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In such cases, the general results (such as for the genus) were extracted because they represented all
the members within the group. In the LMM 2004, the daily survival probability of immature
mosquitoes (. Reliable NMFI burden estimates will inform regional public health strategies.
Additionally, we only extracted absolute numbers of agents linked to specific clinical signs and
symptoms and not measures of association (such as odds ratios). Differences in haemoglobin level
were measured between day 0 (baseline) and day 7 or 28, depending on the type of infection and
study design. Results The electronic search identified 331 papers from Pubmed, 60 From EmBase
and 75 from Scopus. As some viruses (e.g., Adenoviruses) were commonly identified at levels higher
than the genus, these were extracted and included in our tally of total agents (Figs 2 and 4 and Table
2 ). Finally, we wish to thank one anonymous reviewer whose comments helped to greatly improve
the manuscript. Estimation of malaria mortality of a district in India during 2010 by using three
models. Understanding changes in transmission and determinant factors will help to adapt control
strategies accordingly. Clinton Foundation, Medicines for Malaria Venture, Dalberg Global
Development Advisors, Health Action International Europe, MIT-Zaragoza International Logistics
Program). One of the most important aspects of malaria transmission is the size of the mosquito
population, which strongly depends upon breeding conditions. This finding adds credence to the
assertion that gene copy number variation (CNV) may be the suitable indicator for incipient delays
in parasite clearance with the use of ACT. This clearly demonstrates that studies based on the
detection of gametocytes by microscopy are rather insensitive and inaccurate in the quantification of
gametocytes in blood smears. Detection of pfmdr1 and pfcrt polymorphisms In all, 1,102 samples
were analysed for the pfmdr1 polymorphisms at codon 86 (asparagine to tyrosine) and 832 samples
for codons 184 (tyrosine to phenylalanine), 1034 (serine to cysteine), 1042 (asparagine to aspartic
acid) and 1246 (aspartic acid to tyrosine). Lastly, we did not exclude any publications based on the
age of study participants to be as inclusive as possible. These observations made in this study are
important as herbal medicine plays a significant role in the management of malaria in Ghana. This is
despite the fact that malaria is the cause of 50 percent of deaths in sub-Saharan African school
children. Human-to-mosquito transmission efficiencies are generally lower than 40%, and for the
majority of trials infectiousness is higher than 20% (see Additional file 7 ). The underlying
aetiologies of coma in febrile Sudanese children. Estimates of the global, regional, and national
morbidity, mortality, and aetiologies of diarrhoea in 195 countries: a systematic analysis for the
Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Deforestation is a major cause of LC change in the Amazon
subregion; as this may enhance the proliferation of anopheline mosquitoes and increase malaria,
further investigations based on the considerations outlined in this review should be conducted. Use
of antimalarial drugs for children's fevers in district medical units, drug shops and homes in eastern
Uganda. Results Papers detected were 149, of which 89 were included. Quinine was the principal
medicine for severe malaria until 2010, when injectable artesunate was adopted as the drug of choice.
No animal, in-vitro, or healthy volunteer studies were included. Annual proportion of the population
potentially protected by ITNs was estimated with the assumption that each LLIN covered 1.8
persons for 3 years. Socio-demographic determinants of dengue infection during an outbreak in Dar
es Salaam City, Tanzania. AHF supervised the PhD study of VE whose results formed the basis of
the manuscript. The general observation depicts a decline of pfcrt T76 with and a gradual takeover
by K76 after chloroquine was removed in 2005 as the first choice of anti-malarial treatment.
It is necessary to consider the vector or to make an assumption of suspected transmission sites in
such cases. Clinical efficacy of a tea-bag formulation of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta root in the
treatment of acute uncomplicated falciparum malaria. The chain serving more remote outlets and
those with less qualified staff tended to have more numerous levels. The diagnostic challenge of
pandemic H1N1 2009 virus in a dengue-endemic region: A case report of combined infection in
Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Other laboratory findings are related to hypersplenism, such as
variable degrees of pancytopaenia, especially anaemia. As it can be expected that in areas of low
transmission older children are still susceptible to malaria, therefore leading to a higher mean age of
malaria patients compared to areas of high transmission, the mean age of malaria cases in each
community was calculated to approximate the local age at infection and to estimate the acquisition
of immunity. However, the knowledge of infective species is still essential for refining pathogen-
specific control measures. (IV) PMr might have been overestimated if multiple agents were assigned
to the diagnosis of an individual patient. Published studies were identified by searching web-based
databases, using key terms pertaining to market structure and price mark-ups (Table 1 ). Results A
total of 32 references distributed across 12 developing countries were identified. There was also
some indication of weak competition especially at primary level, where few wholesalers accounted
for most of the anti-malarial volumes sold. Trevor Keel is head of technology at the World Gold
Council, the market development organisation for the gold mining industry. Note that the reduction
of the r value is essential when the LMM is extended to endemic malaria areas. All protocols used
were approved by the UCC Ethical Committee. Malaria admissions increased during the study
period. Furthermore, the status of patients as either inpatient or outpatient predicted the PMr of
Haemophilus spp. infections. Although the use of RDTs in the hospitals is limited only in the
absence of microscopist and confirmation of highly suspicious severe cases, such usage may have
affected the testing rate or patterns of use of microscopic diagnosis; and, (iv) inability of the data to
show disaggregated trends of insured and non-insured malaria admissions. Some funders partially
support or provide infrastructure which may not be acknowledged. Nearly 21,908 missing monthly
values, representing 10% of the total 210,709 records for the key indicators, were imputed using
either of the approaches described in the methods. Our friends tell us that the forwards-backwards
recovery is typical of malaria. The values differ considerably between children than in adults. This
section shows that the distribution chain is far more complicated than as characterized in our
taxonomy (Figure 1 ). Through the use of a continuous scale of urbanicity that provides more
detailed information than a binary classification, it was possible to assess linear associations with the
covariates. Download citation Received: 25 October 2009 Accepted: 11 February 2010 Published:
11 February 2010 DOI: Share this article Anyone you share the following link with will be able to
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Conclusions For patients not re-exposed to endemic areas, a short course of treatment is sufficient,
showing that eradicating the infection is sufficient to cure HMS. Longer (probably lifelong) courses,
or intermittent treatments, are required for those who remain exposed. The wild type allele of pfmdr1
1034 (S1034) was predominant in the isolates from all the time points. Data were extracted from all
finally retained papers and specific fields of an Excel spreadsheet were populated. These drug
retailers are the last link in a chain of suppliers and their practices are likely to be heavily influenced
by what happens further up the distribution chain. Studies tended to focus on the distribution chain
serving a single type of outlet, often the more formal type, such as pharmacies generally operating in
urbanized settings. The training given to Dziedzom deSouza on pfmdr1 copy number determination
at Dr Venkatachalam Udhayakumar’s laboratory at the Malaria Branch, Division of Parasitic Diseases
and Malaria, CDC, Atlanta, USA is greatly appreciated. Important modules of the original LMM
version were enhanced in order to achieve a higher biological and physical accuracy.
Gametocyte prevalence (sPR) The presence of male and female gametocytes in the blood of a human
host, the so-called sexual Parasite Ratio ( sPR; i.e. gametocytaemia), is a necessary condition for
malaria transmission. Mapping the health research landscape in sub-Saharan Africa: a study of trends
in biomedical publications. However, the proposed methodologies may be useful for future studies
based on entomological data in the Amazon. Studies were triaged for inclusion, and those which
mentioned Meghalaya as a neighbouring state or case reports not relevant to malaria in Meghalaya
were excluded. Pyrethroid resistance in African vector mosquitoes is a threat to malaria control.
Authors’ contributions NOD, KCK, NBQ, BA and KAK conceived and designed the study. A
retrospective review of malaria rates from 2001 to 2009 conducted in the same district also indicated
an overwhelming contribution from P. The relationship between urbanicity and malaria transmission
has been modelled on a global scale in several studies. Whatever the case may be the presence of
chloroquine or compounds with chemical properties similar to chloroquine in these herbal
preparations used by the Ghanaian public could foster the selection of chloroquine or quinine
resistant clones in Ghana. We assumed studies to be from the same population when expressly
stated, or when dates and locations of sampling were the same. This is of particular importance in
the light of the implementation of the Affordable Medicines Facility for Malaria (AMFm), which will
rely on existing distribution chains to deliver heavily subsidized ACT to consumers. All these studies
consistently found a lower mean age of malaria in higher transmission settings. Analysis of
microscopic tests and confirmed cases was possible only for all ages as records of microscopic
results could not be disaggregated by age, outpatient or inpatients. Parasite clearance is, therefore,
closely related to the age of an individual as well as to the transmission intensity. In a first step, it is
assumed that survival is independent of hydrological conditions. After excluding duplicates, 1097
articles were screened based on their title and abstract. Mwendera View author publications You can
also search for this author in. Whereas, in non-IRS regions, malaria admissions increased by 35%,
malaria deaths and TPR decreased by only 44 and 38%, respectively. Hospital-based surveillance for
acute febrile illness in Egypt: a focus on community-acquired bloodstream infections. The impact of
these interventions on malaria cases, admissions and deaths was assessed using data from district
hospitals. Furthermore, the NHIS has different cost estimates for different diseases in distributing its
budget and supplies with substantial cost and budgetary implications to the hospitals and districts.
Technical Report for the Medicines Transparency Alliance. 2008. Malaria cases and deaths decreased
by over 50 and 65%, respectively. The funding body had no role in the study design, in the collection,
analysis and interpretation of data, in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to submit the
manuscript for publication. HMS is caused by a chronic antigenic stimulation derived from the
malaria parasite. All analyses were carried out using Stata v12.1 (StataCorp LP, College Station,
USA). These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized
ads. Seventeen studies characterizing land cover or land use features, and relating them to malaria in
the Amazon subregion, were identified. However, some malaria admissions were admitted based on
clinical signs suggestive of severe malaria. For the mutant allele, D1042, the highest prevalence of
73% was observed in isolates from Begoro (2010).
In such cases, data on agents not presented per country were not extracted. For monitoring progress,
Ghana’s disease surveillance relies on the District Health Management Information system (DHIMS-
2). You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. Authors' contributions EP, CG and KH
developed the search strategy. Selected pathogens with high PMr estimates and more than ten
records identified by our systematic review were selected for the meta-regression analyses.
Conclusions: The data provide compelling evidence of impact following LLIN mass campaigns
targeting all ages since 2011, while maintaining other anti?malarial interventions. Finally, we
determined population and study characteristics that influenced the PMr of the aetiologic agents by
meta-regression analyses. Evaluation of the anti-malarial activity of the HPs The liquid HPs (1000 ml
of each herbal product) were lyophilized with a freeze dryer. However, further studies including
clinical data on disease severity, especially cerebral malaria, and analyses on an individual level are
needed. Download references Authors’ contributions CAM conceived and developed the idea, and
prepared the manuscript. Community health workers are reemerging as an essential component of
health systems in low-income countries. Funding acknowledgements may indicate support but do not
show the exact amount of funds put into the research. In children under 5 years old, total malaria
outpa. It is, therefore, possible that quinine containing plants might have been used to prepare these
two Solomon-Saker’s positive test compounds. We confirmed this by checking any similarity of
authors’ names. Jakarta: Subdit Malaria Direktorat P2PTVZ Kementerian Kesehatan Republik
Indonesia; 2018.. Accessed 17 Jul 2019. Pregnant women are at high risk of severe malaria and
severe haemolytic anaemia, which contribute over 60-70 percent of foetal and perinatal losses.
G6PD deficiency, primaquine treatment, and risk of haemolysis in malaria-infected patients. Malar J.
2018;17:415. Article. It discusses the uptake of a mobile application trial by providers. Retail prices
will be influenced by wholesale prices, and the cost of obtaining and storing goods. This is despite
the fact that malaria is the cause of 50 percent of deaths in sub-Saharan African school children. If
you do not want to be contacted, please leave the email field blank. Conclusions It is justified to use
a landscape approach to study the eco-epidemiological system of malaria. Combining the delivery of
multiple health interventions has the potential to minimize costs and expand intervention coverage.
Deputy Minister of Health the Honorable Alexander K. K. Abban gave keynote remarks and then
officially announced the vaccine pilot underway. Consistently high estimates for the proportion of
human exposure to malaria vector populations occurring indoors in rural Africa. Primaquine: the risks
and the benefits. Malar J. 2014;13:418. Article. Environmental factors, especially ambient
temperature and relative humidity affect both mosquitoes and malaria parasites. Despite this, the data
in the DHIMS-2 are currently inadequate to allow reliable analysis of disease trend owing to several
limitations, notably on quality of data and reporting completeness caused by factors such as power
interruption at facility level, inadequate supervision and compliance by health staff in completing
records. The prevalence of the pfmdr1 codon 1034 alleles for all the sites per year is shown in
Additional file 1.
Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLIN) are now standard for the prevention of malaria. The stained
blood smears were then examined under the light microscope at 100. Spatial heterogeneity and
temporal evolution of malaria transmission risk in Dakar, Senegal, according to remotely sensed
environmental data. Malar J. 2010;9:252. Article. Analytical cookies are used to understand how
visitors interact with the website. It is unclear to what extent urbanization influences the acquisition
of immunity and how immunity varies over short distances. Discussion The aim of the first part of
the present study was the development of a refined parameter setting and mathematical formulation
of the LMM (cf. Seasonal variation in the etiology of bloodstream infections in a febrile inpatient
population in a developing country. Establishing the Africa Centres for Disease Control and
Prevention: responding to Africa’s health threats. Bull World Health Org. 1964, 30: 241-261.
PubMed Central. This modelling approach again reflects a more physically correct relationship than
the original. Whatever the case may be the presence of chloroquine or compounds with chemical
properties similar to chloroquine in these herbal preparations used by the Ghanaian public could
foster the selection of chloroquine or quinine resistant clones in Ghana. Consequently, diagnostic
methods contribute to the variation between studies in Africa and the high heterogeneity values
observed. For simplicity, the same parameters are used as for the fuzzy logic approach of the
oviposition ( U 1, S, and U 2; Table 1 ). Methods This systematic review and meta-analysis were
conducted based on The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses
(PRISMA) guidelines. Pneumonia is the major cause of death in children globally, with more than
900,000 deaths annually in children under five years of age. The analysis in this study addressed this
problem through data collection from selected 88 health facilities (representing three epidemiological
zones) with complete reporting and parasitological testing covering the study periods. Results The
initial literature search found 1533 articles from databases and manual searching. Malaria admissions
increased during the study period. Authors’ original file for figure 1 Authors’ original file for figure
2 Rights and permissions. These interventions are supported by crosscutting interventions in the
areas of Research, Surveillance, Monitoring and Evaluation, Social and Behavior Change
Communication. RoB 2 quality was classified into low, with some concerns, or high risk of bias;
ROBINS-I was classified into low, moderate, serious, critical risk of bias, or no information; and
NOS for cohort studies was classified into high-quality study, high risk of bias, and very high risk of
bias studies. Concurrent hyperreactive malarial splenomegaly and quartan malarial nephropathy -
Plasmodium malariae revisited. Despite the remarkable progress of recent years, the disease remains
the number one killer of children under five in Sub-Saharan Africa. Since the HPs are chemo-
suppressive, their inability to completely clear parasites should be of concern to the malaria control
program as it poses a potential danger to the health of the users due to anticipated persistency or
delayed parasite clearance. The decreasing trend in the prevalence of chloroquine resistance markers
after change of treatment policy presents the possibility for future introduction of chloroquine as
prophylaxis for malaria risk groups such as children and pregnant women in Ghana. This will enable
genuine conjuncture into the future of malaria in the country in the context of the SNPs of anti-
malarial drug resistance and the potential effect of the increasing trends of the drug-resistant parasite
populations. Bull World Health Org. 1974, 50: 347-357. PubMed Central. Data on infections
diagnosed in blood were preferred in the total tally of agents in Africa as well as in the meta-analysis
section. Reduction in the proportion of fevers associated with Plasmodium falciparum parasitaemia
in Africa: a systematic review. Malar J. 2010;9(1):240. pmid:20727214. The wild type allele of
pfmdr1 1034 (S1034) was predominant in the isolates from all the time points.
While fever cases were often accurately defined, specifically by providing a minimum body
temperature, the duration of fever, accompanying clinical signs and symptoms, and how cases were
diagnosed, the location of temperature measurement was not stated in 57% of the studies.
Proportions of positive cases were calculated by dividing the number of cases diagnosed by any kind
of laboratory method by the total number of samples tested in each African region. Top health
officials, WHO representatives, community leaders, and mothers and children gathered on 30 April
2019 to officially begin the vaccine rollout. It wasn’t until the 1880s that a French scientist noticed
parasites in the blood of a patient suffering from malaria, and made the connection. A prospective
study of bloodstream infections as cause of fever in Malawi: clinical predictors and implications for
management. In addition, a stratified analysis using segmented regression was applied to compare
changes in disease trends in IRS districts (Northern region) and non-IRS districts. Evaluation of
arthropod-borne viruses and other infectious disease pathogens as the causes of febrile illnesses in
the Khartoum Province of Sudan. Although malaria prevention and control approaches are available,
(e.g. spraying, LLINs, personal repellents), their use and effectiveness is also not well characterized
in the literature. Technical Report for the Medicines Transparency Alliance. 2008. Preference is given
to HIV-negative patients when data could be found. The malaria treatment policy was changed in
2005 from the use of chloroquine as first-line drug to the use of AS-AQ, and in 2008, AL and
DHAP were added as the first-line drugs for the treatment of uncomplicated malaria in Ghana.
Splenic lymphoma with villous lymphocytes should be included in the differential diagnosis of
massive splenomegaly. Prevalence of community-acquired bacteraemia in Guinea-Bissau: an
observational study. Safety of single low-dose primaquine in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
deficient falciparum-infected African males: two open-label, randomized, safety trials. PLoS ONE.
2018;13: e0190272. Article. Prevalence and predictors of urinary tract infection and severe malaria
among febrile children attending Makongoro health centre in Mwanza city, North-Western Tanzania.
Most older malaria models further leave out the generation of a variable size of the mosquito
population. In the original LMM version of 2004 (henceforth called LMM 2004 ), some detailed
aspects of parasitological processes as well as age-dependencies of the malaria disease in humans are
not included. Eight components were defined within which variables were grouped: population,
economic activity, education, healthcare, transportation, service-infrastructure, sanitation, and
housing. Other laboratory findings are related to hypersplenism, such as variable degrees of
pancytopaenia, especially anaemia. An organized approach in addressing the malaria burden in
Malawi started in 1984 by the establishment of the first National Malaria Control Programme
(NMCP) and the development of its national malaria control policy. Despite several publications
mentioning the age of study participants, many did not stratify the occurrence of the various agents
by age groups. Results A total of 32 references distributed across 12 developing countries were
identified. The World Health Organisation recommends indoor spraying with residual insecticide
(IRS) as a significant method of preventing malaria. Mobile suppliers, such as sales representatives
of drug companies or general distributors, served retailers in many settings, although their popularity
and the types of outlets they served varied. Search was done in March, 2014 and limited to English,
Spanish, Italian, French, and Portuguese. There was stability in the prevalence of the pfmdr1 codon
1042 alleles over the years (Figure 2 E). Nonetheless, results of this study should stimulate further
investigations of Ghanaian HPs using other methods, such as the in vitro susceptibility test of
Plasmodium falciparum to these preparations. Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLIN) are now standard
for the prevention of malaria. These three product types are available under different formulations
including tablets, suppositories, suspensions, syrups and liquid injectables. For instance, if the
claimed cure by the peddler is not true, the life of the consumer may be at risk as high number of
parasites may build up and may results in severe disease condition.
PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8(5):e2896. pmid:24852787. Mutero View author publications You can
also search for this author in. The protocol of this review was registered at the Prospective Register
of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) with code number CRD42021227813. As no association was
seen between mean age of all patients and MPF or urbanicity, age was not included in the
multivariate regression model between MPF and urbanicity. A summary of study and population
characteristics is given in S2 Table. This, therefore, calls for government commitment to mobilize
resources to support such research, which should also be encouraged for publication in local or
regional journals indexed in major databases. Key model parameters, including the mature age of
mosquitoes, the survival probability of adult mosquitoes, the human blood index, the mosquito-to-
human (human-to-mosquito) transmission efficiency, the human infectious age, the recovery rate, as
well as the gametocyte prevalence, were reassessed by means of entomological and parasitological
observations. This public health hazard may have been a reason for growing research interest in
Africa over time. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License ( ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Serological evidence of recent dengue
virus infection among febrile children in a semi arid zone. The number of isolates with increased
pfmdr 1 gene copy number from the nine sites per year is shown in Table 2. A seven years old child,
born in UK to Ghanaian parents, was diagnosed with HMS after three short trips to Ghana (eight
weeks in total), the last one eight months before presentation. These included Brucella spp.,
Chikungunya virus, Dengue virus, Haemophilus spp., Klebsiella spp., Leptospira spp., Salmonella
spp. (non-typhoidal and typhoidal), Staphylococcus spp., and Streptococcus spp. Ghana-multiple
indicator cluster survey 2011.. Accessed 8 Feb 2017. Most patients had lived for at least five years in
an endemic area. Safety of a single low-dose of primaquine in addition to standard artemether-
lumefantrine regimen for treatment of acute uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in
Tanzania. Malar J. 2016;15:316. Article. The funding bodies do not have roles in this review. Among
sixteen studies in this review, half were classified as low risk of bias. Studies that looked at the
structure of the distribution chain, in terms of supply sources, supplier numbers and characteristics
for both anti-malarials and medicines in general were also included on the basis that anti-malarials
are expected to follow the same distribution route as other drugs and represent an important share of
all drugs distributed in developing countries. The very high values of Higgin’s I 2 reflect the fact that
relative to the within-study variance, the between-study variance was really large. Data with regard
to the daily survival probability of adult mosquitoes ( p. Evidence is limited on whether Integrated
Community Case Management (iCCM) improves treatment coverage of the top causes of childhood
mortality (acute respiratory illnesses (ARI), diarrhoea and malaria). Malawi is in the process of
renewing the National Health Research Agenda, which outlines the country’s research needs. Malaria
has a negative effect on the outcome of pregnancy. The age patterns of severe malaria syndromes in
sub-Saharan Africa across a range of transmission intensities and seasonality settings. Malar J.
2010;9:282. Article. Daily survival was 65-70% and 73-91%, respectively. While continued
surveillance and reporting is necessary to determine the true impact of the LLINs, the decline in
malaria case incidence and fatalities during the distribution time frame is visually clear (Fig. 3 ). To
assess the suspected impact of mass LLIN distribution in the state and improve understanding of the
current malaria picture in Meghalaya, total malaria cases, species-specific malaria cases ( P. It is in
this vein that Ghana’s revised Malaria Strategic Plan has identified the involvement and active
participation of the private sector as key in efforts to eliminate malaria. Combining the delivery of
multiple health interventions has the potential to minimize costs and expand intervention coverage.
Marked increase in child survival after four years of intensive malaria control.