WEEK 2 DISCUSSION

Atomic Theory, Mass Laws, and

Structure of Atoms
Any model of the composition of matter
Democritus (460–370 B.C.E.) and other had to explain two extremely important
early Greek philosophers described the chemical observations that were well
material world as made up of tiny established by the end of the 18th century:
indivisible particles that they called the law of mass conservation and the law of
“atomos”, meaning “indivisible” or definite (or constant) composition.
“uncuttable.”
Law of Mass Conservation
John Dalton formulated a precise
This law states that the total mass of
definition of atoms. The theory came from
substances does not change during a
the work of John Dalton during the period
chemical reaction. The number of
from 1803 to 1807. Dalton’s work marked
substances may change and, by definition,
the beginning of the modern era of
their properties must, but the total amount
chemistry. The hypotheses about the
of matter remains constant.
nature of matter on which Dalton’s atomic
theory is based can be summarized as: Even in a complex biochemical change,
such as the metabolism of the sugar
1. Each element is composed of
glucose, which involves many reactions,
extremely of small particles called
mass is conserved:
atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element are
identical, but the atoms of one
element are different from the
atoms of all elements.
3. Atoms of one element cannot be
changed into atoms of a different
element by chemical reactions;
atoms are neither created nor
destroyed in chemical reactions.
Mass conservation means that, based on
all chemical experience, matter cannot be
created or destroyed.
Another example: The total mass of lead
nitrate solution and sodium chromate
solution before they react (A) is the same
as the total mass after they have reacted
(B) to form lead chromate (yellow solid)
and sodium nitrate solution.

4. Compounds are formed when

atoms of more than one element
combine; a given compound Law of Definite Composition
always has the same relative
This law states that no matter what its
number of atoms.
source, a particular compound is
composed of the same elements in the fixed mass of A can be expressed as a ratio
same parts (fractions) by mass. The of small whole numbers.
fraction by mass (mass fraction) is that
Consider two compounds that form from
part of the compound’s mass that each
carbon and oxygen; for now, let’s call
element contributes. It is obtained by
them carbon oxides I and II. They have
dividing the mass of each element by the
very different properties. For example,
total mass of compound. The percent by
measured at the same temperature and
mass (mass percent, mass %) is the
pressure, the density of carbon oxide I is
fraction by mass expressed as a
1.25 g/L, whereas that of II is 1.98 g/L.
percentage.
Moreover, I is poisonous and flammable,
Let’s see what these ideas mean in terms but II is not. Analysis shows that their
of a box of marbles. The box contains three compositions by mass are:
types of marbles: yellow marbles that
weigh 1.0 g each, purple marbles that
weigh 2.0 g each, and red marbles that
To see the phenomenon of multiple
weigh 3.0 g each. Each type makes up a
proportions, we use the mass percents of
fraction of the total mass of marbles, 16.0
oxygen and of carbon in each compound
g. The mass fraction of the yellow marbles
to find the masses of these elements in a
is their number times their mass divided
given mass, for example, 100 g of each
by the total mass: (3 x 1.0 g)/16.0 g = 0.19.
compound. Then we divide the mass of
The mass percent (parts per 100 parts) of
oxygen by the mass of carbon in each
the yellow marbles is 0.19 x 100 = 19% by
compound to obtain the mass of oxygen
mass. The purple marbles have a mass
that combines with a fixed mass of carbon:
fraction of 0.25 and are 25% of the total by
mass, and the red marbles have a mass
fraction of 0.56 and are 56% by mass.
Similarly, in a compound, each element
The law of multiple proportions tells us
has a fixed mass fraction (and mass
that in two compounds of the same
percent).
elements, the mass fraction of one element
relative to the other element changes in
increments based on ratios of small whole
numbers.

How Dalton’s Atomic Theory Explained

the Mass Laws

1. Law of Mass Conservation. Atoms

Law of Multiple Proportions
This law states that if elements A and B
react to form two compounds, the
different masses of B that combine with a
cannot be created or destroyed or
converted into other types of atoms. Since
each type of atom has a fixed mass, a
chemical reaction, in which atoms are just
combined differently with each other,
cannot possibly result in a mass change.
2. Law of Definite Composition. A Name Relative Absolute Mass
compound is a combination of a specific Location
(Symbol) Charge (g)
ratio of different atoms, each of which has
Proton ( −24
a particular mass. Thus, each element in a +¿¿ 1+ 1.67262 x 10 Nucleus
p )
compound constitutes a fixed fraction of Neutron ( −24
the total mass. 0 1.67493 x 10 Nucleus
n)
0

3. Law of Multiple Proportions. Atoms of Electron ( −28 Outside

−¿¿ 1- 9.10939 x 10
an element have the same mass and are e ) nucleus
indivisible. The masses of element B that
combine with a fixed mass of element A Atomic Number, Mass Number, and
give a small, whole-number ratio because Atomic Symbol
different numbers of B atoms combine
The atomic number (Z) of an element
with each A atom in different compounds.
equals the number of protons in the
Structure of Atom nucleus of each of its atoms. All atoms of a
particular element have the same atomic
An atom is an electrically neutral,
number, and each element has a different
spherical entity composed of a positively
atomic number from that of any other
charged central nucleus surrounded by
element.
one or more negatively charged electrons.
An atomic nucleus consists of protons and
neutrons. The proton has a positive
charge, and the neutron has no charge;
thus, the positive charge of the nucleus
results from its protons. The magnitude of
charge possessed by a proton is equal to
that of an electron, but the signs of the
charges are opposite. An atom is neutral The total number of protons and neutrons
because the number of protons in the in the nucleus of an atom is its mass
nucleus equals the number of electrons number (A).
surrounding the nucleus. An atom’s
The nuclear mass number and charge are
diameter (~10−10 m) is about 100,000 times
often written with the atomic symbol (or
the diameter of its nucleus (~10−15 m).
element symbol).

Since the mass number is the sum of

protons and neutrons, the number of
neutrons (N) equals the mass number
minus the atomic number:

Number of neutrons=mass number−atomic number∨N =

For example, a chlorine atom, which is

35
symbolized as 17Cl has A = 35, Z = 17, so
Number of neutrons= A−Z=35−17=18
All atoms of an element are identical in
atomic number but not in mass number.
Isotopes of an element are atoms that
have different numbers of neutrons and
therefore have different mass numbers.
For example, there are three isotopes of
hydrogen. One, simple known as
hydrogen, has one proton and no
neutrons. The deuterium isotope has one
proton and one neutron, and tritium has
one proton and two neutrons.
Example:
Silicon (Si) is essential to the computer
industry as a major component of
semiconductor chips. It has three naturally
occurring isotopes: 28❑Si , ❑Si , and ❑Si .
29 30
Determine the numbers of protons,
neutrons, and electrons in each silicon
isotope.
Atomic Weight
Most elements occur in nature as mixtures
of isotopes. We can determine the average
atomic mass of an element, usually called
the element’s atomic weight, by summing
(indicated by the Greek epsilon, ∑ ¿ over
the masses of its isotopes multiplied by
their relative abundances. The relative
abundance is the percentage of a
particular isotope that occurs in nature.
Atomic weight=∑ [ ( isotope mass ) x ( relative abundance
Example 1:
Naturally occurring carbon is composed
of 98.93% 12
❑ C and 1.07% ❑ C . The masses
13
of these isotopes are 12 amu and 13.00335
amu, respectively, making the atomic
weight of carbon:
Atomic weight=∑ [ ( isotope mass ) x ( relative abundance of
Atomic weight=∑ [ ( isotope mass of ❑C ) x ( relative abunda
12
Atomic weight=∑ [ ( 12 amu ) x ( 98.93 % )+(13.00335 amu)(
Atomic weight=12. 01amu
Example 2:
Naturally occurring chlorine is 75.78%
Cl (atomic mass 34.969 amu) and 24.22%
35
❑
Cl (atomic mass 36.966 amu). Calculate
37
❑
the atomic weight of chlorine.
Atomic weight=∑ [ ( isotope mass ) x ( fractional isotope abu
Atomic weight=∑ [ ( isotope mass of ❑Cl ) x ( relative abunda
35
Atomic weight=∑ [ ( 34.969 amu ) x ( 75.78 % )+(36.966 amu
Atomic weight=35.45 amu
Representation of Molecules and
Compounds
In a chemical formula, element symbols
and numerical subscripts show the type
and number of each atom present in the
smallest unit of the substance.
• Chemical formulas that indicate
the actual numbers of atoms in a
molecule are called molecular
formulas.
• ofThe
empirical
isotope )] formula shows the
relative number of atoms of each
element in the compound. It is the

simplest type of formula and is
derived from the masses of the
component elements.
• A structural formula shows the
number of atoms and the bonds
between them; that is, the relative
placement and connections of
atoms in the molecule.
• Ball-and-stick models show atoms
as spheres and bonds as sticks.
This type of model has the
advantage of accurately
representing the angles at which
the atoms are attached to one
another in a molecule.
• A space-filling model depicts
what a molecule would look like if
the atoms were scaled up in size.
These models show the relative
sizes of the atoms, but the angles
between atoms, which help define
their molecular geometry, are often
more difficult to see than in ball-
and-stick models.
Naming of Compounds
Ionic bonding generally results from the
interaction of metals on the left side of the
periodic table with nonmetals on the right
side (excluding the noble gases or Group
8A).
+¿¿
For example, the formation of Na from
−¿¿
Na and Cl from Cl 2 indicates that an
electron has been lost by a sodium atom
and gained by a chlorine atom—we say
there has been an electron transfer from
the Na atom to the Cl atom.
Each metal atom loses a certain number of
its electrons and becomes a cation, a
positively charged ion. The nonmetal
atoms gain the electrons lost by the metal
atoms and become anions, negatively
charged ions. A cation or anion derived
from a single atom is called a monatomic
ion.
Ionic compounds have zero net charge, so
the positive charges of the cations must
balance the negative charges of the anions.
For example, calcium bromide is
−¿¿
composed of Ca2+¿ ¿ ions and Br ions;
−¿¿
therefore, two Br balance each Ca2+¿ ¿.
The formula is CaBr 2, not Ca2 Br . In this
and all other formulas,
 The subscript refers to the element
preceding it.
 The subscript 1 is understood from
the presence of the element symbol
alone (that is, we do not write
Ca1 Br 2).
 The charge (without the sign) of
one ion becomes the subscript of
the other.
Reduce the subscripts to the smallest
whole numbers that retain the ratio of ions
or reduce the chemical formula to its
empirical form.
For example, the chemical formula Ca2 O 2
formed from the ions Ca2+¿ ¿ and O 2−¿¿
should be reduced to CaO.
Covalent bonding is a chemical bonding
formed by sharing electrons.
The hydrogen molecule, H 2, provides the
simplest example of a covalent bond.
When two hydrogen atoms are close to
each other, the two positively charged
nuclei repel each other, the two negatively
charged electrons repel each other, and
the nuclei and electrons attract each other,
as shown in. Because the molecule is
stable, we know that the attractive forces
must overcome the repulsive ones.
Many ionic compounds contain
polyatomic ions, which consist of two or
more atoms bonded covalently and have
a net positive or negative charge.
For example, the ionic compound calcium
carbonate is an array of polyatomic
carbonate anions and monatomic calcium
cations attracted to each other. The
carbonate ion consists of a carbon atom
covalently bonded to three oxygen atoms,
and two additional electrons give the ion
its -2 charge. In many reactions, a
polyatomic ion stays together as a unit.
Rules in Naming Compounds
Ionic Compound
All ionic compound names give the
positive ion (cation) first and negative ion
(anion) second.
Compounds Formed from Monoatomic
Ions
 The name of the cation is the same
as the name of the metal. Many
metal names end in –ium.
 The name of the anion takes the
root of the nonmetal name and
adds the suffix –ide.
Compounds with Metals That Can Form
More Than One Ion
Many metals, particularly the transition
elements (B groups), can form more than
one ion, each with its own particular
charge. For example, iron can form Fe2 +¿¿
and Fe3 +¿¿ ions. In common names, the
Latin root of the metal is followed by
either of two suffixes:
 The suffix -ous for the ion with the
lower charge
 The suffix -ic for the ion with the
higher charge
 Names of compounds containing
these elements include a Roman
numeral within parentheses
immediately after the metal ion’s
name to indicate its ionic charge.
Compounds Formed from Polyatomic
Ions
 Remember that the polyatomic ion
stays together as a charged unit. For
example, the formula for
potassium nitrate is KNO3 .
 When two or more of the same
polyatomic ions are present in the
formula unit, that ion appears in
parentheses with the subscript
written outside. For example,
calcium nitrate, its formula is
Ca ( NO3 )2.
Families of Oxoanions
Most polyatomic ions are oxoanions,
those in which an element, usually a
nonmetal, is bonded to one or more
oxygen atoms.
With two oxoanions in the family:
 The ion with more O atoms takes
the nonmetal root and the suffix –
ate.
 The ion with fewer O atoms takes
the nonmetal root and the suffix -
ite.
Example: SO 4
2−¿¿
is the sulfate ion, and
SO 3
2−¿ ¿
is the sulfite ion.
With four oxoanions in the family (usually
a halogen bonded to O):
 The ion with most O atoms has the
prefix per-, the nonmetal root, and
the suffix -ate.
 The ion with one fewer O atom has
just the root and the suffix -ate.
 The ion with two fewer O atoms
has just the root and the suffix -ite.
 The ion with least (three fewer) O
atoms has the prefix hypo-, the
root, and the suffix -ite.
Example: For the four chlorine oxoanions,
−¿¿ −¿ ¿
ClO4 is the perchlorate ion, ClO3 is
−¿ ¿
the chlorate ion, ClO2 is the chlorite
−¿ ¿
ion, and ClO is the hypochlorite ion.
Acid Names from Anion Names
The two common types of acids are binary
acids and oxoacids:
 Binary acid solutions form when
certain gaseous compounds
dissolve in water. For example,
hydrochloric acid:
 Oxoacid names are similar to those
of the oxoanions, except for two
suffix changes:
-ate in the anion becomes –ic in the acid.
-ite in the anion becomes –ous in the acid.
The oxoanion prefixes hypo- and per- are
kept. For example,
Covalent Compounds
Binary covalent compounds are formed by
the combination of two elements, usually
nonmetals. Some are so familiar, such as
ammonia ( NH 3), methane (CH 4 ), and
water ( H 2 O), we use their common
names, but most are named in a
systematic way:
1. The element with the lower group
number in the periodic table is the
first word in the name; the element
with the higher group number is
the second word. (Exception:
When the compound contains
oxygen and any of the halogens:
 chlorine, bromine, and iodine, the
halogen is named first.)
2. If both elements are in the same
group, the one with the higher
period number is named first.
3. The second element is named with
its root and the suffix -ide.
4. Covalent compounds have Greek
numerical prefixes to indicate the
number of atoms of each element
in the compound. The first word
has a prefix only when more than
one atom of the element is present;
the second word usually has a
numerical prefix.
Calculating the Molecular Masses from
Chemical Compounds
Using the periodic table and the formula
of a compound to see the number of atoms
of each element, we calculate the
molecular mass (also called molecular
weight) of a formula unit of the
compound as the sum of the atomic
masses:
Example 1:
The molecular mass of a water molecule
(using atomic masses to four significant
figures from the periodic table) is:
Molecular mass of H 2 O=( 2 x atomic mass of H )+(1 x atom
Molecular mass of H 2 O=( 2 x 1.008 amu ) + ( 1 x 16 amu )
Molecular mass of H 2 O=18.02 amu
Example 2:
For barium nitrate, Ba ( NO 3 )2, the number
of atoms of each element inside the
parentheses is multiplied by the subscript
outside the parentheses.
Molecular mass of Ba ( NO3 )2= ( 1 x atomic mass of Ba )+ ( 2 x
Molecular mass of Ba ( NO3 )2= ( 1 x 137.3 amu ) + ( 2 x 1 4.01 a
Molecular mass of H 2 O=261.3 amu
The Mole
The mole (abbreviated mol) is the SI unit
for amount of substance. It is defined as
the amount of a substance that contains
the same number of entities as there are
atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12. This
number is called Avogadro’s number, in
honor of the 19th-century Italian physicist
Amedeo Avogadro:
One mole (1 mol) contains 6.022 x 1023
entities.
Thus,
The central relationship between the mass
of one atom and the mass of 1 mole of
those atoms is that the atomic mass of an
element expressed in amu is numerically
the same as the mass of 1 mole of atoms of
the element expressed in grams. Thus,
 In a similar way, we use Avogadro’s
number, which expresses the equivalent
relationship between 1 mole of a
substance and the number of entities it
contains, as a conversion factor. We
multiply by Avogadro’s number to
convert amount of substance (in moles) to
the number of entities (atoms, molecules,
or formula units):
A similar relationship holds for
23
compounds: the molecular mass of a 6.022 x 10 entities
No . of entities=no . of moles x
compound expressed in amu is 1 mol
numerically the same as the mass of 1
Or, we divide by Avogadro’s number to
mole of the compound expressed in
do the reverse:
grams. Thus, for example,
1 mol
No . of moles=no . of entities x 23
6.022 x 10 entities
Calculating the Mass in a Given Number
of Moles of an Element

Example 1: Silver (Ag) is used in jewelry

The molar mass (M) of a substance is the and tableware but no longer in U.S. coins.
mass per mole of its entities (atoms, How many grams of Ag are in 0.0342 mol
molecules, or formula units). Thus, molar of Ag?
mass has units of grams per mole (g/mol).
no . of grams
Mass ( g )=no .of moles x
Interconverting Moles, Mass, and 1mol
Chemical Entities
107.9 g Ag
Mass of Ag=0.0342 mol Ag x
The molar mass, which expresses the 1mol Ag
equivalent relationship between 1 mole of
Mass of Ag=3.69 g
a substance and its mass in grams, can be
used as a conversion factor. We multiply Calculating the Number of Atoms in a
by the molar mass of an element or Given Mass of an Element
compound (M, in g/mol) to convert a
Example 2: Iron (Fe), the main component
given amount (in moles) to mass (in
of steel, is the most important metal in
grams):
industrial society. How many Fe atoms
no . of grams are in 95.8 g of Fe?
Mass ( g )=no .of moles x
1mol
Step 1: Converting from grams of Fe to
Or, we divide by the molar mass (multiply moles:
by 1/M) to convert a given mass (in
1mol Fe
grams) to amount (in moles): Moles of Fe=95.8 g Fe x
55.85 g Fe
1 mol Moles of Fe=1.72mol
No . of moles=mass(g) x
no . of grams
Step 2: Converting from moles of Fe to
number of atoms:
Calculating Mass Percents and Masses of
23
Elements in a Sample of a Compound
6.022 x 10 atoms Fe
No . of Fe atoms=1.72 mol Fe x
1 mol Fe
Example 4: In mammals, lactose (milk
24
No . of Fe atoms=1.04 x 10 atoms Fe sugar) is metabolized to glucose (
C 6 H 12 O6), the key nutrient for generating
Calculating the Moles and Number of
chemical potential energy. What is the
Formula Units in a Given Mass of a
mass percent of each element in glucose?
Compound
Step 1: Calculate the molar mass of
Example 3: Ammonium carbonate (
C 6 H 12 O6:
( N H 4 ) 2 CO 3) is a white solid that
decomposes with warming. Among its Molecular mass of C 6 H 12 O6=( 6 x M of C ) + ( 12 x M of H ) +
many uses, it is a component of baking
Molecular mass of C 6 H 12 O6=( 6 x 12.01 g /mol of C ) + ( 12 x
powder, fire extinguishers, and smelling
salts. How many formula units are in 41.6 g
Molecular mass of C 6 H 12 O6=180.16
g of ammonium carbonate? mol

Step 1: Calculating the molar mass of Step 2: Converting moles of each element
ammonium carbonate, to grams:

Molecular mass of ( N H 4 )2 CO 3=( 2 x M of N ) + ( 8 x M of Hof) +C=6

(1 x M 12.01
ofCCx) +( 3 x Mg C
of=72.06
O)
Mass mol gC
1mol C
Molecular mass of ( N H 4 )2 CO 3=( 2 x 14.01 g/mol of N )+ ( 8 x 1.008 g /mol of H ) + ( 1 x 12.01 g/mol of C ) +(3 x 16
1.008 g H
Mass of H=12 mol H x =12.096 g H
g 1 mol H
Molecular mass of ( N H 4 )2 CO 3=96.09
mol
16gO
Mass of O=6 mol O x =96 g O
Step 2: Converting from grams to moles: 1 mol O

1 molStep
( N H3:4 )Determining
2
CO3 the mass fraction and
Moles of ( N H 4 )2 CO 3=mass of ( N H 4 )2 CO 3 x
96.09mass
g(N Hpercentage
4 )2 CO 3
of each element:

total mass of C 72.06 g

1 mol (Mass )2 CO3 of C=
N H 4 fraction =
Moles of ( N H 4 )2 CO 3=41.6 g ( N H 4 )2 CO 3 x mass of 1mol of glucose 180.16 g C 6
96.09 g ( N H 4 )2 CO 3
Mass fraction of C=0.4000
Moles of ( N H 4 )2 CO 3=0.433 mol
Mass % of C=m ass fraction of C x 100=0.4000 x 100=40.
Step 3: Converting from moles to formula
total mass of H 12.096
units: Mass fraction of H= =
mass of 1 mol of glucose 180.16 g C
10 23 fraction
6.022 xMass formulaunits ( NH06714
of H=0. 4 ) 2 CO 3
Formula units of ( NH 4 )2 CO3 =0.433 g ( NH 4 )2 CO 3 x
1 g ( NH 4 )2 CO 3
Mass % of H =m ass fraction of H x 100=0. 06714 x 100=6
23
¿ 2 .61 x 10 formulaunits ( NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 total mass of O 96 g O
Mass fraction of O= =
mass of 1 mol of glucose 180.16 g C 6

Mass fraction of C=0. 5329

Mass % of O=mass fraction of O x 100=0.5329 x 100=53.29
Cl, and 7.83%gmass of What
of O. O is the empirical
formula and name of the compound?
Determining the Formula of an
Unknown Compound Step 1: Determine the moles of each
element:
An analytical chemist investigating a
compound decomposes it into simpler 1 mol Na
Moles of Na=2.82 g Na x =0.123 mol Na
substances, finds the mass of each 22.99 g Na
component element, converts these
1mol Cl
masses to numbers of moles, and then Moles of Cl=4.35 g Cl x =0.123 mol Na
35.45 g Cl
arithmetically converts the moles to
whole-number (integer) subscripts. This 1mol O
Moles of O=7.83 g O x =0. 489 mol O
procedure yields the empirical formula,
16 g O
the simplest whole-number ratio of moles Step 2: Construct the preliminary formula:
of each element in the compound.
Na0.123 Cl 0.123 O0.489
For example,
Step 3: Divide each subscript by the
Analysis of an unknown compound smallest subscript to get the empirical
shows that the sample contains 0.21 mol of formula:
zinc, 0.14 mol of phosphorus, and 0.56 mol
Na 0 .123 Cl 0.1 23 O 0 .489 =Na1 Cl 1 O 4∨NaClO
of oxygen. 0.123 0.123 0.123

a) Write the preliminary formula that If we know the molar mass of a

contains the fractional subscripts.
Zn0.21 P0.14 O0.5 6
b) Divide each subscript by
smallest subscript:
Zn 0.21 P 0.14 O 0.56 =Zn1.5 P1.0 O4.0
0.14 0.14 0.14
c) If any of the subscripts is still not
an integer, multiply through by the
smallest integer that will turn all
subscripts into integers. Here, we
multiply by 2, the smallest integer
that will make 1.5 (the subscript
for Zn) into an integer:
Zn(1.5 x2) P(1.0 x 2) O(4.0 x 2) → Zn3 P 2 O8
compound, we can use the empirical
formula to obtain the molecular formula,
the actual number of moles of each
the element in 1 mol of compound.
g
molar mass ( )
mol
Whole−number multiple=
g
empirical formulamass ( )
mol
Example 6: During excessive physical
activity, lactic acid (M = 90.08 g/mol)
forms in muscle tissue and is responsible
for muscle soreness. Elemental analysis
shows that this compound contains 40.0
mass % C, 6.71 mass % H, and 53.3 mass
% O.

Determining an Empirical Formula from a) Determine the empirical formula

Masses of Elements of lactic acid.
b) Determine the molecular formula.
Elemental analysis of a sample of an ionic
compound showed 2.82 g of Na, 4.35 g of Solution:
 a) Determining the empirical g
90.08
formula: mol
Whole−number multiple =
g
Step 1: Express the mass % as grams, so 30.03
mol
we assume 100 g of lactic acid and
converting from grams to moles of each
Whole−number multiple =3
element: C(1 x 3) H(2 x 3) O(1 x 3) →C 3 H 6 O3
1 mol Na
Moles of C=40.00 g C x =3.3 3 mol C
12.01 g C
1 mol H
Moles of H=6.71 g H x =6.66 mol H
1.008 g H
1mol O
Moles of O=53.3 g O x =3.33 mol O
16 gO
Step 2: Construct the preliminary formula:

C 3.33 H 6.66 O3.33

Step 3: Divide each subscript by the

smallest subscript to get the empirical
formula:

C 3.3 3 H 6.66 O 3.33 =C1 H 2 O1 ∨C H 2 O

3.3 3 3.33 3.3 3

b) Determining the molecular

formula:

Step 1: Determine the molecular weight of

the empirical formula:

Molecular mass of C H 2 O= (1 x M of C )+ ( 2 x M of H ) + ( 1 x M of O )

Molecular mass of C H 2 O= (1 x 12.01 g/mol of C ) + ( 2 x 1.008 g/mol of H )+(1 x 16 g/mol of O)

g
Molecular mass of C H 2 O=30.03
mol
Step 2: Get the whole-number multiple
and multiply it to the subscripts of the
empirical formula to determine the
molecular formula:

g
molar mass ( )
mol
Whole−number multiple=
g
empirical formulamass ( )
mol