separation to skim milk and cream with the required fat
content, usually 35 – 40%.

Table 8.3

Viscosity test; increasing homogenizing pressure at 57 °C

Homogenizing pressure MPa Cream viscosity seconds

10 18

15 28

20 45

The treatment of the cream is the same as described for whipping cream, with the exception
that the half-cream is mixed with skim milk to obtain the required fat content. The cream is
homogenized.
The mixing of cream and skim milk is done with a metering pump which injects the skim
milk into the cream line. The cream temperature is then adjusted to homogenizing
temperature.
After homogenization the cream is returned to the heat exchanger, where it is pasteurized at
85 – 90 °C for 15 – 20 seconds, before being cooled to about 5 °C and packed.

Two principal requirements must be met in the production of cream:

 The cream should have the viscosity desired by local consumers,

 The cream should have good coffee stability. It must not flocculate when poured into
hot coffee.

Cream with a low fat content has a relatively low viscosity, which is acceptable in some
markets. In other markets, higher viscosity may be appreciated. To obtain the desired
viscosity of coffee cream it is necessary to select the correct temperature and pressure for
homogenization.
Fig. 8.6

Production line for half- and coffee cream

1. Fat standardization tank

2. Product pump
3. Plate heat exchanger
4. Homogenizer
5. Holding tube

The viscosity of cream increases with increasing homogenizing pressure and is reduced by a
temperature increase. The cream viscosity in Table 8.3 can be obtained by keeping the
homogenizing temperature constant at about 57 °C and homogenizing the cream at three
different pressures: 10, 15 and 20 MPa (100, 150 and 200 bar). The viscosity is measured
with a SMR viscosity meter, described in Chapter 11, Fermented milk products. The longer
the time (in seconds) for the cream to flow through the meter, the higher the viscosity. Cream
which has been homogenized at 20 MPa has the highest viscosity.
Table 8.4 shows the viscosity if the homogenizing temperature is varied at a constant
homogenizing pressure of 15 MPa.

Table 8.4
Viscosity test; effect of homogenizing temperature at 15 MPa

Homogenizing temp °C Viscosity seconds

35 49

50 35

65 10

The viscosity of cream decreases with increasing homogenizing temperature. However, the
fat must be liquid to achieve the homogenizing effect. This means that the homogenizing
temperature should not be below 35 °C.
The coffee stability of cream can be affected considerably by the homogenizing conditions:
temperature, pressure and position of the homogenizer (upstream or downstream of the heat
exchanger).

The coffee stability of cream can be improved to a certain extent by adding sodium
bicarbonate (maximum 0.02%), if legally permitted. Coffee stability is a certain kind of
thermal stability and is a complicated issue, involving several factors:

 The temperature of the coffee; the hotter the coffee, the more easily the cream will
flocculate.
 The type of coffee and the manner in which it is prepared; the more acid the coffee,
the more easily the cream will flocculate.
 The hardness of the water used to make the coffee;cream will flocculate more readily
in hard water than in soft water, as calcium salts increase the ability of the proteins to
coagulate.

Packaging

The principal and fundamental functions of packaging are to:

 Enable efficient food distribution

 Maintain product hygiene
 Protect nutrients and flavour
 Reduce food spoilage and waste
 Increase food availability
 Convey product information

Glass bottles for milk were introduced at the beginning of the 20th century. As a package,
glass has some disadvantages. It is heavy and fragile, and must be cleaned before re-use,
which causes some problems for dairies. Since 1960, other packages have entered the milk
market, mainly paperboard packages but also plastic bottles and plastic pouches.
A package should protect the product and preserve its food value and vitamins on the way to
the consumer. Liquid foods tend to be perishable, so a clean, non-tainting package is
absolutely essential. The package should also protect the product from mechanical shock,
light and oxygen. Milk is a sensitive product; exposure to daylight or artificial light destroys
some essential vitamins and has a deleterious effect on the taste (sunlight flavour, see Table
8.2).
Other products, such as flavoured milk, contain flavouring matter or vitamins that are
oxygen-sensitive. The package must therefore exclude oxygen.
A milk carton usually consists of paperboard and plastic (polyethylene). Paperboard comes
from wood, which is a renewable resource. The paperboard gives stiffness to the packages as
well as making them resistant to mechanical stress. The paperboard also serves to some
extent as a light barrier.
A thin layer of food-grade polyethylene on either side of the paperboard makes the cartons
leakproof. On the outside, the plastic also protects the cartons from condensation when
chilled products are taken out of storage.
Because of its purity, this polyethylene produces minimal environmental impact when
incinerated or deposited in landfills.
For products with a long non-refrigerated shelf life and very sensitive products, a thin layer of
aluminium foil is sandwiched between layers of polyethylene plastic. This gives almost
complete protection of the product against light and atmospheric oxygen.
All packages end up as waste. The growing volume of household waste is an environmental
problem in our society. Ways of tackling this problem can be summarized in principle under
five headings:

Functions of packaging:

 Enable efficient food distribution

 Maintain product hygiene
 Protect nutrients and flavour
 Reduce food spoilage and waste
 Increase food availability
 Convey product information

Comments-

Chiller is needed

1. Primary Central silo – Temp. - 4 C.

2. Dairy Raw Milk Storage – Temp- 4 C or below 4 C.
3. Raw Milk Holding Tank – Temp – 4 C or below 4 C
4. Pasteurizer Cooling system – Temp- 8 C to 9 C.
5. Cream Procesing and storage – Temp- 6 C.
6. Milk Plastic bottle or Pouch Paking making.
 Dehumidifier for Powder Milk Packeging

Packaging of milk powder in tins/ containers is carried out in semi-automatic machines. Milk
powder being hygroscopic in nature, exhibits affinity for water due to humidity in the
surrounding environment. Milk powder sticks to hopper, conveyors and packaging machines
creating hygiene problems.

Milk Powder - Less than 40%

Milk Powder Storage 21 to 26°C 15 to 30% RH
Milk Powder Packaging 22 to 25°C 20% RH

A reputed dairy company was facing the all too familiar humidity problem at their milk
processing plant. Though the plant was air conditioned the humidity problem persisted. Due
to high humidity, the milk powder would often stick to the hoppers, conveyors and packaging
machine, leading to frequent breakdowns in the conveyor drive mechanism.
Since the packing of the milk powder in tins containers is carried out on semi-automatic
machines, the tins to be filled keep moving continuously on a chain conveyor. The powder is
put into the packing machine hopper from where it flows into the tin as it comes into the right
slot.
To ensure free flow of powder and avoid sticking of powder on chain conveyor and other
machine parts, RH in the packing hall is maintained at 40 ± 5% and temperature at 22-25°C.