Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40430-022-03834-y

TECHNICAL PAPER

Performance of modified gravitational water vortex turbine

through CFD for hydro power generation on micro‑scale
Miguel Angel Zamora‑Juárez1 · Víctor Hugo Guerra‑Cobián1 · Carlos Roberto Fonseca Ortiz2 ·
Boris Miguel López‑Rebollar2 · Adrián Leonardo Ferriño Fierro1 · José Luis Bruster Flores1

Received: 27 April 2022 / Accepted: 27 September 2022 / Published online: 21 October 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to The Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering 2022

Abstract
Gravitational water vortex turbine takes advantage of the formation of an artificially induced gravitational vortex in a free
surface tank, known as basin, for the generation of electrical power with low values of hydraulic head and flow rate. Since
this emerging and low-cost technology is still evaluated as a viable alternative to produce hydroelectric energy on the micro-
scale, the present work determines its performance with modified geometric parameters using Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) techniques. CFD analysis was based on a two-phase flow model covering the vortex formation and the vortex–blade
interaction to select an efficient geometric configuration of turbine. The results allowed us to visualize the dynamics of the
device, as well as to estimate the vortex height and the production of energy, elements that influence, mainly, the tangen-
tial and radial components of velocity. The values of efficiency, torque, and revolutions per minute indicate that a radius
coefficient Cr = 0.8 generates better energy absorption. This radius affects the structure of the vortex, mainly in the loss of
symmetry of air core, but increases the mechanical efficiency of the turbine based on torque generated. Overall, geometric
configuration with a pulse radius of 0.2 m and 8 blades showed the best performance with an efficiency of up to 64.23%.
Additionally, analysis showed that blade submergence between 90 and 95% induces a braking effect on the rear surfaces of
the blades and reduces the level of efficiency.

Keywords Gravitational vortex · Hydraulic turbine · Efficiency · Vortex height · CFD

Technical Editor: Erick Franklin.

1 Introduction
* Víctor Hugo Guerra‑Cobián
victor.guerracb@uanl.edu.mx Hydroelectric power plants operating by induced gravi-
Miguel Angel Zamora‑Juárez tational vortex (GWVT) are categorized as a micro-scale
mzamoraje@uanl.edu.mx system (< 10 kW), with a hydraulic head range of between
Carlos Roberto Fonseca Ortiz 0.7 m and 2.0 m, and have the characteristic of not requiring
crfonsecao@uaemex.mx a large water reserve or a complex infrastructure. This qual-
Boris Miguel López‑Rebollar ity makes it possible to reduce operating cost compared to
bmlopezr@uaemex.mx other conventional technologies, such as Francis or Kaplan
Adrián Leonardo Ferriño Fierro turbines [1, 2]. A microplant of this type generates elec-
adrian.ferrinofr@uanl.edu.mx tricity by entering the water from a channel in the basin
José Luis Bruster Flores of cylindrical or conical configuration, where the vortex is
jose.brusterflr@uanl.edu.mx induced by gravity due to the Coriolis force [3] and promotes
1 a uniform air core. Superimposed on the primary flow field
Facultad de Ingeniería Civil, Instituto de Ingeniería Civil,
Centro Internacional del Agua, Universidad Autónoma de (tangential component), the radial and axial components are
Nuevo León, Nuevo León, Av. Universidad s/n, Ciudad in the background and ensure the continuity of the discharge
Universitaria, 66455 San Nicolás de los Garza, Mexico to the orifice at the bottom [4]. Considering the forces gener-
2
Instituto Interamericano de Tecnología y Ciencias del ated by the components of vortex, the GWVT is positioned
Agua, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, in the center of the basin where the flow drives the blades
Carretera Toluca‑Atlacomulco km. 14.5 Toluca, mainly by tangential component of flow velocity and to a
50200 Estado de México, Mexico

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545 Page 2 of 19 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545
lesser extent by the radial and axial components[3]. There-
fore, the interaction of the fluid and the front surfaces of
blades induces an increase in momentum and produces the
torque required to rotate [5].
GWVT is considered an emerging technology, and there
are few works focused on its design, development, and
implementation. Since its appearance in 2004, proposed
by the Austrian engineer Franz Zotloterer, some research-
ers have focused their main attention on the analysis of the
basin and the geometry of the blades [6, 7]. For example,
Ullah et al. [8] determined the performance of a GWVT
divided into three sections analytically and experimentally.
The blades of each section have an external radius adjusted
to the convex profile of vortex according to its height with
respect to the bottom of the basin. Thus, the blades of each
level interact with the flow field of the air core as a func-
tion of the diameter generated. Authors conclude that each
section of the turbine has a certain level of independence
concerning energy production. The performance parameters
are related to rotational speed, torque, power, and efficiency,
all of them dependent on geometric variables: radius of run-
ners, separation distance between runners, among others.
Chattha et al. [9] evaluated various GWVT configurations
by applying Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The
study reported that if the velocity at the entrance of the basin
increases, the diameter of the vortex of whirlpool decreases,
vortex height increases, and components of tangential and
axial velocity also increase with minimal variation over the
radial velocity. However, the authors argue that the increase
in tangential velocity is conditioned with the correct form
in the structure of vortex.
Experimentally, Dhakal et al. [7] analyzed different
blades structures and determined that the maximum energy
potential can be extracted if the turbine body is installed
near the bottom of the tank due to the increased accelera-
tion in the tangential and axial components of velocity, as
well as the head generated by the vortex height. Sean et al.
[4] evaluated the effect of shape of the channel at entrance
of basin with the discharge and circulation of the vortex.
Inlet configurations promote fluid income tangentially to
decrease turbulence losses with circulating flow by varying
channel width. The results showed that the circulation field
is strongly related to the geometry of the input stream that
was characterized with a dimensionless parameter defined
as discharge number NQ . Additionally, tests indicated a
subcritical and unstable subcritical transient flow range
according to the Froude number (0.7 < Fi < 1). The use of
this type of technology is a convenient option to generate
additional benefits, such as 1) an important adaptability to
natural channels, both in urban and rural areas, resulting in a
minimally invasive system in ecosystem; 2) homogeneously
disseminate contaminants present in water; 3) increase water
aeration naturally due to high surface velocity; and 4) a set
13
of such turbines can be installed in a same river without
producing power variations between them[3, 7].
The evaluation of various geometric and operational
parameters is open to improving the performance of this
type of systems. Specifically, impulse radius and number
of blades are factors with considerable influence and inter-
est due to the flexibility provided by the infrastructure and
operation of microplant. In the case of conventional hydrau-
lic turbines, the impulse radius is usually a fixed parameter
with no margin of variation due to infrastructure issues. For
example, in Pelton-type turbines, the nozzle is the element
responsible for supplying the flow by converting the poten-
tial energy from water column into a high-speed jet directed
toward the buckets and generating the impulse to rotate
[10]. The position of runner is fixed by one or more nozzles
around supplying the fluid, so the radius is set at a certain
value [11, 12]. On the other hand, Francis turbine is char-
acterized by operating with a mixed flow (radial and axial)
within a spiral-shaped inlet housing and pipe. The hydrau-
lic head and shape of the turbine generate necessary flow
conditions with an operating pressure higher than atmos-
pheric (> 101.325kPa). Once the dimensions are established
according to available flow rate and hydraulic head, housing
is attached to the impulse radius and the inlet and outlet
pipes. In the same way, the Kaplan turbine depends on the
diameter of the pipe that conducts the flow [13]. The vari-
ation in flow in these last two types of turbines is usually
accompanied by significant increases in pressure or speed
that generate the presence of great stresses, cavitation, and/
or water hammers, damaging the turbine and other elements
increasing operating and maintenance costs [14, 15].
Due to the required infrastructure and its geometric char-
acteristics, GWVT has the flexibility to consider impulse
radius as an analysis factor. The diameter of basin allows a
flexible margin for this variable and tangential velocity with
respect to the center of the tank maintains a constant value to
be exploited[7]. Banki-Mitchell [16] and Savonius[17] tur-
bines are examples of turbines where impulse radius can be
adjusted based on infrastructure or available flow. However,
it is important to consider that the inlet flow directly impacts
the blade wall, operating in a frame similar to Pelton turbine.
On the other hand, the second geometric factor was selected
as the number of blades which is a parameter that directly
influences the torque used. Theoretically, a greater number
Nb of blades at the periphery of the runner would provide
greater torque; however, this assertion is not completely true.
The reduced opening between blades can generate signifi-
cant local losses due to the transition of flow between the
cavities and distort the air core in the turbine proposed [18].
The number of blades in GWVT's has not been established
by any analytical or empirical relationship. This parameter
has been adjusted in function of the shape and dimensions
of the blade used and the space available on the periphery
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545 Page 3 of 19 545

of the runner. For example, Ullah et al. [1] and Hanif et al.
[6] evaluate vortex turbines with 4 blades, while Nishi et al.
[19] use a model with 20 blades.
Experimentation is the most common method for evaluat-
ing the performance of hydraulic turbines[5, 8]. However,
experimental evaluation is time-consuming, can be expen-
sive, and does not provide detailed information on local
parameters because of complexity of its measurement [20].
Therefore, methods have been developed to reduce com-
plexity in this process, being the most used, Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) [21] that allows modeling, through
numerical schemes, the flow of mass and momentum of a
continuous flow from the Navier–Stokes equations [22]. Tra-
ditional CFD uses Eulerian approach, unlike the previous
Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) method based on
Lagrangian approach [23]–[25]. This specification requires
delimiting the control volume into small volumes where the
fluid defines its path in space according to conditions of
continuous medium (pressure gradient, temperature, veloc-
ity, among others), known as the Finite Volumes Method
[26]. The results of this analysis allow obtaining detailed
information at local level to evaluate the geometry of dif-
ferent elements (blades, caissons, runners, nozzles, pipes,
etc.) in such a system considering the relevance of geometric
and/or operational factors[27]. This type of approach has
been applied to model the operation of vortex turbines and
improve system performance. Although operation is rela-
tively simple in GWVT, vortex–blade interaction is complex
due to free surface conditions in air core.
This study evaluates efficiency in energy production
and the relevance of geometric parameters such as impulse
radius and number of blades in a GWVT utilizing CFD code
(using the commercial software ANSYS-CFX©)[28]. In this
case, the blade profile is based on the model generated by Fig. 1  General description of microhydro power plant: a lateral view
Zamora-Juarez, which operates in hydraulic expenses less and main elements of the system and b dimensions of the basin to
define the domain [6]
than 12.0l∕s and 0.5m . In parallel, the hydrodynamics of
each geometric configuration between the cross-sectional
area of entry between the blades and the turbulence pro- the turbine is the element responsible for converting the
duced are analyzed. In this way, it is intended to define an potential and/or kinetic energy of the fluid into mechanical
improved turbine model for generation of adaptable renew- energy [29, 30]. The diameter of outlet hole is recommended
able energy in urban or rural areas. in a range of between 14 and 20% of the diameter of basin
[6]. The diameter outlet was observed and maintained a ratio
of 0.2 times to the radius of the basin. To analyze the perfor-
2 Materials and method mance of the turbine in the basin, the following considera-
tions were applied in the model: a) Water is considered as
2.1 Hydraulic vortex conditions and turbine an incompressible and Newtonian fluid, that is, density and
efficiency indicators properties of water are constant as a function of time and/
or space; b) Upper face of basin and inlet channel is at a
Microhydroelectric power plant is made up of two main free surface, operating with a flow of water at atmospheric
elements: basin and turbine. Figure 1a shows a general out- pressure; c) The position of channel and the direction of the
line of the system and basic parameters for its qualitative flow are tangential to center of basin (based on Alzamora-
description. The basin, a tank with a cylindrical or conical Guzmán et al. [2]); and d) The analysis considers a station-
configuration, artificially induces vortex formation, while ary flow and continuous gradient of pressure and velocity

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(relative between the inlet and exit of the blades) minimizing
discontinuous changes of curvature in the design.
Considering the operation of the present microhydro-
electric plant, 3 water inflow values were established at
the inlet boundary: minimum ( Qin = 5.0l∕s ), medium or
nominal (Qin = 7.5l∕s), and maximum (Qin = 10.0l∕s). The
selection in water flow values was established according to
the evaluation carried out by Hanif et al. [6]. The authors
observed that, with the dimensions of the basin described
(Fig. 1b), the production of hydroelectric energy becomes
viable from a flow rate of 4.5l∕s considering the entry of
flow into the tank and the reach of a viable vortex height.
On the other hand, the maximum flow was proposed as a
maximum critical scenario, such as a considerable increase
in water level, seeking to analyze the increase in the height
of the vortex and the response of the turbine in the response
variables. Additionally, pumping and operation capacity was
considered in the volumetric capacity tank located in the
Hydraulics Laboratory of the Institute of Civil Engineering
𝜂t =
of the UANL (Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León by its
acronym in Spanish).
Under this operating range, Fig. 1b shows the dimensions
Ts =
of the basin according to studies by Hanif et al. [6]. The
effective head Hn is established as a reference position at the
flow inlet into the turbine. Based on the dimensions of the
basin, the turbine is positioned at a height of 0.1 m respect
the bottom of the tank, according to Nishi et al. [19]. A tur-
bine located higher than bottom of the tank has less potential
energy from hydraulic head and its operation is focused on
taking advantage of the kinetic energy of the flow. In that
Vin =
sense, it is important to consider that size of turbine and its
hydrodynamics considerably influence the physical attrib-
utes of the vortex. Therefore, the variation in the geometric
parameters, the size of turbine, and its hydrodynamics con-
siderably influence vortex formation and its height. So, the
variation in geometric parameters such as impulse radius and
number of blades generates a significant difference in the
fluid path and the discharge of the flow in the outlet orifice.
The efficiency 𝜂t (Eq. 1) of turbine is evaluated based
on the ratio between power generated by the turbine Pt [W]
and theoretical power Ps [W] at the input of system. Torque
Ts [N ⋅ m] (Eq. 2) is estimated from the impulse radius ⃗r [m]
and flow velocity V ��⃗ [m/s] [31]. This velocity is obtained
from the velocity polygon identified in the turbine blades
(Fig. 2). Net hydraulic head Hn(Eq. 3) considers both the
potential energy of vortex height Hv [m] and the kinetic
energy, a function of the velocity of basin inlet flow Vin
[m/s]. The input velocity Vin can be estimated from the width
of the inlet channel bin and the water depth at input channel
hin considering the principle of continuity with a uniform
flow (Eq. 4). As shown in Fig. 1, the net hydraulic head was
set as the reference position upstream of the water turbine,
where the water depth and flow velocity at that position were
13
taken into account for Hn . However, the downstream chan-
nel that continued from the hole of the tank bottom is not
fully filled with water. Therefore, we neglected the down-
stream water depth and flow velocity in the computation of
net hydraulic head.
In this case, the water tangentially enters basin forming
the vortex gradually and its tangential and axial velocity
component intensifies as water approaches the center of
tank. In general, the input and output of the flow can be
shown considering the tangential and normal components of
the velocity polygon of turbine [8]. According to Saleem
et al. [3], the maximum tangential velocity V1 is associated
2
2
with the height of vortex Hv = 1.7 ⋅ a1g = 1.7 ⋅ g1 , whereas
V V
[ ]
rotational speed of the turbine u1 ms can be understood as a
[ ]
product of angular velocity 𝜔t rads
and radius of the runner
at the inlet of the flow r1 [m].
Ps Ts ⋅ 𝜔 t
= (1)
Pt 𝜌 ⋅ g ⋅ Hn ⋅ Qin
∫
( )( )
��⃗ V
𝜌 ⃗r × V ��⃗ ⋅ 𝜕 A
�⃗ (2)
SC
Vin 2
Hn = Hv + (3)
2g
Qin
(4)
bin ⋅ hin
2.2 Geometric dimensioning of turbine
This paper presents a proposal for the geometric design of
blades and a design of experiments based on the variation in
impulse radius and number of blades. The shape of blade in
Fig. 2 is characterized by a curvature that allows it to adapt
adequately to the dynamics of vortex flow, but sufficient
perpendicularity to take advantage of the momentum of the
water, and provides a radial sliding effect before its discharge
in its axial component. Therefore, the velocity relative to the
exit of the blade w2 m∕s between the fluid and the speed of
rotation u2 m∕s maintains a radial direction only. The blade
has the quality of operating under a mixed flow like that of
a Francis turbine; however, the structure of turbine and the
orientation of blade allow it to operate under a tangential
flow regime for scenarios where the flow is even below the
minimum design. Additionally, the lateral cut from the upper
area to the lower plane of the blade allows the cutting of the
blade at the interface of the vortex structure to be gradual
and reduces local losses due to a change of direction, among
others [26, 32].
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545
Fig. 2  View of runner and velocity polygon at the blade
From the variation in impulse radius and the proposed
operating flow scenarios, the values of torque Ts angu-
lar velocity 𝜔t and mechanical power of the shaft Ps are
obtained. The radius of the turbine (factor 1) is associ-
ated with the momentum generated by fluid and can be
estimated through the angular momentum theorem for
permanent flow (Eq. 2) [33], where it represents the
torque generated by the blades Ts [N ⋅ m]. The evaluation
Page 5 of 19 545
of number of blades in turbines is usual to define their
impact on efficiency and energy production by the area of
entry between cavities related to local losses. Employing
a process similar to that used in Pelton turbines, this geo-
metric factor can be obtained by relating the inlet r1 and
outlet radius of the flow in the turbine r2 (Eq. 5) [18]. On
the other hand, the minimum threshold can be raised by
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Table 1  Factorial design for turbine 𝜕Vz 𝜕Vz Vr

+ + =0 (6)
Run order Block Radius of Number of Yates notation 𝜕r 𝜕z r
impulse blades
( 2
𝜕V𝜃 𝜕V 𝜕 V𝜃 𝜕V𝜃 V𝜃 𝜕 2 V𝜃
)
1 1 – – (1) VV
Vr + Vz 𝜃 − r 𝜃 = 𝜈 + − +
2 1 – + a 𝜕r 𝜕z r 𝜕r2 r𝜕r r2 𝜕z2
3 1 + – b (7)
4 1 + + ab
V 2
( 2
𝜕Vr 𝜕V 𝜕 Vr 𝜕Vr Vr 𝜕 2 Vr
)
𝜕P
Vr + Vz r − 𝜃 + =𝜈 + − +
𝜕r 𝜕z r 𝜌𝜕r 𝜕r2 r𝜕r r2 𝜕z2
(8)
the quotient between the torque required by the generator 2
𝜕Vz 𝜕Vz 𝜕 Vz 𝜕Vz 𝜕 2 Vr
( )
Tgen [N ⋅ m] and that generated per unit blade. 𝜕P
Vr + Vz + =g+𝜈 + + (9)
𝜕r 𝜕z 𝜌𝜕r 𝜕r2 r𝜕r 𝜕z2
𝜋 ⋅ r2
Nb =
0.2 ⋅ r1 (5) where r, 𝜃, z : axes of coordinate system; Vr , V𝜃 , Vz : radial,
tangential, and axial velocities, respectively; p : absolute
Considering the two factors to be evaluated, the design pressure; 𝜌 : fluid density; g : gravitational acceleration; 𝜐 ∶
of experiments is proposed in a complete factorial type kinematic viscosity.
with two levels (­ 22; Table 1). Each configuration is sub- Figure 3 shows computational domain consisting of a sec-
jected to the flow scenarios mentioned in Sect. 2.1. The tion of input channel, basin, turbine structure, and a section
variation in the inlet flow seeks to analyze the performance of the output orifice using a CAD (Computer-Aided Design)
under different operating conditions considering its effi- software. Numerical analysis using CFDs was performed
ciency𝜂t , the structure of vortex depending on the model with commercial software ANSYS-CFX 2021-R2 [25]. The
and the mechanical energy absorbed Ps . To identify the fluid domain is divided into two sections: the basin and the
levels of each factor, sign notation + ,- or Yates notation turbine. By nature, the biphasic phenomenon (air–water)
is used to easily represent and calculate the main effects was defined for analysis because of the air core resulting
of interest [30]. Additionally, to identify each configura- from the air–water interface [36]. The domain is discretized
tion, its name followed the structure "Turbina_ RadXXX _ using the Finite Volume Method (FVM) in two meshes cor-
NoAlabX ," where ' RadXXX ' indicates the impulse radius responding to basin domain and the domain near the turbine.
threshold and ' NoAlabXXX ' indicates the number of blades A structured mesh is adopted using a tetrahedron topology
at the periphery of the runner. to adjust the curvature of the turbine with an average ele-
ment size of 15 mm per edge with a refinement of 5 mm to
the turbine domain (Fig. 4). The number of elements and
2.3 CFD modeling nodes varies according to the size of the turbine modeled
(Table 2). Using the Element Quality Tool, it is possible to
The formation of air core in the vortex is generated as result
of interface between the velocity field regime between water
and air [4]. CFD analysis is based on a multiphase Eule-
rian approach of two fluids, occupying the same domain
and velocity field [6]. The temperature of the water and air
is defined at 25◦ C and considered with a reference pressure
of 101.325kPa(1atm). The buoyancy reference density was
established for the case of air with a value of 1.185(kg∕m3 ).
The equations that govern the operation of CFD are the
conservation of mass or continuity equation (Eq. 6) and the
Navier–Stokes equations (Eqs. 7, 8, and 9). The simplifi-
cation of equations is. The equations use a high-resolution
scheme with the physical terms of advection using a depend-
ent gradient factor [31]. Due to complexity of equations, it is
extremely difficult to obtain an analytical solution, so numer-
ical methods are used to obtain an approximate solution. The
general form of these equations for a uniform, incompress-
ible and turbulent flow [6, 7] at cylindrical coordinates is:
Fig. 3  3D model used for the analysis

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Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545 Page 7 of 19 545

Fig. 4  Meshing detail of the fluid domain of the basin and the turbine

Table 2  Mesh size variation ID Configuration of turbine Number of elements Number of nodes Element quality
Average Max

(1) Turbina_RadMin_NoAlab4 468 625 86 273 0.8480 1.0

a Turbina_RadMin_NoAlab8 507 421 93 671 0.8457 1.0
b Turbina_RadMax_NoAlab4 491 264 91 990 0.8404 1.0
ab Turbina_RadMax_NoAlab8 456 887 86 595 0.8383 0.99

keep track of the quality of the mesh. Additionally, the sen-
sitivity of mesh was analyzed based on the results of torque
and vortex height in the basin (Supplementary material A.
Mesh Sensitive Test).
The analysis was posted in pressure gradient ("Pressure-
based Solver") considering an incompressible ( 𝜌agua =
constant) and Newtonian flow. Due to the nature of the
phenomenon, it is considered a transient and biphasic flow
using the Volume of Fluid (VOF) multiphase algorithm,
which is suitable for applications where flow fields have a
defined boundary between two phases and are widely used
in the study of hydraulic turbines [19]. The selected advec-
tion scheme was high resolution, applying the First-order
Upwind. Turbulence phenomenon was established with the
mathematical model RNG 𝜅 − 𝜀 (K-Epsilon, kinetic energy,
and its dissipation rate)—'scalable' for the prediction of the
kinetic energy of turbulence in the basin [7]. The turbulence
model can solve the transportation problem of the develop-
ment of turbulent vortex with the downstream distance, by

Table 3  Boundary conditions considered in the turbine simulation

Boundary Boundary condition Element Parameter Value

Inlet Constant velocity Inlet channel Flow velocity inlet at the channel Vin = 0.222m∕s
Normal speed Vin = 0.333m∕s
Fluid: Water Vin = 0.444m∕s
Free surface Total pressure (stable) Upper surface at the Volume of air inside the domain 0Pa
Turbulence Intensity = 5% tank (free surface)
Fluid: Air
Outlet Average static pressure Flow outlet cylinder Dumping at a atmospheric pressure 0Pa
Pressure Profile Blend = 0.05 (inside tank)
Basin wall No slip – Stationary wall – – –
Turbine wall No slip—Stationary wall – – –

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545 Page 8 of 19 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545
Fig. 5  Velocity streamlines and fluid flow in the basin: a isometric
view of streamlines, b lateral view, and c profile of air core in the
basin
stablishing the relationship between the time-average vari-
ables and the fluctuating variables [37].
Modeling was performed without sliding conditions on
the tank wall and pressure relative to the outlet of 0Pa. The
interface between the stationary and the rotative domain was
modeled using the Multiple Reference Frame (MRF) method
13
Fig. 6  Contour and profile of tangential velocity in the plane ZX
adapting the interface surface and allowing the calculation
of the continuity of the flow in the boundary condition of
the zone adjacent. General Grid Interface (GGI) algorithm
provides an automatic adjustment function that can occur
with unsupported surfaces to preserve the transfer of infor-
mation between the generated meshes [6] [32]. Contrary to
the Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian (ALE) method, the MRF
is an approximation in which the mesh does not undergo
deformation or forced movement. About the interaction of
phases, the surface tension model was proposed by Con-
tinuum Surface Force with a surface tension coefficient of
0.072N∕m , where water is established as the primary fluid
and the transfer interface is defined in Free Surface, where
water is defined as ‘Primary fluid.’
Table 3 shows the boundary conditions estab-
lished for CFD modeling. The inlet flow rate was set
in three values: minimum ( Qin = 5.0 Ls ;Vin = 0.222 ms ),
medium ( Qin = 7.5 Ls ;Vin = 0.333 ms ), and maximum
(Qin = 10.0 Ls ;Vin = 0.444 ms ). Different flow values simulate
different scenarios to understand the performance margin
and response of the turbine. The water flow inlet is intro-
duced with normal velocity with 𝛼air = 0 and 𝛼water = 1.0 .
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545 Page 9 of 19 545

Fig. 7  Relation of torque per

blade and number of blades
in function of the radius of
impulse

Table 4  Hydraulic conditions Scenario Inlet massL flow

[ ]
Vortex height Froude number Inlet velocity
[ ]
Maximum tan-
of vortex obtained through CFD Qin s Vin ms
rate gential velocity
[ ]
Hv [m]
modeling of basin without the V𝛼1 ms
turbine
Minimum 5.0 0.2889 0.18 0.222 1.2611
Medium 7.5 0.3368 0.27 0.333 1.3941
Maximum 10.0 0.4214 0.44 0.444 1.5593

specifications of a commercial generator (model F20, 'Goso

Table 5  Design of experiments of geometric configuration of turbine
Technology'; 20 W). The period of analysis of the transient
Run order Yates notation External radius Number phenomenon was proposed in 20 s of operation to achieve a
r1 [m] of blades level of stabilization in the values of mass flow in the areas
Nb
of inlet and outlet (principle of continuity).
1 (1) 0.1 4
2 a 0.1 8
3 b 0.2 4
4 ab 0.2 8 3 Results and discussion

3.1 Basin analysis and threshold estimation

These input parameters are valid for cases with and without
turbine in the domain. Upper zone (Free Surface) is desig-
nated as an air flow inlet (relative static pressure of 0 Pa)
to establish the free surface condition. For the outlet zone,
an average static pressure of 0 Pa is declared. System ini-
tialization is set to a volume fraction of 𝛼air = 1.0 air and
velocity values assuming a vacuum condition at the start of
the domain-wide analysis. The domain of the basin is identi-
fied as stationary, and the one corresponding to the turbine
was defined in rotation concerning the Y-axis with a speed
of 30 rpm for cases of maximum radius ( +) and 60 rpm
for models with minimum radius (-), where Timestep is set
to 0.025 s. The selection for rotational speed is based on
The base hydrodynamic behavior of the system was con-
ceived from the flow domain and the vortex profile in the
convergence between the vortex formation and the stabili-
zation in the symmetry of the flow profile (i.e., compliance
with the principle of conservation of mass at inlet and outlet
of the domain) without considering the turbine body (Fig. 5a
and 5b). Most of the cases presented a stabilization at the
instant t = 12.5s. Additionally, the ‘Supplementary material
A. Mesh sensitive test’ presents an analysis of mesh sensi-
tivity and the effect on the numerical results to ensure their
reliability in this work.
The vortex formation was properly generated with the
minimum operating flow Qin = 5.0L∕s reaching a height of

13
545 Page 10 of 19
Hv = 0.29m and a stable and symmetrical air core (Fig. 5c).
The input channel influenced the variation in the vortex
height and generated an increase in tangential velocity of
0.222ms to 0.85m∕s . Increasing this parameter encourages
rapid water discharge by the overall reduction in height
at water level, potential energy, and water coverage in the
turbine structure. With the decrease in height inside the
basin, the friction generated in the lower wall of the basin is
increased with the value of smaller diameter outlet, and the
proposed dimensions provided a symmetrical structure in
the air core, suitable for energy production.
Figure 6 shows the tangential velocity profile in the ZX
plane at the height matching the turbine location. The maxi-
mum tangential velocity showed a peak value of 1.26m∕s ,
being a value very close to the estimated (Va1 = 1.293 ms ).
This represents a reliable approximation with the analytical
values as part of validation for the turbine design. The point
to the center of the basin where the maximum speed is pre-
sented is rturb = 6cm . This radius range allows us to assume
that the velocity and momentum generated by the rotation
of vortex field covers an area that can be used depending on
the pulse radius. The internal radius of the runner r2 was set
Fig. 8  Results obtained through CFD for different geometric configurations of turbine
13
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545
at a value of 4 cm , coinciding with the diameter of the air
core near the bottom of the basin (Fig. 7).
The ratio between the vortex height, velocity, and the
effect of the torque on the flow rate has increased consider-
ably (Table 4). The values for the mean (nominal operating)
and maximum scenarios showed an increase in the tangen-
tial velocity of Va1 0.13 ms (10.3%)and0.29 ms (23.0%), respec-
tively, relative to the minimum flow scenario. The velocity
difference does not indicate a considerable increase in the
rotational speed of the turbine compared to mass flow differ-
ence. Such a conjecture allows us to suppose that the turbine
presents an important tendency of stability in the face of
scenarios off-design or extreme events (deficit or excess).
However, in seasons with increased inflow, mechanical
efficiency (associated with torque) may decrease by main-
taining a similar range of angular velocity despite having a
larger volume of water. From this point, it seems feasible to
consider torque as a design parameter by adapting better to
the variation in the flow, but it must be considered that the
dimensions of the turbine would modify the behavior of the
vortex and the height of the water level in the basin.
The minimum threshold of the impulse radius was deter-
mined by the angular momentum theorem (Eq. 2), where the
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545
r1 = 10cm was proposed where a value of torque per blade
T��⃗s = 0.4190N ⋅ m and a minimum number of blades were
Fig. 9  Vortex–blade interaction in the case of radius of impulse of
0.2 m in the expected scenarios
variables are the minimum torque imposed by the genera-
torTgen = 1.672N ⋅ m, the angular velocity of the turbine, a
𝜔t = 60rpm = 6.283 rad s
; minimum flow rate to operate of,
Qin = 5 Ls ; an internal turbine radius, r2 = 4cm = 0.04m; an
inlet angle, 𝛽1 = 66.6◦; a maximum tangential speed induced
by the vortex of Va1 = 1.293 ms and a rotational speed; and at
Page 11 of 19 545
the e x( i t )o f the turbine
ofu2 = 𝜔t ⋅ r2 = 6.283 rad ⋅ (0.04m) = 0.251 m . The previously
s s
analyzed tangential velocity profile (Fig. 6) shows higher
velocity values in the area near the outlet and the turbine can
take advantage of this regime to absorb some of that kinetic
energy from the internal radiusr2 = 4cm.
The value of r1 was established by a numerical approxi-
mation relating the velocity polygons and the velocity val-
ues obtained from this initial analysis with CFD. Consid-
ering the established value of internal radius ( r2 = 4cm)
and the geometry of the blade, a minimum input radius
estimated Nb = 3.99 ≅ 4 (Fig. 7). In this way, the maximum
number of blades ( Nb = 7.854 ≅ 8) was determined consid-
ering an internal radius r2 = 0.04m and the proposed maxi-
mum radius r1 = 0.2m (Table 5).
3.2 Selecting geometric settings based
on numerical results
Figure 9 shows the results of vortex height, Hv , net hydraulic
head, Hn , and theoretical power indicators, Pt , mechanical
power, Ps, and torque, Ts , for the three proposed water flow
values. The parameters were estimated using Eqs. 1, 2, and
3. Under the proposed factorial design, the models with
maximum values (ab) presented the highest efficiency for the
three operating scenarios (between 0.3 and 0.5 with a mean
of 0.4; Fig. 8a). However, in this model, a greater differ-
ence in the efficiency value between the operating conditions
was observed (up to 40% difference between the highest and
lowest flow). The efficiency behavior is explained, for the
most part, by the turbine's ability to absorb energy based on
the impulse radius. In general, models with a larger pulse
radius (configurations b and ab) had up to 2.7 times greater
momentum compared to the smaller radius models (models
(1) and a; Fig. 9b). This implied that the hydraulic head
decreased by half on average to 50% (Fig. 9c).
The reduction in the hydraulic head was influenced in
a negligible way depending on the number of blades since
a decrease of 10% was observed for both major and minor
radius. However, the number of blades provided dichoto-
mous behavior relative to torque. For smaller radius (models
a and (1)), torque increased by 28% but, for larger radius
(models ab and b) torque decreased by 11%. This allowed
us to infer that the number of blades stabilized the angular
velocity since the mechanical power (Fig. 9d) showed an
increase of 22% for smaller radius and a reduction of 9%
for larger radius. In addition, it was observed that a smaller
number of blades (models (1) and b) provide less variation
in hydraulic head (between 5 and 14%) depending on the
operating flow and the vortex maintains a stable air-core
13
545 Page 12 of 19
Fig. 10  Principal effects of response variables in the minimum scenario Qin = 5.0L∕s: a net hydraulic head, b torque, c mechanical power y, d
efficiency
structure compared to the radius ( +) models. In these mod-
els, the torque Ts presented a decreasing behavior compared
to the vortex height Hv due to the lower ratio of fluid–struc-
ture interaction. In cases of smaller radius (-), the varia-
tion in velocity represents a factor of weight in efficiency,
but the low variations previously observed indicate that a
higher supply flow does not generate a proportional increase
in mechanical energy.
As the input flow increased, an increase in surface, tan-
gential, axial, and torque velocity was observed. The vor-
tex height Hv and torque Ts were identified as parameters
of special interest. The vortex height showed significant
variations depending on the dimensions of the turbine. This
phenomenon results from a decrease in tangential velocity
and a corresponding increase in the radial and axial velocity
components. The potential energy of the water column was
offset by an increase in kinetic energy with greater velocity
in the zone of blades near the inlet channel and, in general,
in the water surface area. However, as the area of interaction
of the fluid increased, there was an increase in momentum.
In the proposed scenarios, the torque value was doubled
up to twice compared to configurations with smaller pulse
13
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545
radius and fewer blades. Configurations with larger radius
operate at lower angular velocities and increase the magni-
tude of torque. On the other hand, a pulse radius of 0.1 m
maintains an approximate speed ratio of 2:1, operating at
higher speeds. However, for high flow rates, the tendency to
increase the speed of rotation is not linear.
Concerning other GWVT works, Alzamora-Guzmán [2]
reports an average efficiency of 35% of the turbine and an
overall system efficiency of 17.5% of electricity production.
Saleem et al. [3] conducted a literature review of work with
vortex turbines where they reported mechanical efficiencies
of 28%, 35%, 79%, and 15%. Nishi et al. [19] achieved a
maximum efficiency of 50%. Most of these works consid-
erably respect the stable vortex structure taking advantage
of the high surface velocity of the air core. However, if
the turbine breaks this structure, it encourages an increase
in torque. Compared to other systems, the configuration
selected in this work with impulse radius can reach operat-
ing levels like those 0.20m analyzed by Nishi et al. The dif-
ference in yields is partly due to variations in the geometric
configuration of each model. In the present work, the shape
of the blades is part of the innovation of the turbine model
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545
Fig. 11  Principal effects of response variables in the nominal scenario Qin = 7.5L∕s: a net hydraulic head, b torque, c mechanical power y, d
efficiency
for its curvature and ability to adapt to the dynamics of the
flow reducing local and turbulence losses.
The distribution of tangential velocity along the blade
reveals information about the absorption of energy as a
function of the input flow rate (Fig. 9a) and the relationship
with the loss of kinetic energy in the fluid (Fig. 9b). It can
be seen that the area with the highest speed and impulse
occurs between 35 and 70% of the distance between the
axis and the basin (ratio of radius Cr ) reaching a maximum
of 2.16m∕s . The reduction in velocity near the wall of the
blade is part of the process of energy absorption due to the
deacceleration of the fluid and its conversion into mechani-
cal energy. As the flow rate decreases, the average veloc-
ity presents greater variations in its slope. In the maximum
flow scenario, the interaction range of the coefficient oper-
ates between Cr ∈ [0.35, 0.75] considerably increasing the
momentum. For the minimum flow scenario, the interaction
is reduced by an interval [0.55, 0.74]. The modeling showed
the filling of the basin where initially a radial flow predomi-
nates, and as the hydraulic head increases, the tangential
component increases proportionally. Similarly, with the
increase in hydraulic head and the nature of the vortex, the
Page 13 of 19 545
suction effect presented an increase in the axial component.
Therefore, the alternative of modifying the geometry of the
wall in this area to take advantage of the axial component
of the speed was proposed. In the geometric modification, it
was convenient to reduce the impulse diameter to an inter-
mediate value to those initially proposed since increasing
the interaction between the blade and the fluid causes greater
friction losses.
Compared to the number of blades, the impulse radius
represents the variable with the highest sensitivity to vor-
tex height, torque, mechanical power, and efficiency. The
vortex height represents a decrease between 45 and 46%
depending on the radius while, for the number of blades,
the difference is between 3 and 16% for the three operating
flows (figs. 10a, 11a, and 12a). The torque showed a propor-
tional increase between 0.35 and 0.7 depending on the radius
while depending on the number of blades a negligible vari-
ation was observed (Figs. 10b, 11b, and 12b). This increase
is understandable due to the increase in the impulse area
and the distance from the center of the turbine. Mechani-
cal energy (Figs. 10c, 11c, and 12c), as well as efficiency
13
545 Page 14 of 19
Fig. 12  Principal effects of response variables in the maximum scenario Qin = 10.0L∕s: a net hydraulic head, b torque, c mechanical power y, d
efficiency
(Figs. 10d, 11d, and 12d), showed similar behavior with an
increase of up to 121% depending on the radius.
Of special interest are the cases of mechanical power
and the efficiency achieved. The mechanical power shows
that the factors have a strong influence in scenarios with
flows greater than Qin = 7.5l∕s having a similar variation
of 0.35W . On the other hand, the impulse radius shows a
marked influence on the minimum scenario increasing the
mechanical power by 0.4W . Therefore, it is established that
for scenarios with flows greater than 10.0l∕s the radius r1
shows a significant increase in energy absorption increasing
its length to near the wall of the basin.
Considering the results of simulations and the main
effects graphs, the "Turbine _ RadMax _ NoAlab8" configu-
ration was established as the most suitable model, which
corresponds to a radius r1 = 0.2m and Nb = 8blades operat-
ing in a flow range of 5.0 − 7.5 sl . In general, the maximum
thresholds of impulse radius and number of blades show a
very important influence on torque, mechanical power, and
efficiency. In terms of performance and use of mechanical
13
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545
energy, a large turbine with a large interaction area is con-
venient despite affecting the structure of the air core.
3.3 Performance analysis of the selected model
The performance of the selected turbine model was evalu-
ated using net hydraulic head Hn , mechanical power on the
shaft Pm, and mechanical efficiency 𝜂. With different angular
velocities, the performance presented behaviors similar to
those observed by Nishi et al. [19]. The hydraulic head tends
to converge for flows less than 12.0l∕s (Fig. 13a). Mechanical
power shows an average increase of 9.12% between 30 and
40 rpm (Fig. 13b). However, due to the decrease in torque
to maintain angular velocities, efficiency shows an average
decrease of 7.06% from 40 rpm (Fig. 13c). Considering elas-
ticity as the ratio between proportional variations in effi-
ciency relative to mechanical power, an average increase in
efficiency 3.33 times greater than mechanical power between
30 and 35 rpm can be observed (Fig. 13d). However, from
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545
Fig. 13  Performance of turbine selected
that speed, the efficiency decreases by 3.92% compared to
the mechanical power.
Therefore, these curves show that the Best Efficient Point
(BEP) is presented between 35 and 40 rpm for all differ-
ent scenarios. The maximum efficiency reached a value of
64.23% associated with a flow rate of 4.0l∕s and 35 rpm.
In the case of flows of 9.0 and 12.0l∕s , the optimal rota-
tion value was approximately 40 rpm. For efficiency of at
least 50%, a flow rate is between 4.0 and 6.0l∕s. The turbine
model shows efficient operation with low flow values. How-
ever, considering the values of proportional variations, the
most efficient flow interval is reduced between 6.0l∕s and
7.5l∕s by the reason of the change of efficiency to mechani-
cal power. On the other hand, the associated net hydraulic
head increases proportionally as the inlet flow increases,
except for the flow rate of 12.0l∕s , observing a difference
of up to 5.5cm for 50 rpm. In addition, information about
experimental results is include at ‘Supplementary material
B. Experimental stage.’
The distribution of velocities in simulations allowed us to
analyze the blade submergence or coverage of water in the
Page 15 of 19 545
structure. As greater submergence increases the hydraulic
head, the angle of attack of the profile remains in an upright
position to the tangential direction of the flow inlet. The
blade submergence depended on two aspects: the vortex
height and the speed of rotation of the turbine relative to air
core (Fig. 14a). The degree of immersion is not necessar-
ily a function of a higher inlet flow. For a turbine speed of
35 rpm, the second lowest submergence is presented with
a maximum value of 87.20% for 12.0l∕s and a minimum
of 24.60% for 4.0l∕s and coincides with the best efficiency
values as observed in Fig. 13c. Therefore, it is established
that the hydrodynamics of the turbine is better adapted
to speeds greater than 35 rpm, and rotation values of the
turbine greater than that point maintain an adequate blade
submergence-efficiency ratio. The correspondence of the
distortion of the curves can be associated with the efficiency
and the bell shape in the curve of this parameter upon reach-
ing the optimal point of operation (35–40 rpm) hydrody-
namics of the model indicates a better process of adaptation
to the dynamics of the vortex and operating in the desired
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545 Page 16 of 19 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545
Fig. 14  Influence of blade submergence in the turbine: a submer-
gence rate according to water flow inlet, y b torque generated
condition, where the front faces have larger immersion than
rear surfaces.
Figure 14b shows the torque response according to the
blade submergence, fulfilling the trend that values close to
100% provide greater torque, especially for 30 rpm. How-
ever, the higher torque values do not match the higher effi-
ciency values. The 30-rpm rotational speed response vari-
ables showed the lowest efficiency rate for all flow scenarios
compared to the rest of the rotational speeds, including at
50 rpm which is further away from the optimal performance
zone. Therefore, it is established that torque is the parameter
to consider for the use, provided that a range of coverage or
immersion of the turbine is less than 90%.
The braking phenomenon is shown in Table 6 which
shows the fraction of volume covered in what corresponds
to the profile of the turbine and the blades located at a height
of 0.1m to the bottom of the basin in the period t = 20s. The
profiles corresponding to the 30-rpm column show a con-
siderable presence of fluid on the rear faces of the blades to
the rest of the columns in the table. The volume fraction for
35 and 40 rpm shows a noticeable difference up to values
greater than 7.5l∕s where the coverage is significant, and the
front face of the blade shows an important interaction with
the vortex and a minimum interaction of water with the rear
areas, in conditions like impulse turbines.
13
4 Conclusions
The performance of a GWVT was analyzed from the esti-
mated efficiency as a function of the pulse radius, runner
size, and operating flow. To do this, the CFD allowed deter-
mining the distribution of fluid velocities through the struc-
ture of the proposed models, from an experimental design
(knowing the nature of the vortex phenomenon and hydrau-
lic parameters at the inlet and outlet of the turbine). The
model with the largest radius (0.2 m) and the highest number
of blades (8) among those considered ("Turbina_ RadMax
_"NoAlab8) presented the best results according to the per-
formance indicators. The estimated efficiency for this model
showed an average of 𝜂t = 39.85%,a maximum of 64.23%,
with values similar to those reported by other authors.
The geometric parameter with the greatest influence on
performance was the impulse radius where the models with
greater length (0.2 m) have greater efficiency and energy
production. However, the structure of the vortex is uneven
and symmetrical due to the rapid discharge of the flow. The
number of blades showed an important relationship with the
increase in mechanical energy but less for torque and effi-
ciency. At flows close to 10.0l∕s the effect on the height of
the vortex is minimal (1.5 cm) compared to other scenarios.
Therefore, in high flow rates, it is convenient to increase the
blades in the runner and increase the operating torque.
The analysis of adjusted means showed the relationship of
each geometric factor for different response variables. The
impulse radius was positioned as the factor with the great-
est impact on the device, both for hydraulic parameters and
mechanical aspects. The number of blades presented a lower
inference in the evaluated scenarios. However, for the maxi-
mum scenario, the difference was greatly reduced, mainly of
efficiency and mechanical power. This allows us to infer that
for scenarios with flow rates greater than 10.0l∕s a runner
with a high number of blades is suggested rather than con-
sidering a high pulse radius. Additionally, the interaction of
momentum and flow velocity over the turbine was analyzed.
It was observed that as the flow value and the radius coef-
ficient Cr increase, the net value of the torque in the blades
increases. Therefore, the loss of vortex structure a benefit in
the transmission of energy.
One aspect that influenced performance was the blade
submergence or immersion in the turbine. The degree of
immersion in the front faces takes advantage of the momen-
tum to convert the kinetic energy and potential of the fluid
into mechanical energy. Immersion greater than 90% slows
down the rotational speed and affects efficiency despite the
increase in torque. For what is recommended to keep this
parameter at a value lower than the mentioned, overall gen-
erators operate at low values of rotational speed. Another
observation was that, due to the infrastructure and the
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545 Page 17 of 19 545

Table 6  Blade submergence rates in the turbine selected

Revolutions per minute
30.0 35.0 40.0 50.0

5.0

6.0
Water flow inlet [l/s]

7.5

9.0

10.0

Volume
fraction
scale

geometric nature of the turbine, it is possible to modify the showed an important influence on the height of the vortex.
conditions depending on the available flow according to the Considering the torque values, it would be convenient to
season. For example, for low flows, a high number of blades disassemble half of the blades and operate only with 4 in the

13
545 Page 18 of 19 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2022) 44:545
runner. This may be associated with seasons where rainfall is
scarce and the volume of water available decreases. On the
other hand, for wet seasons it would be convenient to imple-
ment the 8 blades considering that, according to the graphs
of main effects, the average is minimal (1 cm) compared to
that of the impulse radius + (0.11 m). It can be suggested that
the turbine is adaptable (reducing the number of blades or
changing blades with a smaller impulse radius) depending
on the flow rate for wet or dry seasons. Additionally, the
model is viable to be implemented both in natural channels
within urban and rural areas and as tertiary treatment within
wastewater treatment plants.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen-
tary material available at https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s40430-​022-​03834-y.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the support
received from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACyT).
Translation certified by Prof. Edgar Diz CTP 64500 (+ 52 722 901
0675).
Author’s contribution MAZJ took part in conceptualization, meth-
odology, validation, formal analysis, investigation, writing—original
draft. VHGC involved in conceptualization, methodology, supervision,
resources, and writing—review and editing. CRFO involved in formal
analysis, supervision, investigation, and writing—review and editing.
BMLR took part in software, methodology, and visualization. ALFF
took part in supervision, funding acquisition, and writing—review and
editing. JLBF involved in methodology, validation, and review and
editing.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no known com-
peting financial interests or personal relationships that could have ap-
peared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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