● Haploid (n)

CELL DIVISION
● Production of two daughter cells that are ABOUT THE CHROMOSOMES
genetically identical to the parent cell Genome
● Also called cell reproduction ● Complete set of genetic information in an
○ Production of a whole organism organism
○ Occur in single-celled organisms ● Stored in chromosomes
○ 23 pairs of chromosomes in the
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION human genome
● Creation of offspring by a single parent ● Human Genome Project
○ No egg and sperm ○ Sequencing of the 23 pairs
○ Offsprings are called clones ○ 1990-2003
Homologous chromosomes
Reproduction in Prokaryotes ● Matched pairs of chromosomes (in somatic
● Mitosis is unnecessary because there is no cells)
nucleus or multiple chromosomes ● Same length, same locus (location of the gene)
○ May be different copies of genes as a
Binary fission result of different combinations of
● A type of cell division genes from parents
● Prokaryotes commonly have: ○ Results to variation in species
○ Single chromosome Sex chromosomes
○ Circular DNA ● Chromosomes involved in sex determination
○ Plasmid - small rings of DNA ● Different genes
carrying extra genetic material Chromatin
● A very fast process ● Complex of proteins and DNA that form the
○ Organisms that undergo binary fission chromosome
are able to grow in population rapidly ○ Proteins (e.g. histones)
● Origin - starting point of replication ● Coils up and tighten during cell division
○ Bidirectional DNA replication Chromatids
● FtsZ protein forms a ring that directs the ● One of the identical halves of a chromosome
formation of cleavage furrow and eventually a Centromere
septum ● Area of chromosome where spindle fibers
attach during cell division
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Telomere
● Requires the fusion of gametes ● Region of repetitive DNA sequences at the end
● Offspring produced are not genetically of a chromosome
identical, but resemble each other ● Protects the ends of the cell from tangles
○ Inherits a unique combination of ● Becomes shorter after each cell division
genes from the two parents ○ Until cell death
○ Leads to variation ○ The length of a chromosome’s
telomeres can determine the life span
Cells in the human body of the organism
1. Somatic cells
● Human body cells EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE
● Diploid (2n) - contains 2 copies of ● Process of cell growth and division producing
each chromosome 2 new daughter cells that are genetically
○ Where n is the single set of identical
chromosomes (e.g. 23 in ○ Two major phases:
humans) ■ Interphase
2. Gametes ■ Mitosis
● Sex cells, produced from the germ line
that eventually become the egg or INTERPHASE
sperm ● Where most of cell cycle is spent (90%)
 ● Very high metabolic activity by the cell
● Cellular respiration happens in interphase
● Creation of cytoplasmic materials, organelles,
etc.
● Phase of cell growth and DNA replication
○ Subphases:
■ G1 phase
■ S phase
■ G2 phase

1. Prophase
● Breaking of nuclear envelope
G1 phase ● Nucleolus disappears
● First “gap” phase; cells accumulate DNA, ● Centrosome move to opposite poles
proteins, and energy ● Mitotic spindle begins to form
S phase ○ Microtubules extend
● Formation of 2 identical copies of each ● Sister chromatids condense
chromosome (sister chromatids)
● Duplication of centrosome then give rise to
💡 What happens to golgi apparatus and ER during
this stage?
mitotic spindle ● The golgi apparatus and ER begin to break
○ A pair of centrioles that aid in cell down and disappear. This is because the cell
division, microtubule organizing is preparing for division, and these
center organelles are not needed during this
process.
○ Mitotic spindle
■ Apparatus that orchestrates
the movement of 2. Prometaphase
chromosomes during mitosis ● Chromosome and cytoskeleton
G2 phase connect to each other
● Replenishment of energy, protein synthesis ● Nuclear envelope breaks and
● Duplication of some organelles, dismantling of disappears
mitotic spindle ● Mitotic spindle continues to develop
and extend into the nuclear region
MITOSIS ● Mitotic spindle attach to the
● Unique to eukaryotic organisms kinetochore
● Separation of replicated DNA and cytoplasmic ○ Sister chromatids attach at the
contents kinetochore
○ First portion: 5 phases that result to ○ Kinetochore
nuclear division ■ proteinaceous
○ Second portion - cytokinesis structure that
● Highly accurate event mediates interactions
○ 1:100,000 error between chromosomal
DNA and
spindle-microtubule
polymers
3. Metaphase
● Mitotic spindle is fully formed
● Chromosomes align in the metaphase
plate/equatorial plane
● Chromosomes are most condensed
4. Anaphase
 ● Sister chromatids split apart at the ○ Cell plate grows outwards
centromere then fuse with the cell’s
○ Pulled toward the centrosome plasma membrane
■ Mitotic spindle ● Final result: two daughter cells with its
attached to the own plasma membrane & cell wall
kinetochores shorten
○ Unattached mitotic spindle ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING
lengthen CELL DIVISION
■ Poles move further Observations under tissue culture
apart and the cell 1. Anchorage dependence
elongates ● Cells must be in contact with a solid
5. Telophase surface (culture dish/extracellular
● Cell continues to elongate matrix) to divide
● Chromosomes decondense (uncoils) 2. Density-dependent inhibition
● Nuclear envelope forms ● Crowded cells stop dividing
● Mitotic spindle broken to monomers 3. Growth factors
—> cytoskeleton materials ● Cell division is only triggered by
presence of certain growth factors
Cytokinesis (proteins)
● Physical separation of cytoplasmic ○ Vascular endothelial
components growth factor
● Occurs simultaneously with telophase ■ Stimulates formation
of new blood vessels
In cells without cell walls: (in case of fetal
● Begins after the onset of anaphase development and
● Contractile ring forms injury)
○ Microfilaments (actin +
myosin) REGULATION OF CELL CYCLE
○ Constant pulling creates a Cell cycle control system
fissure/furrow ● Set of molecules that trigger and coordinate
key events in cell cycle
○ Growth factors as main signals
○ Signals come from intracellular and
extracellular origins
Checkpoints
● Stop and go-ahead signals during cell cycle
G1 ● Restriction point -
Checkpoint determines if cell
division can proceed or
not to S phase
● Checking of cell genome,
size, materials
● Go signal —> cell
proceeds to S phase
● Stop —> cell
permanently switches to
G0 phase

G2 ● Determines if cell
Checkpoint division can proceed or
not to mitosis
● Ensures that all
Cytokinesis in plant cells:
chromosomes were
● During telophase, membranous replicated and DNA is
vesicles align at the middle of the undamaged
parent cell
○ Contains cell wall materials M Checkpoint ● Occurs around the end
● Fusing of vesicles forming cell plate of metaphase
● Determines if sister
chromatids were
correctly attached to the
 mitotic spindle
○ Separation of
sister
chromatids is
irreversible
○ Spindle fibers
needs to be
anchored
correctly and
firmly into the
kinetochores

G0 Phase
● A phase when cells are not actively preparing
to divide
○ Could be triggered by signal molecules
○ True in some mature cells
■ Myocytes, neurons

CONCEPT APPLICATIONS
Cancer
● Uncontrolled cell division
● Replication errors (mutations) that are passed
onto daughter cells
○ Gene mutation - changes in DNA
nucleotide sequence within a gene
■ Results to non-functional
proteins
■ Increase speed in cell
reproduction due to
decreasing
■ Benign - mass stays in the
origin
■ Malignant - mass spreads
throughout different parts of
the body

Proto-oncogenes
● Genes that code for positive cell cycle
regulators
○ E.g. cyclin and Cdk
● Can mutate to become oncogenes which are
cancerous
○ A proto-oncogene that increases the
rate of cell cycle
○ Can override cell cycle checkpoints
Tumor suppressor genes
● Genes that code for negative cell cycle
regulators
○ Prevents cell from uncontrolled
division
○ Mutations could not halt problematic
cell cycle
■ E.g. p53 genes - activates
other genes to allow for DNA
repair
● Found in >50% of all
human tumor cells