Microeconomics 10Th Edition Colander Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF

Solution Manual for Microeconomics 10th
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CHAPTER 5: USING SUPPLY AND DEMAND

Questions and Exercises
1. If the equilibrium price and quantity both rose, the simplest cause would be a shift
of the demand curve to the right.
2. If price fell and quantity remained constant, a possible cause would be a shift out
to the right of the supply curve and a shift of the demand curve in to the left.
Another possibility would be a shift of the demand curve in to the left with a
vertical supply curve. Note that when both curves shift, the effect on either price
or quantity depends on the relative size of the shifts.
3. Computer pricing of roads could end bottlenecks and rush hour congestion by price
rationing. Currently at zero price, at certain times, the quantity demanded greatly
exceeds the quantity supplied, resulting in congestion. Raising prices, during those
times, could eliminate excess demand and reduce the congestion. This
technological change will spread out congestions over wider geographic areas and
over the day, as individuals with more flexibility with respect to route and timing
will choose to demand less of the current high demand route at rush hour.
1
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4. a. This would represent a shift in demand to the left
assuming the decline in Cookie Monster’s popularity
represents a decline in the popularity of cookies. The
price and quantity of cookies would likely fall as
shown in the accompanying graph.
b. This is represented by a shift in demand for bread
(high in carbohydrates) to the left. Equilibrium price
and quantity falls as the graph shows. (Note: this is
the same graph as for part a.)
5. a. Both the shift in demand to the right and the shift of supply to the left lead to a
higher equilibrium price of oil. The effect on equilibrium is indeterminate. While
the shift in demand to the right would lead to a rise in equilibrium quantity, the
shift in supply to the left would reduce it. Whether equilibrium quantity rises or
falls depends on the relative size of the shifts. The accompanying graph shows a
slight decline in equilibrium quantity and a significant increase in equilibrium
price.
b. With an in production (supply shifts to the right), equilibrium price will decline
and equilibrium quantity will decline as shown in the graph below. Because
demand has increased in the meantime, the equilibrium price and quantity will be
higher than before the original supply disruption.
2
6. a. This represents a shift of the supply curve to the left because the offended decide
not to supply organs, increasing the legal price significantly and perhaps reducing
the equilibrium quantity to a quantity that is below the amount currently provided
at zero cost. This is shown in graph (a) below.
b. How responsive quantity supplied is to price affects the slope of the supply curve.
If quantity supplied is very responsive to price, the equilibrium price might be
quite low and legalizing organ sales would have significant benefits to society. In
fact, the authors of the study estimate the equilibrium price of kidneys to be less
than $1000. In graph (b) below, S1 is much more responsive to price than S0.
(a) (b)
7. The drought in Australia caused a decrease in supply, which shifted the supply
curve for rice to the left. Equilibrium price rose from 12 to 24 cents a pound and
quantity fell as the accompanying graph shows.
3
8. See the accompanying graph. A price ceiling of PC below equilibrium price will
cause a shortage shown by the difference between QD and QS
9. As you can see in the accompanying graph, the rent

controls create a situation in which demanders are willing
to pay much more than the controlled price and much
more than the equilibrium price. These payments are
sometimes known as key money. In this graph, landlords
are willing to supply QS at the current controlled rent, PC.
Consumers are willing to pay up to PB for the quantity
QS. Key money can be an amount up to the difference
between PB and PC.
4
10. See the accompanying graph. A price floor of PF
above equilibrium price will cause a surplus shown
by the difference between QS and QD.
11. A minimum wage is a price floor as in question 10. A

Pmin, above the equilibrium wage will result in the
quantity of laborers looking for work to increase to QS
and the quantity of employers looking to hire to
decrease to QD. The difference between the two is a
measure of the number of unemployed.
12. a. A $4 per unit tax on suppliers shifts the supply curve up by $4 shown as a shift in
the supply curve from S0 to S1. Equilibrium price will rise by $4 only if the demand
curve is perfectly vertical. In the case of a vertical demand curve, quantity would
not change. Otherwise, equilibrium price rises by less than $4 and equilibrium
quantity falls as shown in the accompanying graph. In this example, the price
increases by less than $4 to P1 and quantity declines to Q1. The price that suppliers
receive falls to P2.
b. A $4 per unit tax on consumers shifts the demand curve down by $4 shown as a
shift down in the demand curve from D0 to D1. Equilibrium price will fall by $4
only if the supply curve is perfectly vertical. In the case of a vertical supply curve,
quantity would not change. Otherwise, equilibrium price fall by less than $4 to P1
5
and equilibrium quantity falls Q1 as shown in the accompanying graph. The price
paid by consumers, including the tax is P2.
c. The unit tax on the consumers and suppliers has the same effect on the both
equilibrium quantity and price. It doesn't matter who pays the tax. Because
consumers demand less at every price, substituting other goods whose prices have
not risen, the demand curve shifts up by the amount of the tax. The price of the
good that suppliers receive rises until quantity supplied equals quantity demanded.
13. a. The quantity supplied and demanded equal each other when the price is $1.00. The
equilibrium price is $1.00 and the equilibrium quantity is 150 units.
b. The tax shifts the supply curve up by $0.75 from S0 to S1. Equilibrium price (the
price consumers pay) is $1.50 and equilibrium quantity is 125. Suppliers receive
the equilibrium price less the tax, or $0.75.
c. The tax shifts the demand curve down by $0.75 from D0 to D1. The equilibrium
price (the price suppliers receive) is $0.75 and equilibrium quantity is 125.
Consumers pay ($0.75 + $0.75), or $1.50.
6
d. It doesn't matter upon whom the tax is levied. The result is the same. We can see
this by considering what happens to demand when customers pay the tax. Because
consumers demand less at every price, substituting other goods whose prices have
not risen, the demand curve shifts down by the amount of the tax. The price of the
good that suppliers receive falls until quantity supplied equals quantity demanded.
14. A quota places a quantity restriction on imports. Consumers are willing to pay a
higher price for the lower quantity (QQ) than the equilibrium price without a quota.
Therefore, quotas lead to higher import prices as shown in the accompanying graph.
15. a. See the accompanying graph.
b. There is excess demand of 300.
c. The maximum a person is willing to pay is $50.

d. If Pawnee keeps the number of licenses it must charge $50. If it eliminates the
quantity restriction it will charge $30 and sell 300.
7
16. Public postsecondary education is an example of a third-party payer market
because it is heavily subsidized by state government and in most cases, a student’s
parents. Those consuming the good, students, do not pay the entire cost of the
education they receive. This likely leads to greater expenditures on postsecondary
education than if students had to pay the entire cost of their education.
17. a. Equilibrium price is $6 and equilibrium quantity is 300.
b. In third-party-payer markets, the person who demands the good differs from the
person paying for the good. Here, with a co-payment of $2 quantity demanded
will be 900 units. Sellers require payment of $14 per unit to supply that quantity.
c. Total spending in part a is $1,800 ($6 × 300). Total spending in part b is $12,600
($14 × 900).
Questions from Alternative Perspectives

1. Austrian
I might decide to hire my friends, or to hire those with whom I like to work—such as
those from a preferred ethnic group or gender. Is doing so fair? Fairness is a judgment
question and judgments differ. From most people’s perspective, such methods are not
fair. The problem is that wage controls set an equal base wage level, but leave open
possibilities for other inequalities. Rather than helping the least skilled end of the
labor pool it prices them out of the market, increasing their unemployment, and
promoting other forms of discrimination. Austrians believe that these market
distortions are not good for society and prefer little or no government intervention.
2. Religious
This is a judgment question and judgments differ. Christians believe that people
should care about society, not just about themselves. So, since spending $20 of your
own would likely free up $100,000 of Medicare resource for someone else, Christian
values would suggest choosing to spend the $20. A primary Christian value is
stewardship.
3. Feminist
There are likely a number of reasons why women are paid less than men. Part of the
pay gap may be explained by differences in work experience, education, on-the-job
training, and work interruptions for women. Economists typically measure
discrimination as a residual – that part of the pay gap that remains “unexplained” after
accounting for these factors. The second part of the question is a judgment question
and judgments differ. A law that requires firms to pay equal wages to those with
comparable skills may be difficult to implement. How would the skills be assessed?
8
Others argue that assessment itself would add costs to a firm’s production and
increase product prices. However, if the reason for the pay gap is discrimination, the
law can change values and make it more costly to discriminate. Since discrimination
necessarily implies that hiring is on the basis of something other than productivity,
reducing discrimination may promote efficiency. Feminists generally support such
laws.
4. Institutionalist
a. We can see cultural evolution through history; the appendix to Chapter 3 can be used
to trace the cultural evolution of the market system. Here it is important to stress that
religious values and social relationships had to evolve to accommodate the needs of
the new forms of economic organization that emerged. Markets change overnight and
increasingly require rapid adaptation by individuals, which can cause shocks to social
relationships. One might question the long-term (in)stability caused by market
evolution. The outcomes of biological evolution are driven by natural selection: those
organisms with traits giving them a competitive edge in the competition for limited
energy propagate; others disappear. In this context, the only purpose is to successfully
reproduce. Some economists believe that the purpose of cultural evolution is
betterment of the human condition for all.
b. In the U.S. market, evolution has elevated living standards for everyone relative to
those of say 1775. We see access to fresh fruits and vegetables year round; many
diseases have been eliminated; life spans have increased greatly. Yet, we are social
beings who are aware of our social position. One may be well fed, but one may still
feel socially destitute because one’s level of welfare is low relative to one’s
contemporaries. In this sense, market evolution has failed to contribute to betterment.
5. Religious
What is appropriate depends on one's normative judgments, and most normative

systems see taking undue advantage of someone in a crisis as wrong. Early
economists have examined a concept that they called the "just price," which is the
price that should be charged in various situations. There are many interpretations of
what the just price should be, but one is that it should be close to the normal market
price that would be charged. During emergencies such as floods or hurricanes, most
people believe that "price gouging" is inappropriate and there are social pressures and
laws against it. That said, there is another view that points out that any restriction on
price will prevent some people who really need water and are willing to pay for it,
from getting it, since sellers cannot charge the price they are willing to pay. They
have no incentive to provide the water to those most willing and able to pay for it.
6. Radical
9
a. Today’s rent controls are designed to be less invasive than the ones described in the
book, and thus they do not have the strong effects described there. They still have
some effects, and the policy question is whether the income redistribution effects they
have are sufficiently desirable to warrant the costs of the policies.
b. This is a judgment question; economics can tell one about what the costs and benefits
of a mechanism are; not about what is an appropriate mechanism.
c. This again is a judgment question that requires an integration of normative issues into
the analysis. Most mainstream economists would argue that it is better to deal with
the underlying income distribution issues, rather than specific ones, and that one must
consider the problems of government intervention. Radical economists would argue
that, while mainstream economists talk about "underlying issues", they seldom do
deal with those problems. If one is going to direct spending toward housing,
mainstream economists would prefer using generalized housing vouchers than using
administrative means of allocation apartments, since housing vouchers offer
individuals more flexibility.
Issues to Ponder
1. a. Airways have value because they produce revenue and there are only a limited
number of airways in the industry.
b. Television networks have incentives to produce high definition television only to

the extent that they would receive more revenue for using extra bandwidth for
high definition television compared to other uses. They sold off much of the extra
bandwidth, making billions in profits, with much of the extra bandwidth.
2. a. The graph on the left shows the primary market for tickets, assuming that all
tickets that will be available for the game are offered by lottery. We know that
there is excess demand because at $130 a seat, 110,000 tickets are demanded and
only 10,000 are supplied resulting in an excess demand of 100,000.
b. The graph on the right represents the scalped ticket market, assuming that only
5,000 of the 10,000 ticket holders and only 50,000 of the 100,000 of those who
didn't get tickets are willing to break the law and enter the scalped ticket market.
Assume that sellers will not accept any prices under $2000 and that they will sell
for the best they price they can get over $200. Given this assumption, no tickets
are for sale at $130. At $130 a ticket, excess supply is now 50,000. Assuming
buyers and sellers do not distinguish among the quality of seats, the market-
clearing price is $2,000 per ticket.
c. If scalping becomes legalized, more people would be willing to sell their tickets
because there is no risk of being arrested and fined. Assuming all ticket holders
10
are willing to sell their tickets, the supply of tickets shifts to the right to 10,000,
reducing the scalped ticket price of Final-Four tickets to $1,000 a ticket.
Price
Price S0 S1
$2,000
$1,000
$130
$200
$130
Demand
Demand
10,000 110,000 5,000 10,000 50,000

Quantity Quantity
3. a. A weakly enforced anti-scalping law would add an

additional cost to those selling scalped tickets and
push up the resale cost of tickets to include the
expected cost of being caught, which would be fairly
small given weak enforcement. In the accompanying
graph, this shifts the supply curve from S0 to S1,
raising equilibrium slightly price from P0 to P1. (Note:
This assumes that only selling, not buying, is illegal
and that public (consumer) attitudes toward scalping
are independent of its legal status.)
b. A strongly enforced anti-scalping law (against suppliers) would push up prices far
more as the cost of supply rose and the supply curve shifted to the left. If
enforcement were sufficiently strong, a two-tier price system would emerge with
a low legal price at P0 and another very high price, P2.
4. a. Boards often exist not only to benefit the consumer, but also to benefit existing
producers. Often those who are currently certified attempt to limit the number of
new certifications so as to limit the supply and raise prices.
b. Possible changes include eliminating the board of certification, limiting its

regulation to only those skills that it addresses directly, or requiring continual
recertification so that skills of those already certified reflect the current demand
for skills in that market.
c. A political difficulty with implementing these changes is that a relatively small

group of those currently certified will be hurt and will lobby hard for the status
11
quo. Those currently certified may have more “clout” with the board if the board
is comprised of certified hairdressers. The benefits of the changes are also large,
but they are spread out over large groups of consumers, with each consumer
benefiting very little. Therefore, it will be easier for the small group, whose
benefit per individual is large, to organize.
5. a. The Oregon Health Plan includes a prioritized list of medical services that
determine whether a service is covered. The list is based on comparative benefit
to those covered as determined by the Health Care Board. Those services that this
Board believed had the highest net benefit were ranked highest. Those they
believed had a lower net benefit were not covered. The Health Care Board was
made up of heath professionals whose goal was hoped to be the “greatest good for
the greatest number.”
b. Economists should not oppose the Oregon Plan because it involves rationing. The
market involves rationing through the price mechanism. Economists might oppose
the Oregon Plan because in general they support the market as the least-cost
method of providing goods and services to those who actually need it, and
because they believe the board’s rationing is less fair than market rationing.
Economists are open to the argument that the market may not distribute goods and
services in the way that society wants, which may require government
intervention.
c. In the market, the interaction of demand and supply determines the equilibrium
price and quantity that is bought and sold. Those who are able to pay the
equilibrium price are the ones who receive the specified types of health care. The
Oregon Plan uses its benefit-ranking system determined by their Board of
Professionals, rather than price as the rationing mechanism.
6. a. Frequent-flyer programs allow companies to lower their effective prices without

lowering their reported prices. Companies also use them to get business travelers
to choose their airline. Such programs are an example of a third-party-payer
system: The business traveler gets the benefit (frequent-flyer miles), while their
business pays for the current flight.
b. Other examples include points that hotels give to travelers, loyalty cards, and
bonus checks based on charges that Discover gives those who use its credit card.
c. Firms likely do not monitor these programs because it would be too costly to do
so, and because the benefits of the program are not taxed, which makes them a
type of tax-free income for their employees.
12
7. a. An import quota will increase the price of
imported sugar. The accompanying graph
shows how a higher imported sugar price
increases the price that domestic producers can
charge and increase the quantity they can
supply to the market. For example, at world
price P0, domestic consumers demand the
quantity E-B from importers and quantity B
from domestic producers. After a quota
represented by quantity D minus C is imposed,
the import price is P1. Domestic consumers
demand the quantity D-C from importers and
quantity C from domestic producers.
b. The government could have imposed a tariff on imported sugar. This would also
have raised the price of imported sugar.
c. A minimum required import level of 1.25 million will limit the ability of the
United States to support domestic sugar prices. The increase in quantity supplied
will put downward pressure on sugar prices.
8. a. As shown in the accompanying graph, the

controlled price (PC) is below equilibrium. At this
price the quantity of apartments demanded (QD)
exceeds the quantity of apartments supplied (QS).
Since there are more apartments demanded than
supplied at this price, apartments are hard to find.
b. Since at the existing quantity supplied, QS,

demanders would be willing to pay Pb, there is a
strong incentive to make side payments to existing
tenants to acquire the apartment. At Pb, more
tenants are willing to supply their apartments than at Pc, so a side payment can
induce a tenant to give up their apartments. This is one form of rationing.
c. Eliminating rent controls would most likely allow the market price of apartments
to increase and eliminate side payments. The quantity supplied will rise until it
equals the quantity demanded at the market price. The price, quantity combination
is (Pe, Qe) in the graph. However, if there are few additional apartments available
to be rented (the supply curve is almost vertical), then price will increase
dramatically and quantity supplied will only rise slightly.
d. The political appeal of rent control is that it benefits those who currently rent
apartments. Apartment renters who live in rent-controlled apartments are more
13
likely to vote, and this is why it is maintained. There are other possible reasons as
well.
9. a. The government subsidy of mohair provided an enormous incentive for those who
were allowed to sell mohair to sell large quantities at lower price than otherwise.
The elimination of this subsidy shifted the supply curve to the left (shown below
as a shift from Ssubsidy to S no subsidy, increasing the market price for mohair from P0
to P1 and decreasing the quantity demanded and supplied from Q0 to Q1.
b. This program was likely kept in existence because not many people knew about it
(mohair is a relatively small market), and ranchers had no incentive to broadcast
the subsidy.
c. A law that requires that suppliers receive $3.60 more than the market price is the
same as a tax, but the revenue goes to the supplier. The demand curve would shift
to the left (down) to include this tax. The quantity demanded would fall
dramatically. Consumers would not support this law because they would have to
pay an enormously high price. Suppliers would support this law only if they were
guaranteed that they could sell at that high price.
10. Excess supply in U.S. agricultural markets is caused by the government’s policy
of agricultural price supports, or price floors on agricultural products. Political
forces prevent the invisible hand from working.
11. It would likely increase the number since it reduces the cost of having a car that
you drive very little.
12. The demand for rolling machines went up enormously because loose tobacco
became a cheaper substitute for the taxed cigarettes and rolling machines are a
14
complement of loose tobacco; some companies more than quadrupled their sales
of loose tobacco and rolling machines.
13. a. Japan prescribes many more drugs than the U.S. because Japanese doctors have a
financial incentive to do so.
b. It would lead to many more drugs being produced, even if they were not really
innovative, as happened when Japan tried this.
c. Drug reps would likely provide free samples and other gifts to doctors and have
lunches for them where they tout the advantages of their drugs.
14. a. They would likely fall. In fact, they fell by 13 percent.
b. They also would likely fall. In fact, they fell by 22 percent.
c. The graphs below show the effect of increasing co-payments. The graph on the
left has a co-payment of $15. Consumers demand Q1 and the shaded region
shows the medical claim costs. In the accompanying graph on the right,
consumers must pay the first $1,500 of medical costs, demonstrated by the lower-
shaded region. (For simplicity, we assume that consumers end up purchasing 50
units at a cost of $30 per unit.) As you can see, however, the medical cost to the
firm (upper shaded area) is much smaller. In addition, the units of medical
services demanded are lower, illustrating the answer to the second question –
hospital admissions declined.
15
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mm. × 48 mm., the ordinary size on the adjoining banks being only
about 50 to 60 × 30 mm.
Some observations have already been recorded (p. 40) on the
growth of Helix aspersa. In the summer of 1858, which was very dry,
especially in the south of France, the young Helices born that year
were still very small in August. About the end of that month abundant
rain came on, and in four or five days young H. variabilis, H. pisana,
and H. aspersa, eating without cessation, as if to make up for lost
time, grew more than a centimetre of shell. The lip of a young H.
arbustorum has been observed to have grown, at the end of the first
week in the season’s growth, 3 mm., at the end of the second week,
6·25 mm., the third, 11·5 mm., and the fourth 12·5 mm., with a
finished lip.[342]
Careful observation has shown that in the growth of the shell of
Helix aspersa the periostracum is first produced; it is covered with
hyaline globules, 10–12 mm. in diameter, which persist even in the
oldest shells. Calcareous matter is deposited on the internal face of
the new periostracum, at some distance from the margin. It is
secreted by a white zone or band of cells bounding the entire
breadth of the mantle as applied to the peristome. Immediately
behind the white zone are a series of pigment cells which not only
give the shell its colour but complete the calcification of the shelly
matter laid down by the white zone. When the animal has attained its
full growth and the lip is finished off, the white band and the
periostracum cells completely disappear, and only such cells persist
as contribute to the internal thickening of the shell. Shell growth, in
this species, is very rapid. If a portion of the pulmonary sac is laid
bare, by removing a fragment of shell, at the end of 1½ or 2 hours
there may be detected a delicate organic membrane covering the
hole, and strewn with crystals of carbonate of lime. This thickens
with great rapidity, and soon fills up the hole with solid matter. For
two consecutive months an animal, deprived of food, has been
known to reproduce this membrane daily after its removal every
morning.[343] Prof. Schiedt has found that oysters, if deprived of the
right valve and exposed to the light, not only develop brown pigment
over the whole exposed surface of mantle and branchiae, but
actually succeed in part in reproducing the valve and hinge.[344]
Deposit of Additional Layers of Shell.—Mollusca possess the
power of thickening the interior of the shell, by the deposit of
successive layers. This is frequently done in self-defence against the
attacks of boring Mollusca, sponges, and worms. Cases may often
be noticed of Ostrea, Spondylus, and other sedentary molluscs,
which, unable to escape the gradual assaults of their foes, have
provided against them by the deposit of fresh shelly matter. A
somewhat similar plan is adopted to provide against intrusion by way
of the aperture. Pearls are, in many cases, the result of shell
deposition upon the eggs or even the body of some intrusive
parasite (Distoma, Filaria, etc.), and are, in some countries,
artificially produced by the introduction of fragments of sand, metal,
etc., into living Unio and Anodonta. Little joss images are made in
India and China, the nacre on which is produced by thrusting them
inside living Unionidae.
A specimen of Helix rosacea, in the British Museum, into whose
shell a piece of grass somehow became introduced, has partitioned
it off by the formation of a sort of shelly tunnel extending throughout
its entire length (Fig. 167).
Fig. 167.—A specimen of Helix
rosacea Müll., Cape of Good
Hope, into which a piece of
grass has by some means
become introduced. The
animal has protected itself by
covering the grass with a
shelly layer. (From a
specimen in the British
Museum.)
Absorption of Internal Portions.—Certain genera have the
remarkable property of absorbing, when they become adult, the
internal portions of the whorls and the greater part of the columellar
axis. The effect of this is to make the shell, when the process is
complete, no longer a spiral but a more or less produced cone, and it
is found that in such cases the viscera of the spire lose their spiral
form, and take the shape of the cavity in which they lie. Amongst the
genera in which this singular process takes place are Nerita,[345]
Olivella, and Cypraea amongst marine forms, and nearly the whole
of the Auriculidae[346] (Fig. 168). Conus reduces the internal
subdivisions of the spire to extreme thinness. It is noticeable that
these genera are all of considerable thickness of shell, and it is
perhaps the result of the whole energy of the animal being directed
to the formation of its external protection that the internal walls of the
spire become atrophied and eventually disappear.
Fig. 168.—Auricula Judae Lam.,
showing the disappearance
of the partitions of the
whorls, which are
represented by dotted lines.
(After Fischer.)
Fig. 169.—A, Decollated (adult)

form, and B, perfect (young)
form of Cylindrella nobilior
Ad., Jamaica; the dotted line
shows where decollation
takes place.
Fig. 170.—Development of Coecum:
A, showing the gradual formation
of septa; a, apex; ap, aperture;
ss, first septum; s´s´, second
septum. (After de Folin.) B, Adult
form of C. eburneum Ad.,
Panama. × 8.
Decollation.—In certain genera, when the shell becomes adult,
the animal ceases to occupy the upper whorls, which accordingly die
and drop off, the orifice at the top having meanwhile been closed by
a shelly deposit. Such shells are termed decollated. In some land
genera decollation is the rule, e.g. in Cylindrella (Fig. 169),
Eucalodium, and Rumina, as well as in many species of the brackish
water genera, Truncatella, Cerithidea, and Quoyia. Stenogyra
(Rumina) decollata, a common shell in the south of Europe, has
been noticed to bang its upper whorls violently against some hard
substance, as if to get rid of them.
Fig. 171.—Four stages in the growth of Fissurella, showing how the spire
gradually disappears and the marginal slit becomes an apical hole,
A, B, C, highly magnified, D, natural size. (After Boutan.)
Fig. 172.—Three stages in the growth of Cypraea

exanthema L. (From specimens taken at Panama.)
Special Points in the Growth of Certain Genera.—In the young
of Coecum the apex is at first spiral, but as growth proceeds and the
long tube begins to form, a septum is produced at the base of the
apex, which soon drops off. Soon afterwards, a second septum
forms a little farther down, and a second piece drops off, leaving the
shell in the normal cylindrical form of the adult (Fig. 170). The
development of Fissurella is of extreme interest. In an early stage it
possesses a spiral shell, with a slit on the margin of the outer lip of
the last whorl. As growth advances, shelly matter is deposited on
both margins, which results in the slit becoming a hole and the spire
a mere callosity, until at last they appear to coalesce in the apex of
the adult shell (Fig. 171). The singular formations of Magilus and
Rhizochilus have already been described (pp. 75, 76). Cypraea, in
the young stage, is a thin spiral shell with a conspicuous apex. As
growth proceeds, the surface of the whorls, which are nearly
enveloped by two large lobes of the mantle, becomes overlaid with
new layers of shelly matter, until eventually the spire becomes
embedded, and ultimately disappears from view (Fig. 172).
Patella, when young, has a nautiloid shell (see Fig. 45, p. 134),
but it is a remarkable fact that we are entirely ignorant, in this
commonest of molluscs, of the transition stages which convert the
nautiloid into the familiar conical shell. The young shell of Pteroceras
is deceptively unlike the adult, and is entirely devoid of the finger-like
processes which are so characteristic of the genus (chap. xiv.).
Among the bivalve Mollusca, Anomia in a young stage is not to be
distinguished from Ostrea. Soon a small sinus appears on the
ventral margin, which gradually deepens and, as the shell grows
round it, forms a hole for the byssus, eventually becoming fixed
beneath the umbones (see Fig. 173). In Teredo the two valves of the
shell proper, which is very small, become lodged in a long
calcareous tube or cylinder, which is generally open at both ends
(see chap. xvi.). In Aspergillum a somewhat similar cylinder is
developed, but the valves are soldered to the tube, and form a part
of it, the tube itself being furnished, at the anterior end, with a disc,
which is perforated with holes like the rose of a watering-pot. In
Clavagella the left valve alone becomes soldered to the tube, while
the right valve is free within it (see chap. xvi.). Fistulana encloses the
whole of its shell in a long tapering tube, which is not at any point
adherent to the shell.
Fig. 173.—Development of the byssus or
the plug-hole in Anomia. (After Morse.)
Terms employed to denote various Parts of the Univalve
Shell.—The apex is the extreme top of the spire, and generally
consists of the embryonic shell, which may often be recognised by
its entire want of sculpture. When the embryonic shell happens to be
large, the apex is often mammillated, e.g. in Fusus, Neptunea, and
some Turbinella; in the Pyramidellidae it is sinistral.
The suture is the line of junction between any two successive
whorls. It may be deep, and even channelled, or very shallow, as in
Fig. 150 B (p. 246).
The spire is the whole series of whorls except the last or body
whorl. A whorl is a single revolution of the spiral cone round the axis.
The spire may be subulate (as in Terebra, Fig. 150 C), turreted
(Scalaria), depressed (Polygyratia, Fig. 150 A), conical (Trochus),
globose (Ampullaria, Natica, Fig. 150 B), with almost all conceivable
gradations between these types. The number of whorls is best
counted by placing the shell mouth downwards, and reckoning one
for every suture that occurs between the extreme anterior point of
the shell and the apex.
Fig. 174.—Illustrating the technical terms applied to the various parts of a
univalve shell.
The mouth or aperture may be (a) entire, as in Helix, Natica,
Ampullaria, when its peristome or margin is not interrupted by any
notch or canal, or (b) prolonged at its anterior and sometimes also at
its posterior end into a canal. The anterior canal serves as a
protection to the siphon,[347] the posterior canal is mainly anal in
function, and corresponds, in part, to the hole of Fissurella, the slit in
Pleurotoma and Emarginula, and the row of holes in Haliotis. The
mouth presents every variety of shape, from the perfect circle in
Cyclostoma and Trochus, to the narrow and prolonged slit in Conus
and Oliva.
Fig. 175.—Anal slit in
Pleurotoma.
The right margin of the mouth (the left, in sinistral shells) is termed
the outer lip or labrum, the left margin the inner lip, labium, or
columella lip.[348] In young shells the outer lip is usually thin and
unfinished, while in the adult it is generally thickened into a rib, or
furnished with more or less prominent teeth, or given an inward or
outward curve. In some genera, especially the Strombidae, the outer
lip of the adult develops long finger-like processes, which sometimes
attain an extraordinary size (chap. xiv.). As growth proceeds, these
marginal teeth and ribs are either dissolved and disappear, or are
permanently incorporated, in the shape of varices, with the
framework of the shell. Some shells, e.g. Natica, Turritella, Actaeon,
have a permanently unfinished outer lip, even in the adult stage. The
columella lip varies in shape with the mouth as a whole; thus it may
be straight, as in Conus, or excavated, as in Sigaretus, Struthiolaria,
and Bulla. Frequently it is continued by part of the body whorl, as in
Ficula, Dolium, and Fasciolaria.
Fig. 176.—Solarium
perspectivum Lam., from the
under side.
Fig. 177.—Section of Turbinella

pyrum L., showing the plicae
on the columella and the
growth of successive whorls.
The folds or plaits on the columella, which are often characteristic
of the genus or even family (e.g. Fasciolariidae, Mitridae,
Turbinellidae) are not merely external, but continue down the whole
spire (see Fig. 177, which also shows how successive fresh growths
have thickened the columella).
The whorls may be wound in a spiral, which is either hollow, as in
Solarium, or quite compact, as in Oliva, Terebra, Cypraea, with every
possible intermediate grade. This concavity, which varies in depth
and width, is known as the umbilicus, and shells are accordingly
spoken of as deeply (e.g. most Trochidae and Naticidae), narrowly
(e.g. Lacuna, Littorina), or widely (e.g. Solarium) umbilicated. When
the spiral is quite flat, as in Planorbis and some Helix, the umbilicus
vanishes entirely. Shells in which the whorls are so compactly coiled
on an ascending spiral that there is no umbilicus, are termed
imperforate.
Fig. 178.—The slit in A, Hemitoma, B, Emarginula, C, Macroschisma, D,

Craniopsis, E, Puncturella, F, Fissurella.
The Slit.—Many shells are furnished with a slit in the last whorl,
which opens, in most cases, on the outer lip, and is sometimes of
considerable depth, at others a mere notch. In the patelliform shells
it is always in front of the apex. The function of the slit appears to be
mainly anal, the excretory products being thus allowed to escape by
a passage of their own, without soiling the clean water taken in by
the branchiae. The posterior canal of some Gasteropoda probably
performs a similar function. In the adult Fissurella the slit becomes
an apical hole (see Fig. 178 F), in the allied genera it is either
immediately in front of the spire (Puncturella), or half-way between
the spire and the anterior margin (Rimula), or on the margin and well
marked (Emarginula), or a mere indentation of the margin
(Hemitoma). In Pleurotomaria it is exceptionally long, and is well
marked in Bellerophon, Schismope, Scissurella, Murchisonia, and
Pleurotoma (where it is sutural). In Haliotis and Polytremaria it is
replaced by a series of holes, which are closed up as the animal
grows past them. Some of these holes (at least in Haliotis) certainly
serve the purpose of admitting water to the branchiae, while others
are anal. In Trochotoma there are only two holes, united by a narrow
fissure.
The Tubed Land Operculates.—A group of the Cyclophoridae,
which is restricted to Further India and the great Malay Islands, has
developed a remarkable sutural tube on the exterior of the last whorl,
near the aperture, A similar tube, but more obscure, exists in
Alycaeus. Several stages in the development of this tube may be
noticed, beginning with the elevation of part of the peristome into a
simple irregular shelly plate, which is continued, first into a short, and
then into a long tube, which becomes soldered to the shell; finally,
the tube becomes free, and the anterior part of the last whorl is
disconnected from the spire (Fig. 180 A-D).
Fig. 179.—The slit in A,

Bellerophon, B, Pleurotomaria,
C, Schismope, D, Polytremaria,
E, Haliotis (not drawn to scale).
Fig. 180.—Development of the tube in the tube operculates: A, Pterocycus
rupestris Bens.; B, Opisthoporus birostris Pfr.; C, Spiraculum travancoricum
Bedd.; D, Rhiostoma Housei Pfr.
It is singular that the tube does not appear to be of any use to the
animal, since its internal extremity, in the complete form, is closed,
and does not communicate with the interior of the whorl. It may be
presumed, however, that in origin the tube served as a means of
conveying air to the animal when the operculum was closed. The
holes in the peristome of Pupina, Cataulus, and Anostoma (Fig. 154)
may be compared.
Fig. 181.—Eburna spirata Lam.,
E. Indies. F, foot; OP,
operculum; P, penis; S,
siphon; T, tentacles, with
eyes at their base. (After
Souleyet.)
The Operculum.—The operculum is a cuticular development of a
group of cells situated on the dorsal side of the foot, exactly over the
terminal point of the fibres of the columellar muscle. It is so situated
that in crawling it is generally carried free of the shell, sometimes at
the extreme upper end of the foot, more usually somewhat nearer to
the shell (Fig. 181). In Pterocyclus it is pushed back into the
umbilicus when the animal is in motion.
The operculum is present in nearly all land, fresh-water, and
marine Prosobranchiata, absent in all Opisthobranchiata in the adult
state, except Actaeon, and in all Pulmonata, except Amphibola. It
has been lost in the following marine Prosobranchiata: many
Cancellariidae and Conidae, Oliva (though present in Olivella and
Ancilla), Harpidae, Marginellidae, Voluta proper (though present in V.
musica), nearly all Mitridae, Cypraeidae, Doliidae, Ianthinidae; and,
of land genera, in Proserpinidae. It is evident, therefore, that its
presence or absence is of limited value in classification. In some
species of Ampullaria and Natica it is horny, in others shelly. Dall
found that in a number of specimens of Volutharpa ampullacea, 15
p.c. had opercula, 10 p.c. traces of the operculigenous area, but no
operculum, the rest no trace of either. Monstrosities of Buccinum
undatum sometimes occur, which have two, or in rare case three
opercula.
As a rule, the operculum exactly fits the mouth of the shell. But in
cases where the mouth is very large (e.g. Conus, Strombus,
Concholepas, some Bullia), it only covers a very small portion and is
quite inadequate as a protection (Fig. 62, p. 155). Again, when the
shell has assumed a more or less limpet-shaped form, and habitually
adheres to flat surfaces without much occasion for locomotion, the
operculum becomes degraded and is probably on the way to being
lost altogether. This is the case with Navicella (a modified Nerita, see
Fig. 13, p. 17), Concholepas (a modified Purpura), Sigaretus (a
modified Natica). Probably the more completely patelliform shells of
Crepidula, Haliotis, Fissurella, and Patella have reached the stage at
which the operculum has been lost entirely. In Navicella, besides
becoming degraded, the operculum has actually become partly
internal, and apparently serves the purpose of separating the viscera
from the upper part of the foot, something like the shelly plate in
Crepidula. This explains why the operculum in this genus is polished
on both sides.[349]
Some authors have imagined that the operculum is homologous
(a) to the second valve in Pelecypoda, (b) to the byssus. It differs,
however, morphologically from the former in the essential point of not
being produced by the mantle, and from the latter in not being
produced by a special gland.
Turbo (Sarmaticus) Turbo (Callopoma) Livona Ampullaria Natica
Fig. 182.—Various forms of opercula.
As regards shape and formation, the operculum has usually a
more or less well-marked nucleus which may be central (e.g.
Livona), sub-central (Ampullaria), lateral (Purpura), or terminal
(Pyrula). As a rule, both the inner and outer surfaces are fairly flat,
but in Torinia, Cyathopoma, and Pterocyclus the outer surface is
elevated and conically spiral, in some Turbo (e.g. Sarmaticus) it is
covered with raised tubercles resembling coral, while in others (e.g.
Callopoma) it is scored with a deep trench. Aulopoma, a land genus
peculiar to Ceylon, has a paucispiral operculum with hollow whorls,
deceptively like a Planorbis; it fits over the aperture instead of into it.
In Livona and most Trochidae the operculum is cartilaginous and
multispiral. In Strombus it is narrow, curved, and often serrated like a
leaf on one of the edges; in Conus it is narrowly oblong and rather
featureless; in Littorina, paucispiral and always cartilaginous. In
many cases (e.g. Paludina) there is no true spiral form, but the striae
are concentric to a nearly central nucleus, and thus give the
appearance of a spiral. The evolution of the operculum in Navicella
from Nerita has already been illustrated (p. 10). Neritopsis has a very
remarkable operculum, the striated appendage of which locks behind
the columella of the shell, like the tooth in the opercula of the
Neritidae.
Pyrula Purpura Littorina Aulopoma × 3 Torinia × 2 Neritopsis Strombus
Conus × 3/2
Fig. 183.—Various forms of opercula.
Terms employed to denote various parts of the Bivalve Shell.
—The umbo, or beak, is the apex of the hollow cone, of which each
valve may be regarded as consisting. This apex is usually more or
less twisted: it is markedly spiral in Isocardia, Diceras, some Chama,
and especially Requienia, while in Pecten, Lepton, and others the
spiral is altogether absent. As a rule the umbones point forward, i.e.
towards the anterior end of the shell. In Donax, Nucula, and Trigonia,
however, they point backward. The umbones are generally more or
less approximated, but in Arca they are widely separated.
An equilateral shell is one in which the umbones are more or less
central with regard to its anterior and posterior portion, while in an
inequilateral shell the umbones are much nearer one end than the
other. On the other hand, equivalve and inequivalve are terms used
to express the relation of the two valves to one another as a whole.
Thus nearly all bivalve shells are more or less inequilateral, but a
comparatively small proportion are inequivalve.
The dorsal margin is adjacent to, the ventral margin opposite to,
the umbones. The anterior and posterior margins are respectively
the front and hinder edges of the shell.
The muscles which serve to close the valves leave impressions
on the inner surface of each valve. These, when both muscles are
present, are known as the anterior and posterior adductor
impressions. The impression produced by the muscular edge of the
mantle, which curves downwards and backwards from the anterior
adductor impression, is known as the pallial line. In shells with only
one muscle it is represented by an irregular row of small marks, or
disappears altogether (Ostrea). The pallial sinus is produced by the
muscles which retract the siphons, and is most marked in those
genera in which the muscles are powerful and the siphons large (e.g.
Tellina, Mya). It is entirely absent in genera possessing no retractile
siphons.
Fig. 184.—Left valve of Venus gnidia

L.: A, anterior, B, posterior, C,
dorsal, D, ventral margin, AB,
length, CD, breadth of shell.
a.m, anterior; p.m, posterior
adductor muscle; p, pallial line; p.s,
pallial sinus; l, ligament; lu, lunule; u,
umbo; c, cardinal teeth; a.l, anterior
lateral tooth; p.l, posterior lateral tooth.
Fig. 185.—Right valve of Lucina tigerina
L.: A, anterior, B, posterior, C,
dorsal, D, ventral margin; AB,
length, CD, breadth of shell.
a.m, anterior; p.m, posterior adductor
muscles; p, pallial line; l, ligament; u,
umbo; c, cardinal teeth; a.l, p.l, anterior
and posterior lateral tooth.
Right and Left Valve.—The simplest way of distinguishing the
valves as right and left is to hold the shell in such a way that the
siphons point towards the observer, and the mouth away from him; in
this position the valve to the right is called the right valve, and the
valve to the left the left valve. If, however, the animal is not present, it
may be remembered that the ligament is nearly always behind the
beaks, and that the beaks, as a rule, point forward, thus the right and
left valves can generally be named by observation of the beaks and
ligament. When the ligament is median to the valves (e.g. Ostrea,
Pecten), and the beaks are not curved, the valves may be
recognised by noting the fact that the impression of the adductor
muscle (in these cases always single) is nearer to the posterior than
to the anterior side. In a similar way the pallial impression, which
only forms a sinus on the posterior side, furnishes a guide to the
valves of Donax, in which the beaks point backward, and of Tellina,
in which the beaks are frequently central.

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Solution Manual for Microeconomics 10th

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CHAPTER 5: USING SUPPLY AND DEMAND

9. As you can see in the accompanying graph, the rent

11. A minimum wage is a price floor as in question 10. A

15. a. See the accompanying graph.

b. There is excess demand of 300.

c. The maximum a person is willing to pay is $50.

17. a. Equilibrium price is $6 and equilibrium quantity is 300.

Questions from Alternative Perspectives

What is appropriate depends on one's normative judgments, and most normative

b. Television networks have incentives to produce high definition television only to

10,000 110,000 5,000 10,000 50,000

3. a. A weakly enforced anti-scalping law would add an

b. Possible changes include eliminating the board of certification, limiting its

c. A political difficulty with implementing these changes is that a relatively small

6. a. Frequent-flyer programs allow companies to lower their effective prices without

8. a. As shown in the accompanying graph, the

b. Since at the existing quantity supplied, QS,

14. a. They would likely fall. In fact, they fell by 13 percent.

b. They also would likely fall. In fact, they fell by 22 percent.

Fig. 169.—A, Decollated (adult)

Fig. 172.—Three stages in the growth of Cypraea

Fig. 177.—Section of Turbinella

Fig. 178.—The slit in A, Hemitoma, B, Emarginula, C, Macroschisma, D,

Fig. 179.—The slit in A,

Fig. 184.—Left valve of Venus gnidia

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