Chapter 5

Fundamentals of Autopilot Design

No Attribute Human pilot Autopilot and avionics

.
1 Mathematical Pilot has a limited ability to
operation perform calculations in flight
2 Pressure limit 0.75 – 1 atm
3 Temperature limit 50 – 120 oC
4 Acceleration 1–9g
5 Orientation Upright (on the seat)
6 Upgradability Pilots cannot be upgraded.
7 Survivability Pilots are able to react to any
unexpected situations, and
survive.
8 Visual performance The eye can see only in visual
bands (400 – 700 nm)
9 Recognition/ Able to recognize objects only
detection in short distance.
10 Endurance 8 – 12 hours, rest is required.
11 Communication Talk, hear, see, and type
commands. Incapable of
detecting radio frequencies and
radar signals.
12 Facing risk Avoids dangerous arenas.
Table 5.1. Comparison technical between features of a human pilot and an autopilot and avionics
Autopilot’s computer can perform
millions of calculations per second.
Mechanical-electric-avionic
equipment can perform under any
pressure; even in vacuum.
-20 – 180 oC
0 – 50 g
No limit (upright, up down, or
sideward).
Major upgrades in autopilot and
avionics occur every few years.
Autopilot can only perform as
programmed, and will crash in
undefined flight conditions.
Can operate in day/night using
optical/IR sensors and radars.
Barely able to recognize objects.
Can detect some objects in long
distance.
Can work for months/years.
No verbal communication (sound
sensors). Radio frequencies are
employed.
Does not care about dangerous
situations.

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 Motion
Mission Command variable
Guidance Control UAV
Actuator
system system dynamics

Measured
variable
Navigation system

Figure 5.1. Control, guidance and navigation systems in an autopilot.

Input Output
K

Figure 5.2. A basic closed-loop system

Dynamic model

Time invariant Time varying

Linear Nonlinear Linear Nonlinear

Coupled Decoupled Coupled Decoupled Coupled Decoupled Coupled Decoupled

Figure 5.3. Classes of dynamic models

2
x
L
LA

cg
y D

MA NA
z

Figure 5.4. Coordinate axes, aerodynamic forces and moments

3
 cg

Rolling moment Vertical tail lift

 
Figure 5.5. Effect of directional motion on lateral motion

Yawing moment
cg


Vertical tail lift

 
Figure 5.6. Effect of lateral motion on directional motion

4
 2
x

+ _
3

l 4
y

Figure 5.7. Direction of propeller rotation for each motor (Top-view)

F1
F2
Fz
z
F4
F3

Fx
x

cg
W

Figure 5.8. Lift and thrust forces (side-view with a pitch angle); wind-axis coordinate system

5
 T (N)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 rpm

Figure 5.9. Variations of thrust of a small electric motor versus its rotational speed

Torque 0.07
(Nm) 0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 rpm

Figure 5.10. Variations of torque of a small electric motor versus its rotational speed

6
=0  𝞇
Yaw Rudder  ( s)
actuator
controller  R ( s)
ψ̇ Yaw rate gyro
H(s) = s

Figure 5.11. Block diagram of a yaw damper

Figure 5.12. General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper (derived from Predator B)

1. Decreasing flight speed (Constant-altitude, constant-lift coefficient flight)

2. Increasing altitude (Constant-airspeed, constant-lift coefficient flight)

3. Decreasing angle of attack (Constant-altitude, constant-airspeed flight)

Figure 5.13. Three options of interest for a continuous decrease of the lift during cruise

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Figure 5.14. NASA ALTUS II

8
 Table 5.2. Autopilot categories

Category 1 2 3 4
:
No Stability Hold functions Navigation functions Command
Augmentation Longitudinal Lateral-Directional Longitudinal Lateral- Augmentation
Systems (SAS) Directional Systems (CAS)
1 Roll damper Pitch Bank angle hold Automatic flare Localizer Command tracking
Attitude hold () (wing leveler mode 1- Pitch rate CAS
2- Roll rate CAS
2 Yaw damper Altitude hold (h) Heading angle hold Glide slope VOR hold Command
() hold generator tracker1
(Model following)
3 Pitch damper Control wheel Turn rate mode at Approach Turn Normal
steering mode constant speed and categories and coordination acceleration CAS
altitude guidance (n z )
4 - Speed/Mach hold - Automatic - -
landing

1
Time varying trajectories

9
 Interface

Figure 5.15. Ground-based equipment simulator

20

15 y1
y2
y3
10

5
3
y , y, y
2
1

-5

-10

-15
0 5 10 15
Time (sec)

Figure 5.16. Results of simulation

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 Design requirements
(Controllability, stability, operational, cost, structural, weight)

Functional analysis

Autopilot configuration design

Navigation system Guidance system Control system

Determine navigation law Determine guidance law Determine control law

Design navigation Design guidance Design control

equipment equipment equipment

Integration

No
Evaluation (Requirements Satisfied)?

Yes
Optimization

Figure 5.17. Autopilot design process

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