Understanding Psychology 12Th Edition Feldman Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF

Chapter 6 Learning
Understanding Psychology 12th

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Chapter 6
Learning
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Chapter 6 Learning
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Here is a sample of Interactivities that you can find in Connect. For a full list of assets, go to Connect!
Ch. Chapter Module Module Title Asset Type Asset title Connect Learning
Title Objective
06 Learning 17 Classical Concept Classical Define and describe

Conditioning Clip Conditioning classical conditioning.
06 Learning 17 Classical Interactivity Classical Define and describe

Conditioning Conditioning classical conditioning.
in Advertising
06 Learning 18 Operant Concept Operant Explain operant

Conditioning Clip Conditioning conditioning.
06 Learning 18 Operant Interactivity Reinforcement Explain operant

Conditioning and conditioning.
Punishment
06 Learning 18 Operant Concept Schedules of Outline the schedules

Conditioning Clip Reinforcement of reinforcement and
define the operant
view of
generalization and
discrimination,
superstitious
behavior, and
shaping.
06 Learning 18 Operant Interactivity Schedules of Outline the schedules

Conditioning Reinforcement of reinforcement and
Chapter 6 Learning
define the operant

view of
generalization and
discrimination,
superstitious
behavior, and
shaping.
06 Learning 18 Operant Interactivity Shaping Outline the schedules

Conditioning of reinforcement and
define the operant
view of
generalization and
discrimination,
superstitious
behavior, and
shaping.
06 Learning 19 Cognitive Interactivity Observational Define observational

Approaches to Learning learning and outline
Learning its basic processes.
OPENING THEMES
The topic of learning is a central one to psychology, incorporating the areas of classical and operant
conditioning. These lectures will give students a basic understanding of the behaviorist perspective.
Later in the course, students will learn how methods derived from behaviorist techniques are applied to
the treatment of psychological disorders.
MODULE 17: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
17–1 What is learning?
17–2 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought about by experience. It is clear
that we are primed for learning from the beginning of life. Infants exhibit a simple type of learning called
habituation. Habituation is the decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated
Chapter 6 Learning
presentations of the same stimulus. Most learning is considerably more complex than habituation, and
the study of learning has been at the core of the field of psychology.
THE BASICS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Although philosophers since the time of Aristotle have speculated on the foundations of learning, the
first systematic research on learning was done at the beginning of the 20th century, when Ivan Pavlov
developed the framework for learning called classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is a type of
learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that
naturally brings about that response.
The basic processes of classical conditioning that underlie Pavlov’s discovery are straightforward,
although the terminology he chose is not simple. Keeping in mind Pavlov’s laboratory experiments with
dogs, the basics of classical conditioning can be explained as follows: First, before conditioning, there
are two unrelated stimuli: the ringing of a bell and meat. We know that normally the ringing of a bell
does not lead to salivation but to some irrelevant response, such as pricking up the ears or perhaps a
startle reaction. The bell is therefore called the neutral stimulus, because it is a stimulus that, before
conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response in which we are interested. We also have
meat, which naturally causes a dog to salivate—the response we are interested in conditioning. The
meat is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because food placed in a dog’s mouth
automatically causes salivation to occur. The response that the meat elicits (salivation) is called an
unconditioned response (UCR)—a natural, innate, reflexive response that is not associated with
previous learning. Unconditioned responses are always brought about by the presence of unconditioned
stimuli. After a number of pairings of the bell and meat, the bell alone causes the dog to salivate. When
conditioning is complete, the bell has evolved from a neutral stimulus to a conditioned stimulus (CS). At
this time, salivation that occurs as a response to the conditioned stimulus (bell) is considered a
conditioned response (CR).
APPLYING CONDITIONING PRINCIPLES TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Although the initial conditioning experiments were carried out with animals, classical conditioning
principles were soon found to explain many aspects of everyday human behavior. Emotional responses
are especially likely to be learned through classical conditioning processes. Learning by means of
classical conditioning occurs during childhood as well as in adulthood. In more extreme cases, classical
conditioning can lead to the development of phobias, which are intense, irrational fears. Posttraumatic
stress disorder (P TSD), suffered by some war veterans and others who have had traumatic experiences,
can also be produced by classical conditioning. On the other hand, classical conditioning also relates to
pleasant experiences. For instance, a particular fondness for the smell of a certain perfume or
aftershave lotion because thoughts of an early love come rushing back whenever one encounters it.
EXTINCTION
Chapter 6 Learning
Extinction occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually
disappears. To produce extinction, one needs to end the association between conditioned stimuli and
unconditioned stimuli. However, it is not necessary that once a conditioned response is extinguished
that it vanishes forever. It is possible that the subject shows signs of spontaneous recovery or the
reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of time and with no further
conditioning.
GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION
Stimulus generalization is a process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a
particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response. The
greater the similarity between two stimuli, the greater the likelihood of stimulus generalization. The
conditioned response elicited by the new stimulus is usually not as intense as the original conditioned
response, although the more similar the new stimulus is to the old one, the more similar the new
response will be. Stimulus discrimination, in contrast, occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from
each other that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not. Stimulus discrimination
provides the ability to differentiate between stimuli.
BEYOND TRADITIONAL CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: CHALLENGING BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
Pavlov hypothesized that all learning is nothing more than long strings of conditioned responses; this
notion has not been supported by subsequent research. According to Pavlov, the process of linking
stimuli and responses occurs in a mechanistic, unthinking way. In contrast to this perspective, learning
theorists influenced by cognitive psychology have argued that learners actively develop an
understanding and expectancy about which particular unconditioned stimuli are matched with specific
conditioned stimuli. Traditional explanations of how classical conditioning operates have also been
challenged by John Garcia, a learning psychologist. He found that some organisms—including humans—
were biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that smelled or tasted like something that
made them sick.
STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS:
CONNECT ASSIGNMENTS
There are both Concept Clips and Interactivity assignments which can be assigned to students to
demonstrate Classical Conditioning.
EXAMPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Have students complete Handout 6–1, in which they analyze examples of classical conditioning.
Chapter 6 Learning
RESEARCH INVOLVING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Have students search online for examples of current research involving classical conditioning, including
research involving conditioning as a method for treating psychological disorders such as phobias or
mood disorders.
ANALYSIS OF CONDITIONING PRINCIPLES IN ADVERTISEMENTS
Ask students to describe and analyze a current television or magazine advertisement and answer
these questions:
Whose behavior is the ad attempting to influence, and how?
Which important people or objects are there in the ad?
What outcomes are suggested for those who use or do not use the product?
What does the ad tell us about how advertisers attempt to condition the behavior of consumers?
LECTURE IDEAS:
HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS:
Present the following hints to help make the relationships between stimuli and responses easier to
understand and remember:
Conditioned = learned; and unconditioned = not learned.
An unconditioned stimulus leads to an unconditioned response.
Unconditioned stimulus–unconditioned response pairings are unlearned and untrained.
During conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is transformed into the conditioned stimulus.
A conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned response, and a conditioned stimulus–conditioned

response pairing is a consequence of learning and training.
An unconditioned response and a conditioned response are the same (such as salivation in the example
described earlier). However, the unconditioned response occurs naturally, whereas the conditioned
response is learned.
Other phenomena related to classical conditioning are:
Extinction—When a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.
Spontaneous recovery—The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of

rest and with no further conditioning.
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Stimulus generalization—What takes place when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is
similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus discrimination—The ability to differentiate between stimuli so that responses occur only to
certain stimuli and not others.
DEMONSTRATION: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Conduct a classical conditioning demonstration using the following methods:
Collect these props: a small whistle and a squeezable “puff” maker (as is sold in ear wax cleaner kits).
Ask for a student volunteer. It should be a female, about your height, and she should not be wearing
contact lenses.
Have the student stand squarely facing you, about one foot away. Set this up so that other students can
see her eyes.
Announce that you will now show how classical conditioning is done. You will show that you can
condition the volunteer to blink her eyes in response to the whistle.
Put the volunteer at ease. Ask her where she is from and then have the class applaud to that.
Now show that she will not blink when you blow the whistle.
Then start conditioning—pair the whistle with the air puff about five or six times. On the next trial, just
blow the whistle. Have the observers verify that she blinked, and then take your bows and applause!
This is a very uncontrolled situation, but what will help you have a successful result is to create the
expectation that you will get a successful result—you are counting, in part, on the suggestibility of your
subject. (While this is going on, you may want to have someone take a picture.)
After completing the demonstration, use this overhead to have the students review the relevant
concepts:
The UCS was the: __________________________ (air puff)
The CS was the: __________________________ (whistle)
The UCR was the: __________________________ (eye blink)
The CR was the: __________________________ (eye blink)
OTHER EXAMPLES OF CONDITIONING PHENOMENA
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Ask students what or who they associate with a particular product—name a brand of athletic shoes, for
example, or a certain soft drink or car. If students name a personality, icon, or abstraction to describe
the product rather product features, then they are seeing the theory of behaviorism in action.
MEDIA PRESENTATION IDEAS:
TELEVISION SHOW: THE OFFICE
In a classic scene from this NBC sitcom, one office worker uses classical conditioning on another office
worker by pairing Altoids and the “ta da” of the computer. The episode is entitled Phyllis’ Wedding.
ADVERTISING: AMERICAN EXPRESS AD
This ad, which began airing in the fall of 2009, is an excellent example of pairing “happy” stimuli with a
credit card:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQk7Zh-dXCk
MODULE 18: OPERANT CONDITIONING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
18–1 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
18–2 What are some practical methods for bringing about behavior change, both in ourselves and in
others?
Operant conditioning is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending

on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. When we say that a response has been strengthened or
weakened, we mean that it has been made more or less likely to recur regularly. Unlike classical
conditioning, in which the original behaviors are the natural, biological responses to the presence of a
stimulus such as food, water, or pain, operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses, which an
organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcome. The term “operant” emphasizes this
point: The organism “operates” on its environment to produce a desirable result.
THORNDIKE’S LAW OF EFFECT
After conducting the cat in the cage experiment, Edward L. Thorndike observed the cat had learned that
pressing the paddle was associated with the desirable consequence of getting food. Thorndike
summarized that relationship by formulating the law of effect: Responses that lead to satisfying
consequences are more likely to be repeated. According to Thorndike, it was not necessary for an
organism to understand that there was a link between a response and a reward. Instead, Thorndike
believed, over time and through experience the organism would make a direct connection between the
stimulus and the response without any awareness that the connection existed.
Chapter 6 Learning
THE BASICS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
Thorndike’s early research served as the foundation for the work of one of the 20th century’s most
influential psychologists, B. F. Skinner (1904–1990). The Skinner box was a chamber with a highly
controlled environment that was used to study operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals.
Whereas Thorndike’s goal was to get his cats to learn to obtain food by leaving the box, animals in a
Skinner box learn to obtain food by operating on their environment within the box. Skinner became
interested in specifying how behavior varies as a result of alterations in the environment. Skinner,
whose work went far beyond perfecting Thorndike’s earlier apparatus, is considered the inspiration for a
whole generation of psychologists studying operant conditioning.
Reinforcement: The Central Concept of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior
will be repeated. A reinforcer is any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will
occur again. A primary reinforcer satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of a
person’s previous experience. In contrast, a secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that becomes reinforcing
because of its association with a primary reinforcer.
Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment
A positive reinforcer is a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a
preceding response. If food, water, money, or praise is provided after a response, it is more likely that
that response will occur again in the future. In contrast, a negative reinforcer refers to an unpleasant
stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be
repeated in the future. Negative reinforcement, then, teaches the individual that taking an action
removes a negative condition that exists in the environment. Like positive reinforcers, negative
reinforcers increase the likelihood that preceding behaviors will be repeated (Magoon & Critchfield,
2008).
Punishment refers to a stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again.
Unlike negative reinforcement, which produces an increase in behavior, punishment reduces the
likelihood of a prior response. There are two types of punishment: positive punishment and negative
punishment, just as there are positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Positive punishment
weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus. In contrast, negative
punishment consists of the removal of something pleasant. Both positive and negative punishment
result in a decrease in the likelihood that a prior behavior will be repeated.
The Pros and Cons of Punishment: Why Reinforcement Beats Punishment
Punishment often presents the quickest route to changing behavior that, if allowed to continue, might
be dangerous to an individual. Moreover, the use of punishment to suppress behavior, even
temporarily, provides an opportunity to reinforce a person for subsequently behaving in a more
desirable way. Punishment has several disadvantages that make its routine questionable. For one thing,
Chapter 6 Learning
punishment is frequently ineffective, particularly if it is not delivered shortly after the undesired
behavior or if the individual is able to leave the setting in which the punishment is being given. Even
worse, physical punishment can convey to the recipient the idea that physical aggression is permissible
and perhaps even desirable. Ultimately, those who resort to physical punishment run the risk that they
will grow to be feared. Punishment can also reduce the self-esteem of recipients unless they can
understand the reasons for it. Finally, punishment does not convey any information about what an
alternative, more appropriate behavior might be. To be useful in bringing about more desirable behavior
in the future, punishment must be accompanied by specific information about the behavior that is being
punished, along with specific suggestions concerning a more desirable behavior. In short, reinforcing
desired behavior is a more appropriate technique for modifying behavior than using punishment.
Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life’s Rewards
Schedules of reinforcement refer to the different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement
following desired behavior. Behavior that is reinforced every time it occurs is said to be on a continuous
reinforcement schedule; if it is reinforced some but not all of the time, it is on a partial (or intermittent)
reinforcement schedule. Although learning occurs more rapidly under a continuous reinforcement
schedule, behavior lasts longer after reinforcement stops when it is learned under a partial
reinforcement schedule. Partial reinforcement schedules maintain performance longer than do
continuous reinforcement schedules before extinction—the disappearance of the conditioned
response—occurs. Partial reinforcement schedules can be put into two categories: schedules that
consider the number of responses made before reinforcement is given, called fixed-ratio and variable-
ratio schedules, and those that consider the amount of time that elapses before reinforcement is
provided, called fixed-interval and variable-interval schedules.
Fixed- and Variable-Ratio Schedules
In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses. In a variable-
ratio schedule, reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed
number. Although the specific number of responses necessary to receive reinforcement varies, the
number of responses usually hovers around a specific average.
Fixed- and Variable-Interval Schedules: The Passage of Time
In contrast to fixed and variable-ratio schedules, in which the crucial factor is the number of responses,
fixed interval and variable- interval schedules focus on the amount of time that has elapsed since a
person or animal was rewarded. Because a fixed-interval schedule provides reinforcement for a
response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, overall rates of response are relatively low. One way to
decrease the delay in responding that occurs just after reinforcement, and to maintain the desired
behavior more consistently throughout an interval, is to use a variable-interval schedule. In a variable-
interval schedule, the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being
fixed.
Discrimination and Generalization in Operant Conditioning
Chapter 6 Learning
Just as in classical conditioning, operant learning involves the phenomena of discrimination and
generalization. The process by which people learn to discriminate stimuli is known as stimulus control
training. In stimulus control training, a behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but
not in its absence. A discriminative stimulus signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a
response. Just as in classical conditioning, the phenomenon of stimulus generalization, in which an
organism learns a response to one stimulus and then exhibits the same response to slightly different
stimuli, occurs in operant conditioning.
Shaping: Reinforcing What Doesn’t Come Naturally
Shaping is the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of
the desired behavior. In shaping, you start by reinforcing any behavior that is at all similar to the
behavior you want the person to learn. Later, you reinforce only responses that are closer to the
behavior you ultimately want to teach. Finally, you reinforce only the desired response. Each step in
shaping, then, moves only slightly beyond the previously learned behavior, permitting the person to link
the new step to the behavior learned earlier.
Biological Constraints on Learning: You Can’t Teach an Old Dog Just Any Trick
Not all behaviors can be trained in all species equally well. Instead, there are biological constraints, built-
in limitations in the ability of animals to learn particular behaviors. The existence of biological
constraints is consistent with evolutionary explanations of behavior. Clearly, there are adaptive benefits
that promote survival for organisms that quickly learn—or avoid—certain behaviors. Additional support
for the evolutionary interpretation of biological constraints lies in the fact that the associations that
animals learn most readily involve stimuli that are most relevant to the specific environment in which
they live.
Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning
We have considered classical conditioning and operant conditioning as two completely different
processes. The key concept in classical conditioning is the association between stimuli, whereas in
operant conditioning it is reinforcement. Furthermore, classical conditioning involves an involuntary,
natural, innate behavior, but operant conditioning is based on voluntary responses made by an
organism.
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: USING BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Behavior modification is a formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and
decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones. A behavior analyst is a psychologist who specializes in
behavior modification techniques. The techniques used by behavior analysts are as varied as the list of
processes that modify behavior. They include reinforcement scheduling, shaping, generalization training,
discrimination training, and extinction. Participants in a behavior change program do, however, typically
follow a series of similar basic steps that include the following:
Chapter 6 Learning
• Identifying goals and target behaviors
• Designing a data-recording system and recording preliminary data
• Selecting a behavior-change strategy
• Implementing the program
• Keeping careful records after the program is implemented
• Evaluating and altering the ongoing program
Behavior-change techniques based on these general principles have enjoyed wide success and have
proved to be one of the most powerful means of modifying behavior.
STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS:
CONNECT ASSIGNMENTS
There are both Concept Clips and Interactivity assignments which can be assigned to students to
demonstrate Operant Conditioning, Schedules of Reinforcement and Shaping.
SHAPING AND SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION
Have students complete the assignment on Handout 6–2 on shaping and successive approximation.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Have students complete Handout 6–3 on schedules of reinforcement.
REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT
Ask students the following questions:
Why do psychologists prefer negative reinforcement to punishment as a way to shape behavior?
What are examples of negative reinforcement in your life?
What are examples of punishment in your life?
Which is more effective in motivating you—negative reinforcement or punishment?
LECTURE IDEAS:
Chapter 6 Learning
DEMONSTRATION: SHAPING
You will need to arrange for a bicycle to be present in the classroom. Have it sitting unobtrusively off to
one side against a wall. If this is not possible, an umbrella will suffice as a prop.
Select a volunteer, preferably male. Ask for his name, where he is from, and have the class cheer him on
for what he is about to do. Ask him to step outside of the room. When he is out of earshot, tell the class
that they are going to use shaping to get him to ride the bicycle across the front of the classroom
(alternatively, to open the umbrella and dance in a circle while holding it over his head). They will do this
by clapping as he gets closer to each desire step in a sequence. First, he will have to look at the bicycle.
Then he will have to walk over to it, and so on, until he actually rides the bicycle across the stage. The
class will look at you and you will cue them when to clap. After the volunteer performs the desired act,
the clapping should stop and should not start again until the next higher level in the hierarchy is
reached. After the desired behavior is performed, lead the class in a big round of applause for him.
(While he is on the bicycle, you may want to have someone take his picture.)
HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS
Classical: Think of “Beethoven’s Fifth” (“classical” music)—you feel an emotional reaction when you hear
the first four notes.
Operant: A surgeon “operates” and this takes a great deal of training.
Shaping: When you have your hair done, your stylist has been trained through a complex process.
Reinforcement: You strengthen a building with reinforcement; in behavioral psychology, reinforcement

strengthens a behavior.
BIOGRAPHY OF B.F.SKINNER (FROM PETTIJOHN’S CONNECTEXT)
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904–1990) is one of the most famous, influential, and controversial figures in
contemporary American psychology. He was born in the small railroad town of Susquehanna,
Pennsylvania, in March 1904. After graduating from Hamilton College in 1926 with a degree in English,
he tried writing, but eventually gave it up, because he felt he had nothing important to say. He became
interested in psychology and earned his PhD from Harvard University in 1931.
He taught for several years at the University of Minnesota and Indiana University. During this time he
wrote two of his most important books—The Behavior of Organisms (1938) and a novel, Walden Two
(1948), which is an account of a utopian society run in accordance with operant principles. Skinner
returned to Harvard in 1948, where he remained until his death in August 1990.
B. F. Skinner made numerous contributions to the science of behavior. He strongly influenced the area
of learning that he named operant conditioning. His Skinner box is now a standard apparatus for the
experimental study of animal behavior. Much of his work involved the study of how reinforcement
Chapter 6 Learning
schedules influence learning and behavior. His Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971) is a nonfiction
examination of his utopian society, in which he explains why we must understand how we control
behavior in everyday life. In his 1987 book, Upon Further Reflection, Skinner presents his views on issues
ranging from world peace and evolution to education and old age.
BIOGRAPHY OF EDWARD L. THORNDIKE (FROM PETTIJOHN’S “CONNECTEXT”)
Edward Lee Thorndike was born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts, in 1874. His mother was homemaker,
and his father was a minister. After graduating from high school in 1891, he attended Wesleyan
University, where he graduated in 1895. He then continued his education at Harvard University. In 1897,
he left Harvard and began graduate work at Columbia University. Thorndike studied learning in cats, and
earned a PhD in psychology in 1898.
His dissertation resulted in his publication in 1898 of “Animal Intelligence” in Psychological Review.
Thorndike observed trial and error learning in cats. He placed a cat in a small cage and observed it
manipulate the environment in order to escape. Thorndike called this type of learning instrumental
learning, stating that the individual is instrumental in producing a response.
After teaching for a year at the College for Women of Case Western Reserve in Cleveland, Ohio,
Thorndike went to Teachers College at Columbia University, where he remained the rest of his academic
career. He became more interested in human mental abilities, and in 1903 published a monograph,
“Heredity, Correlation and Sex Differences in School Abilities.”
Thorndike was a prolific writer, publishing more than 450 articles and books. Some of his important
publications include Educational Psychology (1903), The Elements of Psychology (1905), The
Fundamentals of Learning (1932), and The Psychology of Wants, Interests, and Attitudes (1935).
He also worked on solving industrial problems, such as employee exams and testing. He was a member
of the board of the Psychological Corporation. He served as president of the American Psychological
Association in 1912. Thorndike died in 1949.
COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING (FROM PETTIJOHN’S

“CONNECTEXT”)
Show students this comparison chart:
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Acquisition Acquisition
Extinction Extinction
Chapter 6 Learning
Spontaneous recovery Spontaneous recovery
Stimulus generalization Stimulus generalization
Association between stimuli

Reinforcement
and responses
Based on involuntary reflexive

Based on voluntary behavior
behavior
NEGATIVE VERSUS POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT:
Show the slides which include Figure 3 from Chapter 6 to demonstrate the differenced between
reinforcement and punishment.
USE THIS SUMMARY CHART:
Procedure Behavior increases Behavior decreases
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Use these examples:
Schedule Examples
Fixed ratio: rewards given Getting a free coffee for every 10 cups that you buy at a
after fixed number of local coffee house.
responses.
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PLATE XXXVIII
SHRUBBY CINQUEFOIL.—P. fruticosa.
Of all the cinquefoils perhaps this one most truly merits the title
five finger. Certainly its slender leaflets are much more finger-like
than those of the common cinquefoil. It is not a common plant in
most localities, but is very abundant among the Berkshire Hills.
Silvery Cinquefoil.
Potentilla argentea. Rose Family.
Stems.—Ascending, branched at the summit, white, woolly. Leaves.—Divided

into five wedge-oblong, deeply incised leaflets, which are green above, white with
silvery wool, beneath.
The silvery cinquefoil has rather large yellow flowers which are
found in dry fields throughout the summer as far south as New
Jersey.
Golden Ragwort. Squaw-weed.

Senecio aureus. Composite Family (p. 13).
Stem.—One to three feet high. Root-leaves.—Rounded, the larger ones mostly

heart-shaped, toothed, and long-stalked. Stem-leaves.—The lower lyre-shaped, the
upper lance-shaped, incised, set close to the stem. Flower-heads.—Yellow,
clustered, composed of both ray and disk-flowers.
A child would perhaps liken the flower of the golden ragwort to a
yellow daisy. Stain yellow the white rays of the daisy, diminish the
size of the whole head somewhat, and you have a pretty good
likeness of the ragwort. There need be little difficulty in the
identification of this plant—although there are several marked
varieties—for its flowers are abundant in the early year, at which
season but few members of the Composite family are abroad.
The generic name is from senex—an old man—alluding to the
silky down of the seeds, which is supposed to suggest the silvery
hairs of age.
Closely allied to the golden ragwort is the common groundsel, S.
vulgaris, which is given as food to caged birds. The flower-heads of
this species are without rays.
——— ———
Clintonia borealis. Lily Family.
Scape.—Five to eight inches high, sheathed at its base by the stalks of two to
four large, oblong, conspicuous leaves. Flowers.—Greenish-yellow, rather large,
rarely solitary. Perianth.—Of six sepals. Stamens.—Six, protruding. Pistil.—One,
protruding. Fruit.—A blue berry.
PLATE XXXIX
Clintonia borealis.
When rambling through the cool, moist woods our attention is

often attracted by patches of great dark, shining, leaves; and if it be
late in the year we long to know the flower of which this rich foliage
is the setting. To satisfy our curiosity we must return the following
May or June, when we shall probably find that a slender scape rises
from its midst bearing at its summit several bell-shaped flowers,
which, without either high color or fragrance, are peculiarly
charming. It is hard to understand why this beautiful plant has
received no English name. As to its generic title we cannot but
sympathize with Thoreau. “Gray should not have named it from the
Governor of New York,” he complains; “what is he to the lovers of
flowers in Massachusetts? If named after a man, it must be a man of
flowers.... Name your canals and railroads after Clinton, if you
please, but his name is not associated with flowers.”
C. umbellata is a more Southern species, with smaller white
flowers, which are speckled with green or purplish dots.
Yellow Lady’s Slipper. Whip-poor-Will’s Shoe.

Cypripedium pubescens. Orchis Family (p. 17).
Stem.—About two feet high, downy, leafy to the top, one to three-flowered.
Leaves.—Alternate, broadly oval, many-nerved and plaited. Flowers.—Large,
yellow. Perianth.—Two of the three brownish, elongated sepals united into one
under the lip; the lateral petals linear, wavy-twisted, brownish; the pale yellow lip
an inflated pouch. Stamens.—Two, the short filaments of each bearing a two-celled
anther. Stigma.—Broad, obscurely three-lobed, moist and roughish.
The yellow lady’s slipper usually blossoms in May or June, a few
days later than its pink sister, C. acaule. Regarding its favorite
haunts, Mr. Baldwin[3] says: “Its preference is for maples, beeches,
and particularly butternuts, and for sloping or hilly ground, and I
always look with glad suspicion at a knoll covered with ferns,
cohoshes, and trilliums, expecting to see a clump of this plant among
them. Its sentinel-like habit of choosing ‘sightly places’ leads it to
venture well up on mountain sides.”
The long, wavy, brownish petals give the flower an alert, startled
look when surprised in its lonely hiding-places.
PLATE XL
SMALLER YELLOW LADY’S SLIPPER.

—C. parviflorum.
C. parviflorum, the small yellow lady’s slipper, differs from C.

pubescens in the superior richness of its color as well as in its size. It
also has the charm of fragrance.
Early Meadow Parsnip.

Zizia aurea. Parsley Family (p. 15).
One to three feet high. Leaves.—Twice or thrice-compound, leaflets oblong to

lance-shaped, toothed. Flowers.—Yellow, small, in compound umbels.
This is one of the earliest members of the Parsley family to
appear. Its golden flower-clusters brighten the damp meadows and
the borders of streams in May or June and closely resemble the
meadow parsnip, Thaspium aureum, of which this species was
formerly considered a variety, of the later year.
The tall, stout, common wild parsnip, Pastinaca sativa, is
another yellow representative of this family in which white flowers
prevail, the three plants here mentioned being the only yellow
species commonly encountered. The common parsnip may be
identified by its grooved stem and simply compound leaves. Its roots
have been utilized for food at least since the reign of Tiberius, for
Pliny tells us that that Emperor brought them to Rome from the
banks of the Rhine, where they were successfully cultivated.
Golden Club.
Orontium aquaticum. Arum Family.
Scape.—Slender, elongated. Leaves.—Long-stalked, oblong, floating. Flowers.

—Small, yellow, crowded over the narrow spike or spadix.
When we go to the bogs in May to hunt for the purple flower of
the pitcher-plant we are likely to chance upon the well-named golden
club. This curious-looking club-shaped object, which is found along
the borders of ponds, indicates its relationship to the jack-in-the-
pulpit, and still more to the calla lily, but unlike them its tiny flowers
are shielded by no protecting spathe.
Kalm tells us in his “Travels,” “that the Indians called the plant
Taw-Kee, and used its dried seeds as food.”
Spearwort.
Ranunculus ambigens. Crowfoot Family.
Stems.—One to two feet high. Leaves.—Oblong or lance-shaped, mostly

toothed, contracted into a half-clasping leaf-stalk. Flowers.—Bright yellow, solitary
or clustered. Calyx.—Of five sepals. Corolla.—Of five to seven oblong petals.
Stamens.—Indefinite in number, occasionally few. Pistils.—Numerous in a head.
Many weeks after the marsh marigolds have passed away, just
such marshy places as they affected are brightly flecked with gold.
Wondering, perhaps, if they can be flowering for the second time in
the season, we wade recklessly into the bog to rescue, not the marsh
marigold, but its near relation, the spearwort, which is still more
closely related to the buttercup, as a little comparison of the two
flowers will show. This plant is especially common at the North.
Indian Cucumber-root.
Medeola Virginica. Lily Family.
Root.—Tuberous, shaped somewhat like a cucumber, with a suggestion of its

flavor. Stem.—Slender, from one to three feet high, at first clothed with wool.
Leaves.—In two whorls on the flowering plants, the lower of five to nine oblong,
pointed leaves set close to the stem, the upper usually of three or four much
smaller ones. Flowers.—Greenish-yellow, small, clustered, recurved, set close to
the upper leaves. Perianth.—Of three sepals and three petals, oblong and alike.
Stamens.—Six, reddish-brown. Pistil.—With three stigmas, long, recurved, and
reddish-brown. Fruit.—A purple berry.
One is more apt to pause in September to note the brilliant
foliage and purple berries of this little plant than to gather the
drooping inconspicuous blossoms for his bunch of wood-flowers in
June. The generic name is after the sorceress Medea, on account of
its supposed medicinal virtues, of which, however, there seems to be
no record.
The tuberous rootstock has the flavor, and something the shape,
of the cucumber, and was probably used as food by the Indians. It
would not be an uninteresting study to discover which of our
common wild plants are able to afford pleasant and nutritious food;
in such a pursuit many of the otherwise unattractive popular names
would prove suggestive.
Common Bladderwort.
Utricularia vulgaris. Bladderwort Family.
Stems.—Immersed, one to three feet long. Leaves.—Many-parted, hair-like,

bearing numerous bladders. Scape.—Six to twelve inches long. Flowers.—Yellow,
five to twelve on each scape. Calyx.—Two-lipped. Corolla.—Two-lipped, spurred at
the base. Stamens.—Two. Pistil.—One.
This curious water-plant may or may not have roots; in either
case it is not fastened to the ground, but is floated by means of the
many bladders which are borne on its finely dissected leaves. It is
commonly found in ponds and slow streams, flowering throughout
the summer. Thoreau calls it “a dirty-conditioned flower, like a
sluttish woman with a gaudy yellow bonnet.”
The horned bladderwort, U. cornuta, roots in the peat-bogs and
sandy swamps. Its large yellow helmet-shaped flowers are very
fragrant, less than half a dozen being borne on each scape.
Yellow Pond-lily. Spatter Dock.

Nuphar advena. Water-lily Family.
Leaves.—Floating or erect, roundish to oblong, with a deep cleft at their base.

Flowers.—Yellow, sometimes purplish, large, somewhat globular. Calyx.—Of five
or six sepals or more, yellow or green without. Corolla.—Of numerous small, thick,
fleshy petals which are shorter than the stamens and resemble them. Stamens.—
Very numerous. Pistil.—One, with a disk-like, many-rayed stigma.
Bordering the slow streams and stagnant ponds from May till
August may be seen the yellow pond-lilies. These flowers lack the
delicate beauty and fragrance of the white water-lilies; having,
indeed, either from their odor, or appearance, or the form of their
fruit, won for themselves in England the unpoetic title of “brandy-
bottle.” Owing to their love of mud they have also been called “frog-
lilies.” The Indians used their roots for food.
PLATE XLI
INDIAN CUCUMBER-ROOT.—M.
Virginiana.
Winter-cress, Yellow Rocket. Herb of St. Barbara.

Barbarea vulgaris. Mustard Family (p. 17).
Stem.—Smooth. Leaves.—The lower lyre-shaped; the upper ovate, toothed or

deeply incised at their base. Flowers.—Yellow, growing in racemes. Pod.—Linear,
erect or slightly spreading.
As early as May we find the bright flowers of the winter-cress
along the roadside. This is probably the first of the yellow mustards
to appear.
Black Mustard.
Brassica nigra. Mustard Family (p. 17).
Often several feet high. Stem.—Branching. Leaves.—The lower with a large

terminal lobe and a few small lateral ones. Flowers.—Yellow, rather small, growing
in a raceme. Pods.—Smooth, erect, appressed, about half an inch long.
Many are familiar with the appearance of this plant who are
ignorant of its name. The pale yellow flowers spring from the waste
places along the roadside and border the dry fields throughout the
summer. The tall spreading branches recall the biblical description:
“It groweth up, and becometh greater than all herbs, and shooteth
out great branches; so that the fowls of the air may lodge under the
shadow of it.”
This plant is extensively cultivated in Europe, its ground seeds
forming the well-known condiment. The ancients used it for
medicinal purposes. It has come across the water to us, and is a
troublesome weed in many parts of the country.
Wild Radish.
Raphanus Raphanistrum. Mustard Family (p. 17).
One to three feet high. Leaves.—Rough, lyre-shaped. Flowers.—Yellow, veiny,

turning white or purplish; larger than those of the black mustard, otherwise
resembling them. Pod.—Often necklace-form by constriction between the seeds.
This plant is a troublesome weed in many of our fields. It is the
stock from which the garden radish has been raised.
PLATE XLII
WINTER-CRESS.—B. vulgaris.
Cynthia. Dwarf Dandelion.

Krigia Virginica. Composite Family (p. 13).
Stems.—Several, becoming branched, leafy. Leaves.—Earlier ones roundish;

the latter narrower and often cleft. Flower-heads.—Yellow, composed entirely of
strap-shaped flowers.
In some parts of the country these flowers are among the earliest
to appear. They are found in New England, as well as south and
westward.
The flowers of K. amplexicaulis appear later, and their range is a
little farther south. Near Philadelphia great masses of the orange-
colored blossoms and pale green stems and foliage line the railway
embankments in June.
Rattlesnake-weed.
Hieracium venosum. Composite Family (p. 13).
Stem or Scape.—One or two feet high, naked or with a single leaf, smooth,
slender, forking above. Leaves.—From the root, oblong, often making a sort of flat
rosette, usually conspicuously veined with purple. Flower-heads.—Yellow,
composed entirely of strap-shaped flowers.
The loosely clustered yellow flower-heads of the rattlesnake-
weed somewhat resemble small dandelions. They abound in the
pine-woods and dry, waste places of early summer. The purple-
veined leaves, whose curious markings give to the plant its common
name, grow close to the ground and are supposed to be efficacious in
rattlesnake bites. Here again crops out the old “doctrine of
signatures,” for undoubtedly this virtue has been attributed to the
species solely on account of the fancied resemblance between its
leaves and the markings of the rattlesnake.
H. scabrum is another common species, which may be
distinguished from the rattlesnake-weed by its stout, leafy stem and
unveined leaves.
Dandelion.
Taraxacum officinale. Composite Family (p. 13).
PLATE XLIII
RATTLESNAKE-WEED.—H. venosum.
If Emerson’s definition of a weed, as a plant whose virtues have

not yet been discovered, be correct, we can hardly place the
dandelion in that category, for its young sprouts have been valued as
a pot-herb, its fresh leaves enjoyed as a salad, and its dried roots
used as a substitute for coffee in various countries and ages. It is said
that the Apache Indians so greatly relish it as food, that they scour
the country for many days in order to procure enough to appease
their appetites, and that the quantity consumed by one individual
exceeds belief. The feathery-tufted seeds which form the downy balls
beloved as “clocks” by country children, are delicately and beautifully
adapted to dissemination by the wind, which ingenious arrangement
partly accounts for the plant’s wide range. The common name is a
corruption of the French dent de lion. There is a difference of opinion
as to which part of the plant is supposed to resemble a lion’s tooth.
Some fancy the jagged leaves gave rise to the name, while others
claim that it refers to the yellow flowers, which they liken to the
golden teeth of the heraldic lion. In nearly every European country
the plant bears a name of similar signification.
Poverty-grass.
Hudsonia tomentosa. Rock-rose Family.
“Bushy, heath-like little shrubs, seldom a foot high.” (Gray.) Leaves.—Small,

oval or narrowly oblong, pressed close to the stem. Flowers.—Bright yellow, small,
numerous, crowded along the upper part of the branches. Calyx.—Of five sepals,
the two outer much smaller. Corolla.—Of five petals. Stamens.—Nine to thirty.
Pistil.—One, with a long and slender style.
In early summer many of the sand-hills along the New England
coast are bright with the yellow flowers of this hoary little shrub. It is
also found as far south as Maryland and near the Great Lakes. Each
blossom endures for a single day only. The plant’s popular name is
due to its economical habit of utilizing sandy unproductive soil
where little else will flourish.
Bush-honeysuckle.
Diervilla trifida. Honeysuckle Family.
An upright shrub from one to four feet high. Leaves.—Opposite, oblong, taper-
pointed. Flowers.—Yellow, sometimes much tinged with red, clustered usually in
threes, in the axils of the upper leaves and at the summit of the stem. Calyx.—With
slender awl-shaped lobes. Corolla.—Funnel-form, five-lobed, the lower lobe larger
than the others and of a deeper yellow, with a small nectar-bearing gland at its
base. Stamens.—Five. Pistil.—One.
PLATE XLIV
BUSH-HONEYSUCKLE.—D. trifida.
This pretty little shrub is found along our rocky hills and
mountains. The blossoms appear in early summer, and form a good
example of nectar-bearing flowers. The lower lobe of the corolla is
crested and more deeply colored than the others, thus advising the
bee of secreted treasure. The hairy filaments of the stamens are so
placed as to protect the nectar from injury by rain. When the
blossom has been despoiled and at the same time fertilized, for the
nectar-seeking bee has probably deposited some pollen upon its
pistil, the color of the corolla changes from a pale to a deep yellow,
thus giving warning to the insect world that further attentions would
be useless to both parties.
Cow Wheat.
Melampyrum Americanum. Figwort Family.
Stem.—Low, erect, branching. Leaves.—Opposite, lance-shaped. Flowers.—
Small, greenish-yellow, solitary in the axils of the upper leaves. Calyx.—Bell-
shaped, four-cleft. Corolla.—Two-lipped, upper lip arched, lower three-lobed and
spreading at the apex. Stamens.—Four. Pistil.—One.
In the open woods, from June until September, we encounter
the pale yellow flowers of this rather insignificant little plant. The
cow wheat was formerly cultivated by the Dutch as food for cattle.
The Spanish name, Trigo de Vaca, would seem to indicate a similar
custom in Spain. The generic name, Melampyrum, is from the
Greek, and signifies black wheat, in reference to the appearance of
the seeds of some species when mixed with grain. The flower would
not be likely to attract one’s attention were it not exceedingly
common in some parts of the country, flourishing especially in our
more eastern woodlands.
Meadow Lily. Wild Yellow Lily.

Lilium Canadense. Lily Family.
Stem.—Two to five feet high. Leaves.—Whorled, lance-shaped. Flowers.—

Yellow, spotted with reddish-brown, bell-shaped, two to three inches long.
Perianth.—Of six recurved sepals, with a nectar-bearing furrow at their base.
Stamens.—Six, with anthers loaded with brown pollen. Pistil.—One, with a three-
lobed stigma.
What does the summer bring which is more enchanting than a
sequestered wood-bordered meadow hung with a thousand of these
delicate, nodding bells which look as though ready to tinkle at the
least disturbance and sound an alarum among the flowers?
PLATE XLV
MEADOW LILY.—L. Canadense.
These too are true “lilies of the field,” less gorgeous, less
imposing than the Turks’ caps, but with an unsurpassed grace and
charm of their own. “Fairy-caps,” these pointed blossoms are
sometimes called; “witch-caps,” would be more appropriate still.
Indeed they would make dainty headgear for any of the dim
inhabitants of Wonder-Land.
The growth of this plant is very striking when seen at its best.
The erect stem is surrounded with regular whorls of leaves, from the
upper one of which curves a circle of long-stemmed, nodding
flowers. They suggest an exquisite design for a church candelabra.
Prickly Pear. Indian Fig.
Opuntia Rafinesquii. Cactus Family.
Flowers.—Yellow, large, two and a half to three and a half inches across.
Calyx.—Of numerous sepals. Corolla.—Of ten or twelve petals. Stamens.—
Numerous. Pistil.—One, with numerous stigmas. Fruit.—Shaped like a small pear,
often with prickles over its surface.
This curious-looking plant is one of the only two representatives
of the Cactus family in the Northeastern States. It has deep green,
fleshy, prickly, rounded joints and large yellow flowers, which are
often conspicuous in summer in dry, sandy places along the coast.
O. vulgaris, the only other species found in Northeastern
America, has somewhat smaller flowers, but otherwise so closely
resembles O. Rafinesquii as to make it difficult to distinguish
between the two.
Four-leaved Loosestrife.
Lysimachia quadrifolia. Primrose Family.
Stem.—Slender, one or two feet high. Leaves.—Narrowly oblong, whorled in

fours, fives, or sixes. Flowers.—Yellow, spotted or streaked with red, on slender,
hair-like flower-stalks from the axils of the leaves. Calyx.—Five or six-parted.
Corolla.—Very deeply five or six-parted. Stamens.—Four or five. Pistil.—One.
PLATE XLVI
FOUR-LEAVED LOOSESTRIFE.—L.
quadrifolia.
This slender pretty plant grows along the roadsides and attracts
one’s notice in June by its regular whorls of leaves and flowers.
Linnæus says that this genus is named after Lysimachus, King of
Sicily. Loosestrife is the English for Lysimachus; but whether the
ancient superstition that the placing of these flowers upon the yokes
of oxen rendered the beasts gentle and submissive arose from the
peace-suggestive title or from other causes, I cannot discover.
Yellow Loosestrife.
Lysimachia stricta. Primrose Family.
The yellow loosestrife bears its flowers, which are similar to

those of L. quadrifolia, in a terminal raceme; it has opposite lance-
shaped leaves. Its bright yellow clusters border the streams and
brighten the marshes from June till August.
Rock-rose. Frost-weed.
Helianthemum Canadense. Rock-rose Family.
About one foot high. Leaves.—Set close to the stem, simple, lance-oblong.
Flowers.—Of two kinds: the earlier, more noticeable ones, yellow, solitary, about
one inch across; the later ones small and clustered, usually without petals. Calyx.—
(Of the petal-bearing flowers) of five sepals. Corolla.—Of five early falling petals
which are crumpled in the bud. Stamens.—Numerous. Pistil.—One, with a three-
lobed stigma.
These fragile bright yellow flowers are found in gravelly places in
early summer. Under the influence of the sunshine they open once;
by the next day their petals have fallen, and their brief beauty is a
thing of the past. On June 17th Thoreau finds this “broad, cup-like
flower, one of the most delicate yellow flowers, with large spring-
yellow petals, and its stamens laid one way.”
In the Vale of Sharon a nearly allied rose-colored species
abounds. This is believed by some of the botanists who have travelled
in that region to be the Rose of Sharon which Solomon has
celebrated.
The name of frost-weed has been given to our plant because of
the crystals of ice which shoot from the cracked bark at the base of
the stem in late autumn.

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Chapter 6 Learning

Understanding Psychology 12th

Solution Manual: https://testbankpack.com/

Test Bank: https://testbankpack.com/

Students study more effectively with Smartbook.

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 12e IM-6 | 1

06 Learning 17 Classical Concept Classical Define and describe

06 Learning 17 Classical Interactivity Classical Define and describe

06 Learning 18 Operant Concept Operant Explain operant

06 Learning 18 Operant Interactivity Reinforcement Explain operant

06 Learning 18 Operant Concept Schedules of Outline the schedules

06 Learning 18 Operant Interactivity Schedules of Outline the schedules

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 12e IM-6 | 2

define the operant

06 Learning 18 Operant Interactivity Shaping Outline the schedules

06 Learning 19 Cognitive Interactivity Observational Define observational

MODULE 17: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

17–1 What is learning?

17–2 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 12e IM-6 | 3

THE BASICS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

APPLYING CONDITIONING PRINCIPLES TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 12e IM-6 | 4

GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION

BEYOND TRADITIONAL CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: CHALLENGING BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

EXAMPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 12e IM-6 | 5

RESEARCH INVOLVING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

ANALYSIS OF CONDITIONING PRINCIPLES IN ADVERTISEMENTS

Whose behavior is the ad attempting to influence, and how?

Which important people or objects are there in the ad?

HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS:

Conditioned = learned; and unconditioned = not learned.

An unconditioned stimulus leads to an unconditioned response.

Unconditioned stimulus–unconditioned response pairings are unlearned and untrained.

A conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned response, and a conditioned stimulus–conditioned

Other phenomena related to classical conditioning are:

Extinction—When a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.

Spontaneous recovery—The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 12e IM-6 | 6

DEMONSTRATION: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Conduct a classical conditioning demonstration using the following methods:

The UCS was the: __________________________ (air puff)

The CS was the: __________________________ (whistle)

The UCR was the: __________________________ (eye blink)

The CR was the: __________________________ (eye blink)

OTHER EXAMPLES OF CONDITIONING PHENOMENA

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 12e IM-6 | 7

MEDIA PRESENTATION IDEAS:

TELEVISION SHOW: THE OFFICE

ADVERTISING: AMERICAN EXPRESS AD

MODULE 18: OPERANT CONDITIONING

18–1 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?

Operant conditioning is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending

THORNDIKE’S LAW OF EFFECT

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 12e IM-6 | 8

THE BASICS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

Reinforcement: The Central Concept of Operant Conditioning

Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

The Pros and Cons of Punishment: Why Reinforcement Beats Punishment

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 12e IM-6 | 9

Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life’s Rewards