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Chapter 18 : Varia.on and selec.on

01 Variation
• The differences between individuals of the same species

02 What causes variation?

• Mutations in the genetic code

03 Phenotypic variation
• The difference in features between individuals of the same species
- caused by both genetic and environmental factors

04 Genetic variation
• The difference between the genotypes of individuals of the same species

05 Continuous variation
• Results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes e.g. height in humans
(contains intermediates)
- Mostly caused by both genes and environment

06 Discontinuous variation
• Results in a limited number of phenotypes with no intermediates e.g. tounge
rolling (distinct phenotypes)
- Mostly caused by genes alone
- Ex: blood groups in humans

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07 Mutation
• genetic change

08 Gene mutation
• A change in the base sequence of DNA

09 How new alleles are formed

• Through mutation

10 Things that increase the rate of mutation

• Ionising radiation
• Some chemicals

11 Symptoms of sickle-cell anaemia

• Headaches
• Fatigue
• Fainting

12 Explain why sickle cell anaemia reduces the delivery of oxygen to tissues
• Haemoglobin becomes abnormal
• It carries less oxygen than normal haemoglobin
• Red blood cells become sickle shaped
• These sickle cells clot in blood vessels and reduce Elow of healthy blood

12.1 How does sickle cell anaemia arise?

• Mutation
• A change in the base sequence of DNA
• in gene for haemoglobin

13 Inheritance of sickle-cell anaemia

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14 What disease do people who are heterozygous for sickle-cell anaemia have
resistance to?
• Malaria

15 Distribution of sickle-cell allele in human populations

• Sickle-cell anaemia tends to be found more in places where malaria is common

16 How sickle-cell anaemia distributes?

• People who have sickle cell anaemia are resistant to malaria
• Those without sickle cell anaemia are not immune and are more likely to die from
malaria
• Over time, a majority of the population will carry the sickle cell anaemia gene

17 Adaptive feature
• The inherited functional feature of an organism that increase its Eitness

18 Fitness
• The probability of an organism surviving and reproducing in the environment in
which it is found

19 Hydrophytes
• Plants adapted to live in extremely wet conditions
• Adaptations:
- Large air spaces - leaves Eloat
- Stomata in the upper epidermis - movement of gases from air
- Thin cuticle - no need to reduce water loss by transpiration

20 Xerophytes
• Plants adapted to live in extremely dry conditions
• Adaptations:
- Thick waxy cuticles - reduces transpiration
- Leaves reduced to spines - reduces surface area of leaves reducing water
lost
- Rolled leaves - reduces surface area of leaves
- Few stomata - reduce transpiration
- Deep roots - absorb water

21 Natural selection
• Variation within population
• Production of many offspring
• Competition for resources
• Struggle for survival
• Reproduction by individuals that are better adapted to the environment than
others
• Passing on of their alleles to the next generation

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22 Evolution
• The change in adaptive features of a population over time as the result of natural
selection

23 Process of adaptation
• The process resulting from natural selection in which populations become more
suited to their environment over many generations

24 Development of strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria

• Resistance is developed by mutation in small number of bacteria
• Antibiotic kills bacteria that do not have mutation
• Resistant bacteria have no competition
• They reproduce and pass on the gene for resistance
• This is known as natural selection

25 Selective breeding
• Choose organisms best adapted to conditions
• Breed them together
• Select offspring that show desired features
• Breed them together again

26 Differences between natural and artificial selection

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27 Selective breeding by artificial selection to improve plants and animals

• Outbreeding:
- Breeding of unrelated animals / plants
- To combine good characteristics of separate individuals such as:
§ disease resistance
§ increasing crop yield
- Resulting in tougher individuals with a better chance of survival
- This is called hybrid vigour
• Inbreeding:
- Breeding close relatives
- To retain desirable characteristics
- However, there can be harmful effects such as:
§ Loss of vigour (physical strength and good health)
§ Lack of diversity
§ Reduced fertility
§ Greater risk of disease

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