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COMPUTER STUDIES FORM 1
NOTE PACK
1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
DEFINATION OF TERMS
• COMPUTER: it is an electronic device that can process
data into information by influence of special
instruction(programs).
• Data: these are raw facts that don’t have much
meaning to the user and may include letters numbers
and symbols.
• Process: this is the manipulation of data into meaningful
information.
Prepared By Tr. John @Cute Ideas Ent 2

1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
• Information – this is the processed data that is meaningful
to the user.
Input Output
(data) process (information)
e.g. 1,3 e.g. addition e.g. 4

(1+3)
• Information Communication Technology(ICT) – this is

integration of computers and telecommunication facilities
for the purpose of communication.

Why is a computer regarded to as an
electronic device?
• Utilizes electrical signals to process data.
• It is powered by electricity
• It is made up of electronic components.

Physical components of a computer
• A typical desktop computer is basically made up of a
system unit and other devices connected to the system
unit called peripheral devices.

a. System unit
• This is the part that houses the brain of the computer
(CPU).
• The system unit also houses devices known as drives.
• Drives are used to store, record and read data e.g. hard
disk drive, floppy disk drive, optical disk drive.
• There are two types of system units in the market today:
• Tower
• desktop

Tower vs. desktop

Historical Development of computers
• History of computers can be looked at in two periods:
• The pre-electronic age
• Computer generations

a. The pre-electronic age
Abacus
• Consists of beads that move along rods.
• The beads are separated by a middle bar whereby there are
two beads above the rod each with a value of five units and
five beads below each having a value of one unit.
• To represent a value, you bring the equivalent beads close to
the crossbar.

Abacus (cont)

Representing numbers on Abacus
1. 543
5+0 0+4 0+3

2. 890
5+3 5+4 0+0

• 69
• 533
• 301
• 297

Other inventions
Invention inventor
Logarithm John Napier
VACUUM TUBES Lee De Forest
Napier bones John Napier
Calculating machine to add and Blaise Pascal
subtract
Tabulator machine Herman Hollerith
Slide Rule William Oughted
Boolean Algebra George Boole
Binary code Francis Bacon
Jacquard Loom Jacquard
Calculating machine to multiply and Gottfried Von Leibniz
divide
Magnetic storage media principles Valdemar Poulson
Electronic Computers
Computer Generations Analytical
• Charles Babbage is considered to be engine
the “father of computing” because
he came up with a device known as
the analytical engine.
• John Von Neumann gave a report on
the design of the computer of today.
• This started the age of electronic
computers.
• Electronic computers are classified
into five generations depending on
the technology used to develop
them.
• Each generation is characterized by
similarities in the technology.

1. First generation computers(1940s to 1950s)
Technology used was vacuum tube or thermionic valves.
characteristics
• Emitted a lot of heat
• Consumed a lot of power
• Generated a lot of heat.
• Very unreliable
• Were difficult to program, use and maintain
• Used magnetic drum memories
• Very large in size
• Were very slow, Computed 10 kilo instructions per minute
• Input was based on punched cards and paper tape
• Memory size was 2 kilobytes(RAM)
Examples include:
• Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC)
• Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC)
• Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC)
• IBM 650 Prepared By Tr. John @Cute Ideas Ent 17
Computer Generations(cont..)
First generation computers(cont..)
Advantages of 1st Generation computers
• Vacuum tube technology made it possible for development of
electronic digital computers.
• Were the fastest calculating devices at that time.
Disadvantages of 1st Generation computers
• Very costly
• Consumed a lot of power
• Generated a lot of heat
• Not portable
• Occupied a lot of space
• Maintenance cost was high due to frequent hardware failure

2. Second generation computers(1950s to 1960s)
Technology used was transistors
characteristics
• Emitted less heat
• Cheaper compared to first generation of computers
• Smaller in size compared to First generation
• Faster than first generation of computers
• Consumed less power compared to first generation
• Used magnetic core memories
• Used assembly language and high level languages such as FORTRAN and
COBOL.
• Computed 20,000 – 30,000 instructions per second.
• Used magnetic tape for data storage
• Relied on punched cards for inputs and printouts for output.
Examples include:
• IBM 7094
• IBM 1401
• UNIVAC 1107
3. Third generation computers(1960s to 1970s)
Technology used was integrated circuits.
A single IC has many transistors and the associated circuitry.
The IC was invented by Jack Kibly.
Characteristics
• Emitted less heat
• More reliable
• Cheaper compared to second generation of computers
• Smaller in size compared to second generation
• Faster than second generation of computers
• Consumed less power compared to second generation
• Used high level languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL. Thus were easier to program.
• Faster- computed 5,000,000 instructions per second.
• Higher memory capacity up to 2MB RAM.
• Use of keyboard for input
• Use of monitors to output data
• Magnetic disks were used for data storage
• Introduction of minicomputers
• Introduction of operating system to provide an interface between the user and machine.
Examples include:
• IBM 7094
• IBM 1401 Prepared By Tr. John @Cute Ideas Ent 20
• UNIVAC 1107
Third generation computers(cont..)
Advantages of 3rd Generation computers
• Smaller in size than 1st and 2nd generation
• More reliable
• Emitted less heat and consumed less power
• Maintenance cost was low due to rare hardware failure.
Disadvantages of 3rd Generation computers
• Still costly to acquire
• Require sophisticated IC technology to manufacture

4. Fourth generation computers(1980s to 1990s)
Technology used was large scale integration and Very large Scale
integration
This technology involves combination of thousands of integrated
circuits on a single silicon chip.
Characteristics
 Processed data at about 50 million instructions per second
 Optical disks were introduced for data storage.
 Introduction of first microcomputer by IBM(1981) and Apple(1984).
 Virtual memory was introduced.
Examples include:
 IBM 370
 MACINTOSH
 HONEYWELL DPS-88

5. FIFTH GENERATION
 It is still in infancy.
 Technology used is parallel architecture or
superconductor.
 Parallel architecture allows many processors to work as
one.
 Superconductor technology allows flow of electricity with
little resistance.
 The goal of this generation is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input, and are capable of
learning and self organization.

5. FIFTH GENERATION
Characteristics of 5th Generation of computers
 Artificial intelligence was introduced.
 Voice recognition input devices, e.g. microphone have been
introduced and are in use.
 Internet has fully developed
 Flash disk has been introduced.
 Distributed computing system has been developed. This refers
to the dividing of a task to be processed across many different
computer systems positioned in different geographical regions
 Expert systems and natural language are now in use but still
under development.

summary
• From the above we can see that computers are
becoming smaller, faster and more efficient and user
friendly.
• Storage devices are also increasing in capacity and
decreasing in size.
• The following table shows a summary of the
generations:

summary
Generation Developments Technology
1st generation • Magnetic drum memory of 2KB Vacuum tube / thermionic valve
• Processing speed of 10 KIPS
• Machine language used
2nd generation • Magnetic tape used for storage Transistors

• Assembly language used
• Magnetic core memory used
• Memory expanded to 32KB
3rd generation • Keyboard used for input Integrated circuits(IC)

• Monitor used for output
• Magnetic disk used for data
storage
• Operating system developed
• Memory expanded to 2MB
• First high level language used
4th generation • Optical disk used for data storage Very large scale integration/large
• Virtual memory was introduced scale integration/ microprocessor
• Introduction of mouse
5th generation • Expert system and natural parallel architecture or

language superconductor
• Distributed computing
• Artificial intelligence and voice
recognition devices 26
Prepared By Tr. John @Cute Ideas Ent
Revision questions on the topic
 State four reasons why a mobile phone is regarded to as a
computer: (4mks)
 What are peripheral devices: (2mks)

Revision questions on the topic
• Write in full:
• ENIAC
• ICT
• IC
• Who is known as the “father of modern computer?”

Explain?

Classifications of computers
 Computers can be classified according to three main
ways:
 Physical size
 Purpose
 Functionality
However, computers can also be classified according to:
 Manufacturer
 Processor speed

a. According to physical size
• According to physical size, computers can be classified
as:
• Supercomputers
• Mainframes
• Minicomputers
• microcomputers

1. supercomputers
 These are the fastest, largest and most expensive types of
computers.
 They are mainly used in specialized applications that require
immense amount of mathematical calculations
Characteristics of supercomputers
 They can accommodate multiple processors. Thus they can
perform parallel processing.
 Huge in size
 Generates a lot of heat thus must be kept in a room with special
cooling system e.g. immersing the CPU in an aquarium like tank
containing liquid fluorocarbon.
 Found in developed countries such as USA, Japan, Russia.
 Also found in South Africa

1. supercomputers
Application areas
 Weather forecasting
 Aerodynamic design and simulation
 Scientific research
 Petroleum research
 Nuclear energy research
 Producing movies and animated graphics
 Weapon analysis
 Space exploration
Examples include:
 Cray 2
 CDC 6600
2. Mainframe computer
• They are second largest
after supercomputers.
• They are less expensive,
less powerful than
supercomputers.
• Used for processing data
and performing complex
mathematical calculations.
• Mostly found in
government agencies, big
organisations and
companies.
2. Mainframe computers
Characteristics of mainframe computers
 Have more than 1 CPU
 Memory capacity of between 128 MB to more than 8 GB
RAM.
 High processing power
 Support a wide variety of peripherals
 Support time sharing processing where many users can log
onto one large mainframe at the same time
 Examples:
 UNIVAC
 IBM 360

3. Minicomputers
 These are smaller in size, cheaper and slower than mainframes
and supercomputers.
 They are used in process control system such as mechanical or
chemical systems.
 They also support a number of concurrent users
Application areas
 Scientific laboratories
 Research institutions
 Engineering plants
Examples
 PDP-8
 PDP-11
4. Microcomputers
 Cheapest, smallest, more energy efficient and least
powerful computers.
 They are called microcomputers because their CPU is
called a microprocessor which is smaller than that of
mainframes and supercomputers.
Application areas
 Training and learning institutions
 Small business enterprises
 Communication centers
 individual user
4. Microcomputers
Microcomputers derive their names from where they are
placed when being used:
1. Desktop computers- computers that are designed to
be used while on a desk or an office.
- They can either be
- A. Tower – have longest side upright
- B. Desktop – have the shorter side upright

Desktop computers-
Advantages of desktop computers
- Spare parts are standardized resulting in low costs
- Tend to have better specifications
- Large casing allows good dissipation of heat build up
Disadvantages
- Not portable since they are not made up of separate
components
- Wiring clutters up desk space

Laptop computers
2. Laptop computers – these have the system unit,
keyboard, mouse and monitor as one unit.
they are more portable than desktop computers
but more expensive.
They can be placed on the lap.

4. Microcomputers
Question
Why are laptops more expensive than desktop
computers with the same specifications:
Answer
 They are more portable
 Their parts are low powered as opposed to desktops
 The technology to make the computer smaller, chips
and RAM and anything else smaller costs more.

4. Microcomputers
Advantages of laptop computers
1. They are more portable
2. Laptops are designed to withstand the rigors of travel.
3. Display- active colour screen show sharper, clearer
images which prevent eye strain.
4. Power- laptop batteries serve as inbuilt
uninterruptible power supply
5. No trailing wires
6. Full advantage of Wi-Fi
4. Microcomputers
Disadvantages of laptops
1. Performance- many laptops have slower clock speeds
to conserve power and also have smaller memory
capacity.
2. Expandability- laptop pcs limit your expansion options
3. Laptops have few ports and no growth potential
4. Security- laptop pcs are easier to steal
5. Limited battery;need to carry charger
6. Heat dissipation is difficult due to laptop structure
3. Palmtop computers
Smaller than laptops and can fit in one’s pocket.
They are designed to be used on one’s palm of the hand.
Usually comes with a touch screen and stylus
Expanded to include calling facilities, satellite navigation,etc
Examples are PDAs and Tablets.

Palmtop computers
Advantages
- Can be used anywhere due to their size
- Lightweight and more portable than laptops
Disadvantages
- Difficult to enter text quickly
- Limited capabilities due to software and operating
systems

b. According to functionality
 According to functionality, computers can be classified
as:
 Digital computers
Process data that is discrete in nature.
Discrete data is represented using a two state square
waveform.
This data is usually expressed in Binary Digits(BITs) i.e. 0 or 1s

b. According to functionality
 Analog computers
These are computers which process data that is continuous in
nature.
These computers process data by measuring changes in
physical magnitude such as pressure, temperature, speed,
volume, weight.
Examples are computers in a weather forecasting station.

- Hybrid computers
Computers which process both analog and digital data.
Task
Illustrate both an analog and digital signal.

c. According to purpose
 According to purpose, computers can be classified as:
 General purpose
Computers designed to perform a wide variety of tasks. These
tasks include word processing, accounting, multimedia
applications etc
To do this the various programs should be installed.
 Special purpose
Computers designed to perform a single task or a few related
tasks. E.g. calculator, robot, mobile phone

c. According to purpose
• dedicated
These are general purpose computers but have been set
aside to do a specific task. E.g. a general purpose
computer set aside for word processing task only.

d. According to manufacturer
 According to manufacturer, computers can be classified
as:
 Clones
 These are computers assembled locally.
 They have parts from different manufacturers. E.g. keyboard made by
dell, monitor made by Samsung, mouse made by HP
 Branded
 They are computers which have been assembled by one
manufacturer. E.g. a HP branded computer will have all components
labeled HP.

e. According to processor speed
 According to processor speed, computers can be
classified as:
 Reduced Instruction Set Computers. (RISC)
Microprocessor operate on a set of instruction set.
A microprocessor which requires fewer instruction set to
execute are RISC.
They are faster than CISC
 Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
Requires a large number of instruction set.
Slower than RISC.

Areas where computers are used
 Communication industry
 through the internet people can send mails (E-mail) to friends and relatives
all over the world cheaply and faster.
 Radio and television industries use computer technology to achieve high
quality transmission signals.
 Business industry
 its possible to buy a product from anywhere in the world through E-Commerce
 Advertising companies are using computers to display their products e.g. using
plasma screens placed on the streets and bus stations.
 Manufacturing sector
 Manufacturers are using computerized machines called robots. These do jobs
that are dangerous to humans as well as reducing human labour costs.
 Computers are also being used for quality and process control in some
companies such as chemical industries
 Inventory control
 Preparing payrolls for workers

 Education sector
 Computers are being used by students to register for courses offered
outside their countries, take the course and even sit for exams without
travelling to those countries which is referred to as E-learning
 Subjects like Chemistry or Physics may be demonstrated using a special
computer program in what is referred to as simulation.
 Employment
 Computers have led to the creation of new jobs such as computer
engineers, programmers, e.t.c
 In todays information age, most jobs require that the applicants be
computer literate.
 Entertainment industry
 Many DJs use computerized systems to do their work.
 There has also been a lot of creation of VCDs, DVDs and audio CDs
which can be watchedPrepared
or listened
By Tr. John to.
@Cute Ideas Ent 53
 Health sector
 Computers are used to keep records of patients
 Computers are used in ICUs to control life support machines.
 Computers are used to conduct brain scans, body X-rays,ultra sounds and other
body scans.
 Patients also receive medical diagnosis and advice from foreign medical experts
through the use of expert systems.
 Security sector
 Computers are used to store fingerprints and other identification details such as
face recognition to help law enforcers conduct criminal investigations.
 Computerized tracking systems in cars are able to automatically locate a car in
case of a carjacking incident. These systems can be able to automatically stop the
car and lock the doors until the vehicle is recovered.
 Banking industry
 Computers are used for cheque processing.
 Electronic Fund Transfer(EFT)- process in which a person’s account can be
automatically credited or debited through computing technology.
 Automation of Withdrawal and deposit of money using Automated Teller
Machines (ATM).
 Keeping customer records
 Art scene
 Computers have been used by artists to create graphics to be
placed on billboards, posters, etc
 Publication designers use specific programs to generate page
designs and illustrations for books, magazines and newspapers.
 Transport
 Computers are used to monitor vehicle traffic in busy towns
 Making reservations
 Aircraft navigation
 In taxi business e.g. UBER
 Supermarkets
 Stock control
 Point of sales

 Library services
 Electronic catalogue of books to enable easy access to books in the
library
 Keeping records of books in the library
 Issuing of books in the library
 Inventory control in the library
 Domestic use
 Watching movies
 Playing computer games
 Storing personal information
 Keeping home budgets
 research

Characteristics of Computer
• Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of
instructions per second. Some calculations that would have taken hours and days
to complete otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the computer.
For example, calculation and generation of salary slips of thousands of
employees of an organization, weather forecasting that requires analysis of a
large amount of data related to temperature, pressure and humidity of various
places, etc.
• Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the
computer can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10
decimal places.
• Diligence: When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get
tired or fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations with the same
speed and accuracy from the start till the end.
• Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be stored in
the computer and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data
can be stored, temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary storage devices
like floppy disk and compact disk can store a large amount of data permanently.
• Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of
tasks with the same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare
a letter document and in the next moment you may play music or print a
document.

Advantages and disadvantages of
computers
Advantages
 Performs tasks faster and more efficiently than human
beings
 Works accurately
 Reduces costs by performing tasks that would be performed
by many workers
 Offers convenient and paperless storage location within it.
 Automatically programmed to receive instructions and close
monitoring of the tasks to be performed is not required
unlike in manual operations
computers
Disadvantages
 A computer cannot reason. Whatever data is fed into it
whether correct or wrong will be processed the same. It is
therefore upon the user to verify the accuracy of the data
entered.
 Can lead to some health problems especially if not properly
used. Such as eye problems, backaches
 Computers are expensive to acquire and can break down
easily if not taken care of since they are vulnerable to dust
and other environmental factors
 Can lead to loss of jobs, especially for computer illiterate
persons.

Computer laboratory
Def:
a computer laboratory is a special room set aside
and prepared specifically for safe installation and use of
computers.
a room that provides safe conducive environment
for teaching and learning of computer studies and ICT
related disciplines.

Computer laboratory
Layouts for a school’s computer lab
1. Conference
Teacher’s desk
Class
2. Class layout
Teacher’s desk
Class

Computer laboratory
Factors to consider when preparing a computer lab
 Security of the computer hardware and software
 Reliability of the source of power
 Should be located away from dusty areas such as main
roads
 Be well ventilated and well lit
 Have adequate space for the number of computers to
be accommodated
 Fitted with a gaseous fire extinguisher
Computer laboratory
Safety precautions and practices
1. Measures that protect computers
a) Burglar proofing the room
 Fitting grills on doors, windows and the roof to deter forceful
entry into the computer room.
 Installation of an intrusion detection alarm system
 Employing security guards
b) Installing fire prevention and control equipment
 Installing smoke detectors
 Having a gaseous based fire extinguisher- this is because
 a liquid based fire extinguisher may cause rusting and corrosion of
computer parts whereas
 A powder based fire extinguisher, the powder particles may increase
friction and wear of movable parts which can cause disks to crash

Computer laboratory
c) The room should be well laid out
 This will provide enough space for movement
 Computers should be placed on stable, wide desks to avoid
accidentally knocking them down.
 Cables should be laid out in trunks away from user paths to
avoid people stumbling on them.
d) Careful handling of materials and equipments
 Don’t drop the computer devices e.g. hard disks

Computer laboratory
 Don’t force disks into their drives
 Place the mouse on a clean mouse pad to prevent the mouse
ball from collecting dust.
 -don’t force cables into ports to avoid breaking them. E.g.
mouse to their ports.
 Don’t touch the shiny surface of the compact disk as this
considered as dirt and will damage the data written on that
part.

Computer laboratory
e) Cables and power sockets should be well insulated and of the
correct power rating to avoid short circuits that can damage
computer components.
f) Dust and dump proofing the room- dust can be controlled by:
1. Fitting good window curtains
2. Having a good air conditioning system that filters dust particles from
the air
3. Not entering the computer lab with shoes

Computer laboratory
Dampness or humidity in the computer lab can be controlled by
using dehumidifiers.
High humidity causes rusting of the metallic parts of a computer.
g)Providing stable power supply
Unstable power supply can be in form of blackouts, brownouts or
power surges.
This can cause destruction to the computer components.

Computer laboratory
Computers require stable power supply for them to function well.
This can be provided by having back up generators so that in case
of blackouts the generator provides power and having
Uninterruptible Power Supply(UPS) for each computer.
Functions of the UPS
- Providing power temporarily in case of blackouts
- Converting unstable power from the mains to stable power to
prevent computer being destroyed by power surges.

Computer laboratory
A computer connected to the UPS
MAINS POWER
SUPPLY
COMPUTER
UPS
UNSTABLE STABLE
POWER POWER

Computer laboratory
h. Don’t smoke or in the computer laboratory or even burn rubbish
near the computer laboratory. This is because the smoke contains
small scratchy particles called soot which can damage the
computer parts.
i. Always shut down the computer using the correct procedure.
This is because improper shutting down of the computer can lead
to either data loss or crushing of the hard disk.
j. Don’t bring food and drinks to the computer lab: this is because
food particles can fall into the keyboard causing it to clog whereas
drinks can cause short circuits if they spill and also cause rusting of
the metallic parts.

Computer laboratory
2. Measures that protect the user
i. Insulate naked cables: this is to prevent risk of electric
shock to users
ii. Cables should be laid away from user paths: this is to avoid
users from tripping on them
iii. Room should be properly ventilated: to avoid dizziness
caused by lack of adequate oxygen.
iv. Don’t overcrowd in the computer room: this may cause
suffocation

Computer laboratory
v. The wall of the computer room
should not be painted with
overbright reflective oil paints and
the screens should face away from
the window: this is to avoid glares
caused by bright backgrounds.
vi. Avoid scrambling for computers
vii. Providing standard furniture: this is
to avoid poor posture which may
lead to strain injury and limb fatigue.
The table should be of the right
height relative to the seat to provide
comfortable hand positioning. The
seat should have an upright backrest
and should be high enough to allow
the eyes of the user to be level with
the top of the screen.

PRACTICAL HANDS-ON SKILLS
BOOTING A COMPUTER
BOOTING: This is the entire process of making a
computer ready for use; that is, from the time it is
switched on to the time the desktop is displayed on the
screen.
- The entire process the computer automatically goes
through of self-test and preparation for use.

BOOTING A COMPUTER
Procedure of booting a computer
i. Switch on the main power supply from the socket.
Then switch on the UPS
ii. Switch on the system unit through the power button
on the system unit
iii. Switch on the monitor using the power button on it.
power

iv. The computer goes through a process known as
Power On Self Test(POST). This is accomplished by a
special program known as Basic Input Output System
(BIOS). This program is stored on a Read Only
Memory chip found on the motherboard. This
program checks all the hardware components to
confirm whether they are functioning properly and
whether they are available for use

If any of the components is found faulty or missing, then an
error message or error code is displayed on the screen or a
beep is sounded.
v. The computer reads some instructions such as the
current time and date from a special memory known as
Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS).
CMOS is powered by a dry cell that mostly resemble
that of a digital watch. If the cell is down, the computer
requires the user to enter the current date and time.

v. A special program used to manage computers known as
the operating system is loaded to the computer
memory. Examples of operating systems include
Windows XP, Windows 7, LINUX, MAC OS
vi. The desktop is displayed.

Types of booting
There are two types of booting:
1. Cold booting
This type of booting takes place when a computer that was
off is switched on. This is executed by switching the power
button on.
2. Warm booting
This takes when a computer is restarted or forced to restart.

Warm booting is done in either of the these ways:
a. Click start button, then restart
Or
b. Press the following combination of keys at the same time:
CTRL + ALT + DEL

REASONS FOR WARM BOOTING
• If a computer hangs
• When cleaning for viruses, the antivirus may prompt to
restart the computer to finish the clean up process
• When you install a new hardware device
• When you install some certain software programs

Shutting down a computer
• This is closing down the computer when you have
finished working with it.
• It is important that the user follows the correct
procedure of shutting down a computer at all times.
• If the correct procedure is not followed, then loss of
data, damage of programs and computer components
may occur.
•

Shutting down a computer
Procedure of shutting down a computer
1. Save all the important work done.
2. Close all open programs.
3. Click START button then SHUT DOWN or TURN OFF

KEYBOARDING AND MOUSE SKILLS
THE KEYBOARD
 It is the most common computer input device.
Keyboard layout
The first typing keys on the upper left of a typical computer
keyboard are QWERTY. It is commonly referred to as
QWERTY keyboard.

QWERTY keyboard

Categories of keys on a computer
keyboard
• There are SIX categories of keys on the keyboard:
• Alphanumeric keys
• Function keys
• Cursor movement and editing keys
• Special purpose keys
• Numeric keypad keys
• Toggle keys

1. Alphanumeric keys
 Also known as typing keys.
 Are letters A to Z, numbers arranged in a line 1,2…,0 and
special symbols such as ?,/,{,]
2. Function keys
• Found at the top of the keyboard
• They are labeled F1 to F12.
• They are used to perform special functions that
vary depending with the program running on the
computer at the time. E.g. F1 is used for help
3. Cursor movement and editing keys
• Are used to move the cursor around the screen.
• They include:
– Arrow keys: pressing the right or left arrow keys moves the
cursor one character to the right or left respectively. Same to
up and down arrow keys which move the cursor up or down a
character at a time respectively.
– Page up and page down : this moves the cursor up one page
or down if it has many pages.

3. Cursor movement and editing keys
 Home and end keys : home key moves the cursor to the
beginning of the current line.
end key moves the cursor to the end of the current line.
 Editing keys: used to insert or delete characters in a
document. They include:
 Delete (DEL): used to delete characters at the cursor position from
left to right.
 Insert (INS): used to insert or replace characters at the cursor
position.
 Backspace: used to delete characters at the cursor position from right
to left.

4. Special purpose keys
• Used to perform special functions. They include:
• Shift key used to type secondary characters (characters on
top of others e.g. @ at 2) when used with alphabetic
characters it is used to change the case.
• Enter key also called return key used to execute
commands. Also used to start a new line of text.

– Tabulator (TAB) moves the cursor to the next preset
position on a document. Also used to navigate items on a
page.
– Spacebar - The longest key on the keyboard. Used to leave a
single space between word or characters when typing.
– Escape key(ESC) – used to cancel the current instruction.
– Print screen (PRTSC) – used to take a screenshot of the
current screen displayed.

– CAPS LOCK – used to alternate between typing in small case
and capital letters. When it is on, the user types in capital
letters.
– NUM LOCK – used to change the numeric keypad to a
navigation keypad. When it is on, the user can type numbers.
– Application key/context menu key/right click button – does
the same work as the right clicking of the mouse button.
• Displays the selected item’s shortcut window/ options/context menu

• Windows key used to display the start menu
items.
• CTRL KEY(CONTROL KEY)- used with a combination of other keys

to perform certain actions. E.g. CTRL + C executes COPY
command

4. Numeric keypad keys
• Found at the right hand side of the keyboard.
• Contains numbers 0 to 9 and arithmetic signs such as
+(addition), - (subtraction), *(multiplication) and /(division).
• The numbers can only be used when the NUM LOCK key is
turned on, otherwise, the numeric keypad becomes the
cursor movement and editing keys.

5. Toggle keys
• These are used to change from one mode to another.
• They work on ON/OFF state
• They include:
• CAPS LOCK
• SCROLL LOCK
• INS(INSERT)
• NUM LOCK

Using typing tutor
• In order to increase your typing speed and accuracy, typing
software offers the lessons you need to start from using
one hand while typing to becoming a proficient user.

MOUSE SKILLS
• One should hold the mouse with the middle, index and
the thumb fingers.
• The middle and the index fingers should be used to hold
the left and the right mouse buttons respectively.
• The mouse is moved on a flat surface. As this happens,
a ball or a sensor mechanism in the mouse causes the
pointer to move about the screen

MOUSE SKILLS
The four common mouse operations are:
• Clicking
• Double-clicking
• Right-clicking
• Drag and drop

MOUSE SKILLS
The four common mouse operations are:
• Clicking
This is pressing and releasing the left mouse button once.
It is used to select or highlight an item.
• Double-clicking
this is pressing the left mouse button twice in quick succession
It is used to open files, folders or programs.

MOUSE SKILLS
– Right-clicking
This is pressing and releasing the right mouse button once.
Used to display a pop-up menu or context menu where one can
select a command of their choice
– Drag and drop
Refers to pressing and holding the left mouse button on an item
then dragging the item and releasing when the item reaches the
desired location.
Used to move items from one location to another.

2. COMPUTER SYSTEMS
 A computer system is a collection of hardware,
software and liveware that work together to receive,
process, manage and present information in a
meaningful format.
1. HARDWARE
These are the physical or tangible components that make up a
computer system.
They are classified into four categories namely:
 Input devices
 Output devices
 Central processing unit (CPU)
 Storage devices

2. COMPUTER SYSTEMS
2. SOFTWARE
These are the set of instructions that direct a computer on its
operations.
They are classified into two categories namely:
• System software
• Application software

2. COMPUTER SYSTEMS
3. LIVEWARE
also known as orgware or humanware or wetware
These are the human beings who command the computer
system to perform a certain task.
They include users, programmers, computer engineers, system
analysts, e.t.c.

2. COMPUTER SYSTEMS
A. Hardware
1. Input devices
These feed the computer with data.
They convert user input which is in human readable form to
machine language that a computer can process.
They can be classified according to the methods that they use
to enter data namely:
» Keying devices
» Pointing devices
» Scanning devices
» Other technologies

A>Input devices
1. Keying devices
These enter data into the computer using a set of keys.
They include:
• Keyboard
• Keypad

a. Keyboard
This device converts letters, numbers and other characters
into electrical signals that are machine readable, so that
they can be recognised by the computer processor.
Most computer keyboards follow the QWERTY which refers
to the sequence of the alphabet keys on the top left row
on a standard typewriter keyboard.

Another keyboard layout is AZERTY which is common in
European countries.
Types of keyboards
1. Traditional keyboard
2. Flexible keyboard
3. Ergonomic keyboard
4. Braille keyboard

• Traditional keyboard- this is a full sized rigid keyboard.
• Flexible keyboard- this is a more portable keyboard that
can be folded and packed in a bag.
• Ergonomic keyboard – specially designed to provide
comfort and alleviate wrist strain.
• Braille keyboard- keys are identified by raised dots.
Designed for use by the blind.

Uses of keyboard
• Keyboards are used to input data into applications (For
example – text into Microsoft Word and numbers into a
spreadsheet).
• They can also be used to input commands into the
computer. For example Keyboard Shortcuts:
• CTRL + P to print
• CTRL + S to save
• Print Screen to take a screenshot of work

keyboard

b. Keypad
• This is a miniature keyboard found on portable devices
such as PDAs, Laptops and mobile phones.
Uses of keypad
– at ATM machines
– On mobile phones
– At Electronic Point Of Sale (EPOS) terminals

Keypad(cont)

2. Pointing devices
These devices are used for controlling a pointer cursor on
the screen.
They include:
1. Touchpad
2. Mouse
3. Trackerball
4. Joystick
5. Lightpen
6. stylus
a. Touch pad
• A surface that is sensistive to pressure and motion.
• Moving your finger on the pad moves the cursor on the
screen in the same direction.
Uses of touchpad
• In laptops as a pointing device

b. Mouse
• Is the most common pointing device.
• Allows the user to control the position of the pointer on a
screen.
• There are three types of mice:
• Standard mouse
• Optical mouse
• Cordless mouse
i) Standard mouse
Has a ball underneath to detect movement.
ii) Optical mouse
uses reflected light rather than a ball to detect movement
iii) Cordless mouse
Is a battery powered mouse that uses radio waves or infrared
instead of being physically connected to the system unit
Mouse(cont)
Advantages of optical mouse over standard mouse
• Have no moving parts and so pick up no dirt.
• More precise than ball mouse.

Uses of mouse
• Opening, closing and minimising programs and files
• Grouping, moving and deleting files
• Editing images e.g. size and position

c. Trackerball
• Similar to the mouse except that the ball is located at the
top.
• Instead of moving the device on a flat surface, the user
rotates the ball using a finger.
• Some computers come with an integrated trackball hence
no need for a mouse

Uses of trackball
• Controlling a cursor on the screen just like a mouse

d. Joystick
• A device that looks like a level used to control a cursor
on the screen.

Uses of a joystick
• Playing computer games
• Controlling machineries such as cranes
• Used in simulators to mimic actual controls e.g. flight and
driving

e. Light pen
• Operates by detecting the command or item being
illuminated by it.

Uses of light pens
• Selecting objects on CRT screen
• Pointing on a projector screen

f. Stylus pen
• Used on devices such as PDAs and digitizers to enter
commands or handwritten data.

3. Scanning devices
• Capture data directly into the computer.
• Scanning devices are classified according to the
technology used to capture data:
• Optical scanners- use the principle of light to enter data
• Magnetic scanner- read characters printed using special magnetic ink or
coded on a magnetic stripe.
• They use documents known as turn around documents.

These are output documents used as input.

i. Optical scanners
• Use the principle of light to read
data.
• Examples include:
1. Optical mark reader
This device detects marks made
on a piece of paper using ink or a
soft pencil by passing a beam of
light over them.
Uses
• Marking multiple choice exams
• Analysing responses from
structured questionnaires
• Collecting correct number
combinations from lottery
tickets
i. Optical Mark Recognition

2. Optical bar recognition
Captures data coded on barcodes. Barcodes hold product
details such as product code, manufacturer code e.t.c.
The computer uses this data to read a database and identify
the product and price.
Uses
• In supermarkets to bill customers
• In libraries to issue books

Optical bar recognition (cont)

3. Optical Character recognition
Used to scan characters and images.
The OCR converts the scanned text into a form that can be edited in
applications such as MS Word, Publisher and Powerpoint.
Uses
• In billing. E.g. electricity bills
• Processing of passports and ID cards
• OCR is used when scanning in documents so they can be modified
using Word Processing or Desktop Publishing Software.

3. Optical Character recognition(cont)

ii. Magnetic scanners
1. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
Reads characters printed using special magnetic ink.
Uses
• In banks to process cheques

1. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (cont)

1. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (cont)

2. Magnetic strip reader
A magnetic stripe is a layer of
magnetic material on the surface
of a plastic card.
The magnetic stripe reader is used
to read data in those cards.
Uses
• Reading plastic cards in banks
• Reading telephone cards
• Travel systems like reading train
tickets
• Reading security cards for entry
into buildings and hotel rooms

2. Magnetic strip reader(cont)

4. Speech recognition devices
• Also called voice input devices.
• This is a type of input where the microphone is used to
enter data inform of spoken words into the computer.
Uses
1. In factories for quality control
2. Controlling appliances, such as air conditioners, fans
3. Security and access control
4. Voice activated toys or games
5. To produce commercials for TVs and Radio
6. By DJs to produce effects on music

4. Speech recognition devices
• It is a natural method • can only recognize a limited number of

words
• Can be used when the hands or eyes • Background noise can disrupt data
are committed on other tasks entered.
• Takes time to train and program the

system
5. Other technologies
i. DIGITAL CAMERAS
• Captures images in digital form.
• These images are mostly stored in a memory card instead
of a film.
• The images can be transferred to the computer using a
Universal Serial Bus.

DIGITAL CAMERAS
Advantages Disadvantages
- No film needed thus no developing costs to - Digital cameras can be very expensive
view the pictures
- Images can be viewed immediately and - Quality images take up a lot of memory
unwanted images deleted space
- Images can be copied, edited, enlarged or - Quality still not as good as traditional
enhanced printed images
- Images can be added to websites or

documents

ii. Touch screen
 Lets the user touch the screen with a finger or a stylus
in order to write or select an item.
 Has a built in grid of sensing lines and sensors.
Uses
 Self service Retail stores
 Airports
 Smartphones and PDAs
 ATMs

Touch screen

iii. Graphics tablet (digitizers)
 Has a flat pad (tablet) on which the user types on using
a special pen known as a stylus.
 Anything drawn onto the pad is transferred to the
computer screen.
Uses
 Architectural and engineering designers use digitizers
to produce accurate drawings
 signing digitally e.g. in banks

Graphics tablet (digitizers)

iv. webcams
 Captures moving images directly to the computer.
 Webcams can be inbuilt in the computer or attached to
the top of the monitor.
Uses
 Video conferencing
 Chatting online

webcams

v. Remote control
 Used to control other devices using infrared signals.
 Buttons on the remote are used to select options.
Uses
1. Controlling home entertainment systems e.g. DVD
players
2. Used in industries to control machinery e.g. cranes

Remote control

Interactive whiteboard
• An interactive whiteboard also

as a smartboard, is a large
interactive display that
connects to a computer. The
computer display is projected
onto the board’s surface, where
users control the computer and
write using a pen or finger. The
board is typically mounted to a
wall or on a floor stand.

Factors to consider while selecting
an input device
 Cost
 Volume
 Reliability
 Accuracy
 Mode of operation
 Appropriateness

Summary of input devices
Input device Application area
Mouse Selecting options on the screen
Keyboard Input data in applications such as word
processors.
Keypad
Trackball
Joystick
Light pen
Stylus
OBR
OMR
OCR
MISR
MSR
Dizitizer
Touchpad


B>OUTPUT DEVICES
• Used to give out the results of processing (information)
• These devices convert information from computer
readable form to human readable form.
• They can be classified into:
1. Softcopy output devices
2. Hardcopy output devices
3. Computer output on microform

1. Softcopy output devices
• These produce information/output which is intangible.
Can only be seen or heard.
• Output is also temporary.
• Devices include:
• Monitors
• Speakers
• Data projectors
• Light Emitting Diodes(LEDs)

1. monitors
• Also refered to as Visual Display Unit(VDU) or screen.
• It displays information on its screen, thus helping the
user to monitor operations carried out by the computer.
• Monitors can be classified into two:
• Cathode ray tube monitors
• Flat panel display monitors

1. Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors
• It consists of a long glass tube with an electron gun on one
end and a screen on the other.
• The electron gun shoots electrons to illuminate the screen
and is coated with tiny phosphorous dots. The dots
consists of the three primary colours i.e. Red Green Blue

1. Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors
Characteristics
• The screen is curved slightly outwards
• They are not portable
• They consume a lot of power
• They are cheap
• They cause eye strain
• They emit radiation

Advantages of CRT monitors
• They are cheap
• Cannot be stolen easily
• Display information in a wide variety of colours
• Can be used with a light pen for archictectural work

Disadvantages of CRT monitors
• Bulky thus not easily portable
• They consume a lot of power
• Can cause eye strain unless you fit them with an anti-
glare screen
• They emit radiation

2. Flat Panel Display Monitors
These are made using other technologies rather than
Cathode Ray Tube technology.
Characteristics
• The screen is flat
• They are portable
• Consume less power
• Occupy less space
• Are expensive
They include:

1. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
monitors
•They have tiny liquid crystals that
reflect light falling on them from
the environment.

2. Thin Film Transistors (TFT)
• They are also known as Active matrix display
technology.
• These have a transistor at each pixel. They are more
responsive to change for example moving of the mouse
cursor you will see the movement.
• They are more clearer.

3. Electroluminescent displays
•They glow when exposed to an electric
current giving rise to an
electroluminescent display

4. Gas Plasma displays
• They use gas mostly neon that emit light when an
electric current is passed through them.
• They contain millions of pixels that are illuminated by
charged gas.
• These displays don’t suffer from angle distortion.
• They are thus used in producing High Definition TVs
(HDTV).

Monitor display terminologies
• Pixel: stands for picture element.
• this refers to the tiny dots that form an image displayed on the screen.
• For colour monitors each pixel is made up of the three primary colours
(red green blue)
• Resolution: number of pixels per square inch given in dots
per inch(DPI) or bits
• The more the number of pixels per inch the higher the resolution hence
the clearer the image.
• Display size: measured in inches
• This is the diagonal length of the screen measured from top right to
bottom left.

• Display size (cont)

• Colour depth: refers to number of colours which can be
displayed by a pixel measured in bits
• Refresh rate: this is the number of times in a second
that a display updates the image on the screen with the
one in its RAM.
• Measured in HERTZ
• A screen with a low refresh rate images tend to flicker hence
can cause eye strain.

• Graphics adapters / video cards
This is a piece of circuit board that connects a monitor to
the computer and is plugged on the motherboard to allow
the computer to show images and texts on the screen.

Types of graphic adapters
• Monochrome adapter- displays text in only one colour
• Colour graphics adapter- displays text and images upto
16 colours
• Enhanced graphics adapter(EGA)- improvement of CGA
but also displays in 16 colours
• Video Graphics Array (VGA) – displays text, graphics
and video using 256 colours

• Super video graphics array(SVGA)-displays text and
graphics using more than 16 million colours.
• Has a resolution of 800 * 600 pixels
• Extended Graphics Array (XGA) – has a resolution of upto
1024 * 768 pixels
• Popular with 17 and 19 inch monitors
• Super extended Graphics array (EXGA) – has a resolution
of 1280 * 1024 pixels
• Popular with 19 & 21 inch monitors

• Ultra extended graphics array – latest and highest
standard.
Emerging Trends
• Digital visual interface (DVI) – designed for wide HDTVs,
LCDs and Video projectors.
• Avoids image distortion and electrical noise.
• High definition media interface (HDMI)- is a audio/video
interface for transferring video and audio data between
HDMI compliant devices

Advantages of monitor as an output
device
• Output / display is almost instantenous
• Reduction of cost due to less / no use of stationery e.g.
paper, ink
• Minimises paperwork
• One can verify the work before producing hardcopy
• The screen display is adjustable in size, amount of light
it emits, colour, etc

Disadvantages of monitor as an
output device
• Output can only be viewed using a monitor
• Radiation emitted from monitors can cause fatigue, eye
strain or other health problems.
• Doesn’t provide for future reference
• Screen might not allow viewing full array of data.
• Can only be used by a limited number of people at a go.

Factors to consider when choosing a
monitor
• Type of the monitor whether polychromatic or
monochromatic
• Size of the screen – this depends on its use
• Resolution of the screen
• Monitor controls to allow physical controls such as
brightness, contrast, sharpness
• Display type technology i.e. LCD,TFT,Gas plasma

b. Sound output
• These produce information in form of spoken words ,
beeps or audio
• Speakers are used to output the sound from computers
such as music, warnings, etc
• An external speaker is connected to the sound card
through the jack in the system unit or on a multimedia
monitor.
• Mainly used with multimedia applications which
combine audio and visual outputs

Components of a multimedia
application
• Sound card
• Speakers or headphones
• An audio playing programme e.g. Windows Media
Player, iTunes,VLC etc
• A CD/DVD drive

Advantages of sound output
• No reading is necessary
• Useful in situations where you cant look or are busy
• Fast natural output
• Can be used by the blind

Disadvantages of sound output
• Not suitable for noisy situations
• Inappropriate for lengthy/permanent information
• Cant be used by the deaf

Applications of sound output
• Learning aids e.g. computer aided learning
• In lifts/elevators to greet visitors and tell them the floor
they are in
• Public address systems
• In appliances e.g. car running out of fuel, or microwave
when heating is ready
• Text to speech translation e.g. for the blind
• Home entertainment
• Talking books

Applications of sound output
• Voice mail service
• teleconferencing

c. Data Projectors
• They receive signals from computers, televisions or DVD
players and project the image onto a plain white screen
like a wall or whiteboard.

Applications of projectors
• Can be used for training presentations to allow the whole
audience to see images from a computer.
• •Can also be used for large scale advertising of new
products
• •Home cinema systems where images from DVDs or
Televisions are projected to a large screen.

Data projectors (cont)

d. Light Emitting Diodes(LED)
• They are small low power devices that are programmed
to emit light when a current flows through them.
• They are used in electronic equipment as indicator
lights. e.g. green on the system unit to signify it is on,
amber/yellow to signify its on standby.

2.Hard copy output devices
• These are devices that produce output which is tangible
either on paper or a transparency.
Importance of hardcopy output
• When one needs to sign a document
• When one wants to read work away from the computer
• In anticipation of power black out
• For physical record keeping
• Incase users have difficulty reading the screen
•

2.Hard copy output devices
• For back up incase the softcopy gets corrupted or the
computer system crashes.
• The following are the types of hardcopy output devices:

1. Printers
• Produce output on a piece of paper.
• Printers can be classified according to:
• Printing mechanism
• Impact printers
• Non-impact printers
• Speed of printing
• Character printing
• Line printers
• Page printers

1. Printer printing mechanism
1. Impact printers
Provide prints by the printing head element coming into
contact with the stationery.
They have hammers or pins(print head elements) which are
used to strike an inked ribbon.
They use the same mechanism as the traditional typewriters
Examples include:
Dot matrix printer, daisy wheel printer, golf ball printer,
drum printer, chain printer.

Impact printer showing printing head
element

1. Printer printing mechanism
2. Non impact printers
Provides prints by the printing head element not coming
into contact with the stationery but by other means such
as electrostatic, laser or thermal mechanism.
They include:
Inkjet, thermal, laser printers and photo printers.

Difference between impact and non-
impact printers
Impact printers Non impact printers
examples Drum, golf ball, dot matrix, Laser, inkjet, thermal, photo
daisy wheel printer
Multiple copy production Possible- by use of Almost impossible
carbonated paper
Printing mechanism Striking mechanism Thermal, laser, electrostatic
Noise level Noisy Quiet
Cost Cheaper Costly
Quality of print Low High
speed Slow Fast

Types of impact printers
i. Dot matrix printer
• Has a set of pins on the printer’s head which strikes on the ink
ribbon placed over the paper
• Are still useful where “Continuous Paper” needs to be used.
For example, large quantities of invoices
Advantages
• Cheap to maintain
• Multiple copy production is possible through use of
carbonated paper.
• They are robust as they have been thoroughly tested.

Disadvantages of dot matrix printers
- Produce a lot of noise during printing
- Low quality print outs are produced
- Are slow since they print one character at a time.

ii. Daisy wheel printer
• Has a movable flower like wheel consisting
of spokes which embose characters .
• When printing, the wheel is rotated to align
the required character then the character is
hit by a hammer.
• A daisy wheel printer produces letter quality
print and it can’t produce graphics output.

How Daisy wheel printer works?
• In a daisy wheel printer, a hammer presses the wheel
against a ribbon which in turn makes an ink stain on the
paper in the form of a character mounted on the wheel
extensions.
• These printers are very noisy as there occur great
movement during the printing. Its printing speed is also
very slow ,i.e. less than 90cps.

Advantages of a daisywheel printer
• Can print letter quality characters.
Disadvantages of a daisywheel printer
• Printing speed is very slow.
• Cannot print graphics.

iii. Golf ball printer
These are used to print on the surface of a golfball.

iv. Drum printer
- Consists of a solid , cylindrical drum
that has raised characters in bands on
its surface.
- The drum rotates at a rapid speed.
- For each possible print position there
is a print hammer located behind the
paper.
- These hammers strike the paper,
along the ink ribbon, against the
proper character on the drum. One
revolution of the drum is required to
print each line.

iv. Chain printer
- Uses a chain of print characters wrapped around two
pulleys.
- There is one hammer for each print position.

2. Non impact printers
• They use laser, thermal or electrostatic principles.
• They include:

a. Thermal printers
• Produce print using heat principles
• The ink which is normally in wax or resin form is heated
to melting point before fusing onto the heat sensitive
paper.
• Mostly used in point of sales (POS)terminals to print
receipts

a. Thermal printers

b. Laser Printer
• Operates by shining a laser beam to create an image on
a rotating drum.
• As the beam hits the drum, it ionises some regions
which attract ink toner particles.
• The toner is then fused onto a piece of paper through
heating.

Laser printer- how it works
• (1) Paper is fed and the drum rotates.
• (2) A laser beam conveys information from the
computer to a rotating mirror and thus an image is
created on the drum.
• (3)The charges on the drum are ionized and the toner
sticks to the drum.
• (4)Toner is transferred from drum to paper.
• (5)Heat is applied to fuse the toner on the paper.

How a laser printer works(diagram)

laser printers
Advantages disadvantages
1. Produce high quality output 1. Expensive to buy
2. Maintenance cost is relatively low since 2. Toners are expensive to purchase

toner catridges last a long time
3. They are very quiet
4. They are very fast
5. Duplex printers can print on both sides of

the paper
6. Modern laser printers can print upto A3

c. Inkjet printers
• Uses ink catridges containing black and colour ink
separately.
• During printing, the print head moves to and from across
the page spraying ink on the paper.
• Inkjets do not print as fast as Laser printers
Ink catridges
Ink jet printer

Advantages of inkjet printers
• High quality printouts are produced with option of
colour
• Relatively cheaper compared to laser printers
• Energy saving
• Smaller than laser printers so take up less space.

Disadvantages of inkjet printers
• Specialized papers are required to produce high quality
colour output.
• The ink cartridges and specialized papers are expensive.
• The ink may smear when printed on ordinary paper.
• Slower than laser printers
• The printed information must be allowed to dry up since
some information may end up being deleted or distorted
due to formation of ink smudges
• Ink cartridges don’t last long and so are not suitable for
large print jobs.
• They can be expensive to run as new ink cartridges are not
cheap to buy.
• Electrostatic printer – it’s a non-impact that uses
electrostatic charges to form characters in a line on a
special paper.

d. Photo printer
• This is a special purpose printer designed to print
photos from cameras or smartphones.

b. Classification based on speed of
printing
1. Character printers
Print one character at a time.
e.g. dot matrix, daisy wheel
2. Line printers
Print one line at a time.
e.g. chain, drum, inkjet
3. Page printers
Produce an entire page at a time.
e.g. laser printer

Factors to consider when purchasing a
printer
• Initial cost and subsequent cost of maintenance
• Speed of printing
• Quality of print
• Nature of report to be generated
• Interface with computer system
• Ability to print graphics - High quality graphics such as logos, diagrams, charts and
even photographs can beproduced quickly using a laser printer. Dot matrix
printers can produce lower quality
graphics. Daisy wheel printers can only print text.
• Ability to produce text and graphics in colour - Inkjet printers are the commonly
used printers, which can print in colour, unless you are rich to buy and maintain a
colour laser printer.
• Ability to produce multiple copies (carbon copies)
Many organizations need to produce several copies of a document (ex. The yellow
copy to accounts, blue copy to the warehouse and white copy to the customer).

2. Plotter
• It is a large type of hardcopy output device.
• Plotters draw images on the page using Coloured Pens
which are moved around the paper by a computer.
• They are designed to produce high quality graphics in
a variety of colours.

Diagram of a plotter

Applications of plotters
• Used to produce large, accurate geographical,
architectural and engineering drawings (like building
blueprints).
• Used to produce giant posters and adverts.

plotters

Types of plotters
1. Drum plotter
• Uses a roll of paper wound on a drum.
• The paper roll can be either moved forwards or backwards.
• A pen is used which can move from left to right or vice versa
causing horizontal movement.

Types of plotters
2. Flat bed plotter
A piece of paper of fixed size is laid on a flat bed.
A movable pen is used to produce a graphical output.
3. Digital plotter
Uses electrostatic principles rather than pen and ink.

assignment
• List differences between printers and plotters
Plotter printer
Produce high quality graphics Produce low quality graphics
Expensive Cheaper
Can print upto A1 paper size Gives output upto A3

3. Computer output on
microform(COM)
• Provides photographed type of computer output onto
the microform.
• The microforms are photographically reduced
documents on films which can be viewed later by
special microform readers
• There are two forms of microforms:

a. Microfilm
• It’s a reel of film.
• Can store about 3000 pages of A4 sized information.

b. Microfiche
• Is a rectangular sheet of film.
• Can store about 98 pages of A4 sized information.

Applications of COM
• Libraries for books, catalogues, archives and references
• To retain town maps, land, statistics etc by local
authorities.
• In companies to store personnel and customer records.

Advantages and disadvantages of COM
Advantages
• Saves on stationery and space.
• Faster than printing.
• Non-bulky hence portable.
• Contents on COM are not easily read using naked eyes
hence guaranteed security.
• Have got larger life span compared to paper output.
Disadvantages
• Are expensive.
• Cause eye-strain.
• Additional equipments needed to read to contents.
SITUATIONS WHERE HARDCOPY OUTPUT WOULD
BE USED OVER SOFTCOPY
• Where one needs to sign
• When one wants to read the work away from the
computer
• For physical record keeping
• One may want to scan, photocopy or fax a document
• One may have difficulties using a monitor due to eye
strain or other sicknesses
• For security
• its is permanent
C.The Central Processing Unit(CPU)
• It also known as the processor and is the most
important component of the computer.
• Also known as the processor
• In microcomputers, the CPU is implemented on a single
piece of silicon device called a microchip.
• The cpu is regarded as the brain of the computer
because all processing activities are carried out inside
the CPU

• It is housed inside the system unit and mounted on the
motherboard.

• The CPU consists of three functional elements namely
• Control unit
• Arithmetic and logic unit
• Main memory
Main memory
Control unit
ALU
ALU adds 2 & 3

Cache and registers

1. Control Unit
• Coordinates all processing activities in the CPU as well as
input, output and storage operations.
Functions of the control unit
• Control the transfer of data to , from and within the main
memory
• Control and cordinate the various parts of the computer
system by use of control signals
• Retrieve and decode program instructions from the
internal storage in their correct sequences for execution by
the computer.

1. Control Unit
• Fetch the next instruction to be executed from the main
memory.
• Monitors the system for problems such as equipment
malfunction, illogical instructions or erroneous data.

2. The arithmetic and logic unit
• This section performs arithmetic operations and logical
operations.
• Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
• Logical operations are based on the ability to compare two
or more values.
• The ALU carries out these operations under the control
and direction of the control unit.
• In order for the ALU to be able to process data, it has
special temporary storage locations called registers which
hold data just before processing and also the immediate
results of processing.
3. Main memory Unit
• Also known as primary storage which is a type of
storage that is directly accessible by the processor.
• Can be classified into two:
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Read Only Memory(ROM)

i. Read only memory(ROM)
• Used to store programmed
instructions and data
permanently or semi-
permanently
• Data and instructions stored in
ROM are those that remain
unchanged for long periods of
time e.g. POST instructions
• There are four types of ROM:
• Mask Read only memory
• Programmable Read only
memory(PROM)
• Erasable Programmable Read only
memory(EPROM)
• Electrically Erasable Programmable
Read only memory(EEPROM)

a. Mask read only Memory
• Once the content is written on it by the manufacturer, it
cannot be changed.

b. Programmable Read only
memory(PROM)
• This allows the user to alter it only once after the
content is written on it.

c. Erasable Programmable Read only
memory(EPROM)
• This has a transparent quart window through which its

contents can be erased and reprogrammed by exposing
it to ultraviolet (uv) light.

c. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read only memory(EEPROM)
• This is a type of ROM which can be erased and

reprogrammed using electricity e.g. BIOS

Characteristics of ROM
• One can only read the contents but you cannot write on
it unless it is a special type of ROM.
• It is non volatile i.e. doesn’t loses content when power
goes off
• Stores permanent or semi-permanent instructions from
the manufacturer called firmware. It can store semi-
permanent instructions because some variations of
ROM chips can be programmed according to user
specifications

ii. Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Also known as working storage used to hold
instruction and data needed by the
currently running applications.
• The information in RAM is continually read,
changed and removed.
• It is referred to as Random Access because
its contents can be read directly regardless
of the sequence in which it was stored.
• Because content is lost if power goes off or
the computer is switched off, its important
that one saves his/her work in a device that
offers relatively permanent storage facility.

Characteristics of RAM
• Data can be read(retrieved) and written(stored) in it.
• RAM is volatile
• Content in RAM is user defined i.e. the user dictates
what is to be contained in RAM.
• There are two types of RAM:
• Static RAM
• Dynamic RAM

1. Static RAM
• It’s a very fast type of RAM
• Content in this memory will be available as long as there
is power.
• It is used on special purpose memories such as Cache
memory due to its fast speed.

2. Dynamic RAM
• Holds content for a short while even when power is on.
• To maintain its content it must be refreshed severally
per second.
• It is slower than static RAM.

task
• Compare ROM and RAM.
RAM ROM
- VOLATILE - NON VOLATILE

SPECIAL PURPOSE MEMORIES
• These are memories found inside a microprocessor or
input/output devices in order to enhance its
performance.
• They include:
• Buffer
• Cache memory
• Registers
• Virtual memory

a. Cache memory
• Pronounced as cash.
• It is a very fast memory which makes retrieval of data
and instructions faster by the processor.

b. buffers
• These are special memories found in input/output
devices.
• They free the processor so that it can perform other
tasks.
• For example computer printers have buffers where
they can store massive documents sent by the CPU for
printing hence freeing the CPU to perform other
urgent tasks as the printer continues to print in the
background.

c. registers
• These are temporary locations within the CPU that hold
a piece of data at a time.
• Examples include:
• Accumulators
Temporarily hold the results of the last processing step of ALU
• Instruction registers
Temporarily holds an instruction just before it is interpreted
into a form that CPU can understand.

c. registers
• Address register
Temporarily holds the next piece of data waiting to be
processed
• Storage register
This temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and
from the CPU and the main memory.

d. Virtual memory
• This is a space on the hard disk which can be used just
like the primary memory.

Memory capacities
• Memory and storage capacity is measured in special
units called BYTES
• A byte is equivalent to 1 character.
• Characters can be a number, letters or special symbols.
• E.g. THIS IS AFRICA! Has 15bytes because
1 character=1 byte

exercise
• How many bytes are there in:
• My name is John
• I love computer studies!
• njonjogee@gmail.com

Memory capacities (cont..)
• Memory capacities can be expressed in:
• Kilobytes(KB)- approximately 1000(thousand) bytes but the
actual size is 1024.
• Megabytes(MB) –approximately 1000000(million) bytes but the
• Gigabyte(GB) – approximately 1000000000(billion) bytes but the
• Terabyte(TB) – approximately 1000000000000(trillion)bytes but
the actual size is 1099511627776

OVERALL FUNCTIONAL
ORGANIZATION OF THE CPU
COMPUTER BUSES
1. A bus is an electronic pathway for bits/signals to be
transmitted between the various computer
components.
2. Is an electrical pathway for signals to flow from one
point to another in a circuit.
Buses are implemented as actual communication lines.
They may be laid down as a circuit on the chip
itself(internal buses) or they may be cables (external
buses) expanded to facilitate connection of devices.

Data and instruction flow
CPU
INSTRUCTIONS INSTRUCTIONS
CONTROL UNIT
ARITHMETIC AND
LOGIC UNIT
RESULTS OF DATA TO BE
PROCESSING PROCESSED
INPUT DEVICES MAIN MEMORY UNIT OUTPUT DEVICES

INPUT DATA OUTPUT DATA
OUTPUT TO DATA TO BE
BE STORED PROCESSED KEY
DATA FLOW
SECONDARY STORAGE INSTRUCTION FLOW
DEVICES
Types of computer buses
• Address bus – this is a pathway used to locate the
address in memory for the next instruction.
• it is unidirectional (one way)
• Data bus – pathway where actual data transfer takes
place.
• It is bi-directional
• Control bus – pathway for all timing and controlling
functions from the control unit to all other parts of the
system.

TYPES OF PROCESSORS
• Processors can be classified in 3 ways:
1. According to data bus width
2. According to instruction set
3. According to clock speed

TYPES OF PROCESSORS
• According to data bus width
• This is the number of bits that can be transmitted at a go
• e.g. 32 bit and 64 bit processors
• According to instruction set
• A processor consists of instructions set.
• Complex instruction set computers(CISC)
Made up of a large number of instruction set
e,.g. Intel made processors, AMD and Cyrix
• Reduced instruction set computers(RISC)
Uses a fewer instruction set
e.g. Motorola and Sun Microsystems made processors
Used on servers and apple computers

TYPES OF PROCESSORS
• According to clock speed
This is measured in Hertz.
Is the number of cycles per second
This can be in KHZ,MHZ or GHZ.

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES
• Also referred to as backing storage or auxiliary
storage.
• These are devices which provide alternative long-
term storage for programs, data and information.
• To back up means to store a duplicate of
information. The duplicate is normally stored away
from the original.

Secondary storage devices

Reasons for backing up data

Comparing primary storage and
secondary storage
Secondary storage Primary storage
Non volatile Volatile
Stores large amount of data Store less amount of data than secondary
storage devices
Cheaper on per megabyte basis More expensive
Expandable Limited
Not directly accessible by the CPU Directly accessible by the CPU
Slow in reading/writing data Very fast reading/writing of data.

Storage Capacity
• The amount of data and that can be stored on a storage
device is measured in 'bytes'.
• One byte contains 8 ‘bits’ (bits are short for Binary
Digit). This is the smallest unit of data that can be
stored. Each 'bit' is represented as a binary number,
either 1 or 0.
• A single keyboard character such as the letters A or B
takes one byte of storage.

Storage capacity abbreviations
• KB - kilobyte - 1000 (thousand)

• MB - megabyte - 1,000,000 (million)
• GB - gigabyte - 1,000,000,000 (billion)
• TB - terabyte - 1,000,000,000,000 (trillion)

Classification of secondary storage
devices
They can be classified as:
1. According to portability: whether fixed or removable
2. According to technology used to read or write data:
whether optical, magnetic or solid state

A. According to technology used to
read or write data
1. Magnetic disk
Stores bits as magnetic spots
They include
i. Magnetic tapes
ii. Floppy disks
iii. Zip disk
iv. Jaz disk
v. Hard disk

Magnetic disks
a. Magnetic tapes
Thin strip of magnetic coated plastic which is wrapped onto a reel.
they resemble music cassetes used in home tape recorders.

The tape may be housed inside a plastic catridge as shown above.
Data is read using a tape drive
Tape side view

Magnetic tapes (cont)
• Data is stored in blocks separated by inter record gap left
for stopping purposes.
block
IRG
• It is a Serial Access Storage(SAS) Device meaning that if the

information of interest is at the end of the tape, the
computer will have to read all the preceding files which is
time consuming.
magnetic tapes
Advantages disadvantages
They are cheap Very slow in accessing data
They are portable Easily damaged by dust, heat, touching,etc
They can be erased and re-used
Holds a lot of data

Uses of magnetic tapes
• Used where extremely large amounts of data need to
be backed up.
• Used where speed of reading/writing of data is NOT a
priority.
• Used in Batch Process applications such as clearing bank
cheques and producing payslips.
• Used for backups of File Servers on computer networks
in Schools and
• Business. (For example – your files are backed up on the
school network)

b. Floppy disk
Also known as diskette.
It is made of a small flexible round disc coated with
magnetised iron oxide.
The disc is covered with a plastic protective casing.
Its capacity is 1.44MB.
There are 8 inch, 5 ¼ inch and 3 ½ inch floppy disk sizes.

External structure

External structure

Internal structure

Uses of floppy disk
• • Still used where very small files need to be
transferred/stored (e.g. small word processed
documents).
• • Write protect facility is useful to prevent accidental
overwriting of data.

floppy disks

c. Zip Disk
• Resemble floppy disk but have higher storage capacity.
• They hold slightly larger at least 250 MB and are thicker
in size.
• They mostly come with a separate portable external zip
drive.

d. Jaz disk
• They resemble zip disk in every sense but hold as much
as 2GB.

e. Hard Disk Drive
• Made from metal coated with a thin film of magnetic
oxide.
• The hard disk unit is made of shiny rigid magnetic disks
or platters with read/ write heads housed in a
protective casing.
• The read/write heads float just above the surface of the
rapidly rotating disk to read or write data.
• Most computer hard disks are connected to the
motherboard via a channel called a controller.

Hard disk cont..
• Examples of hard disk controllers include:
• Integrated Drive Electronics(IDE)
• Enhanced IDE
• Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA)

Types of hard disks
• Internal hard disk
Mounted inside the system unit.
• External hard disk
Removable storage media.
Any internal hard drive can be placed in a hard drive
enclosure and used as an external hard drive via a USB
port.

External hard disk

Hard disk structure

Internal structure

The hard disk unit is made
of shiny, rigid magnetic
disks or platters that are
arranged vertically on a
common axis. They can
hold thousand of
programs and files.

hard drives
advantages disadvantages
•They are very reliable •Can suffer head crush resulting to loss of
data
•Fast read/write times (Saves data to •Can be damaged easily when computer
disk and reads back from it quickly). is not shut down properly (Disc crash!).
•Huge capacities (Can store thousands •They are sensitive to dust, humidity and
of movies and music files). magnetic fields which can corrupt stored
data.
•Very easy to update/delete files
• doesn’t deteriorate as quickly as floppy

Uses of hard disks

Hard disk drives (cont..)
• A hard disk consist of one or more metallic platters
stacked on top of each other but not touching one
another.
• The stack of platters is attached to a rotating pole called
a spindle.
• These platters stacked on top of each other form a
hypothetical cylinder.
• As the disc rotates the read/write head moves in and
out over the surface to read or write data.

Care of magnetic storage media
• Don’t expose a magnetic media to strong magnetic fields.
This would disorient the magnetic dipoles causing erasure of
recorded data.
• Don’t touch magnetic surfaces
• Don’t expose magnetic media to heat. Heat energy leads to
loss of magnetic strength hence data can easily be lost
• Don’t drop them on the ground
• Don’t bend or fold a magnetic media or put heavy weight on
the to avoid breaking or damaging them.
• Don’t remove a media from the drive when it is still being
accessed by the computer because it may result to data loss

Optical discs
• Data is read and written into these discs using a laser
beam(a very strong concentrated light).
• Examples:
• Compact Disc (CD)
• Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
• Optical card
• Optical tape
• Laser servo 120 Superdisc (LS120)

1. Compact Discs (CD)
• Holds as much as 700MB of data.
• The recording surface is made up of pits and lands
(bumps) which can be seen under a strong electronic
microscope.
• The process of recording data on a CD is called Burning.
• Burning of CDs is done using software such as
Ashampoo, Nero, Alcohol

Types of compact discs
1. Compact Disk – Read Only Memory (CD-ROM)
This is a type of CD when data is recorded on them by the
manufacturer, one cannot change them nor add
anything to them.
Uses:
CD-ROMS are used by manufacturers to store smaller files
such as:
• Music CD’s, Electronic Books etc
• Software such as Microsoft Word etc

Compact disc

CDs
• portable •More expensive than diskette
•Higher storage capacity compared to •Not possible to change data written on it
diskette unless it is a CD-RW
•More secure as it cannot be changed or •Smaller data capacity than hard disk
attacked by viruses
•One Cannot erase stored data accidentally •Slower data access / transfer time
compared to hard disk

2. Compact Disc –Recordable (CD-R)
• They are initially blank and the user can record data on
it.
• However , once the data has been written on it one can
only read but cannot change it.
• It is coated with a special dye which changes colour to
represent data when burned with a laser beam.

3. Compact Disc – Re writable
• They allow the user to record, erase and rewrite new
information.

Note
• CD-ROM and CD-Rs are examples of Write Once Read
Many (WORM) media.
• The allow data to be recorded only once but can be
read as many times as possible.

2. Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
•They resemble CDs but hold higher capacity upto 17 GB

•Standard DVDs hold 4.7GB of data.
•Suitable for recording motion pictures e.g. videos because they
offer better sound and picture quality than CDs.

Types of DVDs
1. DVD-ROM
When data is recorded on them by the manufacturer, one
cannot change them or add anything to them.
2. DVD-R
They are initially blank, the user can record data on it.
Once data has been written on it, one cannot change it

Types of DVDs
3. DVD –RW
They allow data to be recorded, erased and rewritten.

DVDs
-Cheaper than hard disk - Less data capacity than hard disks
-More data capacities than CDs -Slow data access rates than hard disks
-Portable - More expensive than CDs

3. Laser Servo 120 (LS-120) superdisk
• It is a disk that resembles a 3.5 inch diskette but uses
optical technology.
• It has a greater storage capacity and speed of data
retrieval.

4. Optical tape
• Similar to the magnetic tape but data is stored onto it
using optical technology.

5. Optical Card
• Resembles an MICR card but data is read and written
optically on a tape.
• Mostly used in banks and other business organisations
to record customers details.

optical storage
- Massive storage capacity -expensive
- Stores data permanently - Costly hardware and software for reading
-Secured - Breaks easily (fragile)
-High quality pictures and sound - Sensitive to dust, water, scratches which
easily damages them.
-portable

3. Solid state storage media

Solid state media
• Solid State Drives have no moving parts.
• Solid State technology is known as ‘Flash memory’ and examples
include
Memory Sticks/Pen Drives and Memory Cards.
• They store data as 1’s and 0’s (Just like Magnetic and Optical storage
devices) within millions of mini transistors instead of on films of
magnetic substance.
• Employs integrated circuits which can be altered, accessed and
erased electronically.

Characteristics of flash memory
• Smaller physical size- highly portable.
• Consume much less power (No moving parts to use energy)
• Much faster data access/transfer times.
• More robust (No moving parts makes them harder to
damage)
• cheap

B. Classification according to
portability
i. Fixed storage devices
e.g. internal hard disk
Found inside the system unit.
i. Removable storage devices
These media are not housed inside the computer.
Data is written and read into the media using devices
known as drives

Removable storage devices
• Examples:
• Magnetic tapes
• Floppy disks
• Jaz disks
• Zip disks
• Optical disks such as CDs, DVDs
• Solid state devices
• External hard disks

Power supply and peripheral
device interfacing
Defination of terms
• Peripheral device- this is a device connected to the
system unit by use of special interface cables that
transmit data to or from the devices.
• Peripheral device interfacing- this refers to connecting a
peripheral device to a computer through ports using
either cables or wireless connectivity.
• Port- it’s a socket on the system unit into which a cable
from an external peripheral device is plugged in to
facilitate transfer of data and information between the
device and the CPU.

a. Power supply unit and adapter
• You connect a computer to the mains using a power cable.
• The type of power from the mains is Alternating Current
(AC) whereas the internal components of a computer
require Direct Current (DC).
• The work of the power supply unit mounted on the system
unit casing is to convert AC power To DC power.
• Laptops have an adapter which does the same.

Power supply unit and adapter

b. Peripheral device interfacing

Peripheral device interfacing

"Gender"
• Even though it may sound funny computer ports (and their matching plugs)
have "gender". They are either male or female. The male ones (only few) have
pins and the female ones have holes where those pins fit.
• This may seem like a detail but it may be helpful to identify computer ports
and also it is something good to know so you don't try to match a male plug
with a male socket. That may damage your port.

A. Parallel interface
• Transmits 8 bits of data simultaneously
using a set of many conductors(wires)
each bit being transmitted on its own
wire.
• Also known as centronic or LPT(line
printer) port.
//
Symbol(s)

Parallel interface
What is the parallel port used for?
• Printer - The most common use for the parallel port.
• Scanner - Another commonly used parallel device is a
parallel port scanner. Parallel port scanners are a
popular alternative to SCSI scanners because of how
easy they are to install.
• External Drives - Another popular use of the parallel
ports are external drives such as the Zip Drive, which
can be removed from one computer and placed onto
another.
Advantages of parallel port
• Transmits data faster over a short distance.
Disadvantages of parallel port

• Costly to run long distances due to multiple wires
• Suffers from electromagnetic interference
• Cable lengths more limited than a serial cable

B. Serial Interface
• Also known as COM or RS 232 ports.
• They support data transmission one bit at a time on a
single wire.
• They are slower than parallel ports but are more reliable
because they can support data transmission to devices
connected 15m away.

serial interface
What is the serial port used for?
• Printer - The most common use for the serial port.
Symbol(s)
IOIO

Advantages of serial port
• Cheaper due to small number of wires.
Disadvantages of serial port

• Slower than parallel cables

C. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
• provides a serial bus standard for connecting devices,
usually to a computer, but it also is in use on other
devices such as set-top boxes, game consoles and PDAs.

USB
• A USB port can be able to connect as many as 127
peripheral devices daisy chained to a single port known
as the root hub.
• There are Different USB versions including USB 1.1, USB
2.0 and USB 3.0.

USB cont (DON’T WRITE)
• USB versions
• USB 1.1: Released in August 1998, this is the first USB version to be widely adopted (the original version 1.0
never made it into consumer products). It has a top speed of 12Mbps (though in many cases only performs at
1.2Mbps). It's largely obsolete.
• USB 2.0: Released in April 2000, it has a max speed of 480Mbps in Hi-Speed mode, or 12Mbps in Full-Speed
mode. It currently has the max power out put of 5V, 1.8A and is backward-compatible with USB 1.1.
• USB 3.0: Released in November 2008, USB 3.0 has a top speed of 5Gbps in SuperSpeed mode. A USB 3.0 port --
and its connector -- are usually colored blue. USB 3.0 is backward-compatible with USB 2.0 and its port can
deliver up to 5V, 1.8A of power. This is sometimes refereed to as USB 3.1 Gen 1.
• USB 3.1 (sometimes refereed to as USB 3.1 Gen 2.): Released on July 26, 2013, USB 3.1 doubles the speed of
USB 3.0 to 10Gbps (now called SuperSpeed+ or SuperSpeed USB 10 Gbps), making it as fast as the original
Thunderbolt standard. USB 3.1 is backward-compatible with USB 3.0 and USB 2.0. USB 3.1 has three power
profiles (according to USB Power Delivery Specification), and allows larger devices to draw power from a host:
up to 2A at 5V (for a power consumption of up to 10W), and optionally up to 5A at either 12V (60W) or 20V
(100W). The first USB 3.1 products are expected to be available in late 2016, and will mostly use USB Type-C
design.

Benefits for Users
• Ease of Use
Ease of use was a major design goal for USB, and the result is an interface that’s a pleasure to use for
many reasons:
• One interface for many devices.

USB is versatile enough to be usable with many kinds of peripherals. Instead of having a different
connector type and supporting hardware for each peripheral, one interface serves many.
• Automatic configuration.
When a user connects a USB peripheral to a computer, its OS automatically detects the peripheral and
loads the appropriate software driver.
• Hot pluggable/swappable
We can connect and disconnect a peripheral whenever you want, whether or not the system and
peripheral are powered, without damaging the PC or peripheral. The operating system detects when a
device is attached and readies it for use.
• No power supply required (sometimes).

A peripheral that requires up to 500 milliamperes can draw all of its power from the bus instead of
having its own supply..

USB On-The-Go (OTG)
• Released in December 2006.
• USB On-The-Go makes it possible for two USB devices to
communicate with each other without requiring a
separate USB host.
• In practice, one of the USB devices acts as a host (device
roles change) for the other device.
• For example:
• A usb flash drive (peripheral) served by a printer (host);
• A keyboard (peripheral) connected to a mobile phone (host)

D. Small Computer System Interface
• They transmit data in parallel but are faster.
• One SCSI port allows us to connect multiple devices.

E. Personal Systems 2(PS/2)
• It is a small 6 pin mini-din
• Used to connect devices such as the keyboard and the
mouse.

F. Video Graphic Array (VGA)
• Used to connect a monitor or data projector.
• It is shaped like a “D” with 15 pins.

G. Audio interface
• Used to connect speakers and microphone.

H. Firewire interface
• Also known as IEEE 1394. it has the same features as
the USB but transmits data faster.
• Mostly used to stream video from a digital camera or
camcorder.
• Mostly found on Apple© computers such as MacBook

I. Infrared and Bluetooth
• Infrared ports use infrared waves to connect to infrared
enabled devices.
• Bluetooth uses short range radio broadcast to connect
to any Bluetooth enabled device such as a phone.

J. High Definition Media Interface(HDMI)
• HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is the latest and greatest digital
audio/video cable connection and can give you great HDTV resolution. Besides
HDTVs, HDMI is being included in a variety of devices these days, including DVD
players, cable and satellite set-top boxes, Media Center Edition PCs, and the Sony
PlayStation 3 gaming console.
What’s so great about HDMI? Well, a few things:
• It’s all-digital. Like DVI and FireWire, HDMI provides an all-digital path for your
standard and high-definition video signals.
• It’s high-bandwidth. HDMI can support data signals as fast as 5GB per second. That
means it can handle HDTV with plenty of room to spare. (In fact, HDTV uses less
than half this bandwidth — so the HDTV signals don’t have to be compressed.)
FireWire, by comparison, tops out at 400MB per second (there is an 800MB per
second variant, but it’s not very common) — less than 1/12 the bandwidth of
HDMI.
• It can support all variants of HDTV. 720p, 1080i, even 1080p can run over an HDMI
cable.
• It can carry up to eight channels of digital audio. So a single HDMI cable can carry
your HDTV and your 7.1-channel surround sound, reducing the tangle of cables
behind your system.

K. Digital Visual Interface (DVI)
• is a video display interface developed by the Digital
Display Working Group (DDWG). The digital interface is
used to connect a video source, such as a video display
controller to a display device, such as a computer
monitor. It was developed with the intention of creating
an industry standard for the transfer of digital video
content.

L. Ethernet/networking port
• Used to connect a computer to a wired local area
network through an RJ 45 jack.
RJ 45 jack.

Summary of ports

Ports on the backside of system unit

THINGS TO OBSERVE BEFORE
ATTEMPING TO CARRY OUT ANY SET UP
ACTIVITY
• Disconnect all devices from power source before starting to
work on them.
• Do not work on any peripheral device without the guidance
of the teacher.
• Never work alone because you may need help in case of an
emergency.
• Discharge any static electricity that might build up on your
hands by touching an earthed metallic object and then
wearing an antistatic wrist member because the
body can hold as much as 200volts of static charge that can
damage sensitive components on the motherboard.

Devices that get their power from
ports
• Mouse
• Keyboard
• USB speakers
• USB modem
• Flash disk

Task
• Name any two microchips found on the computer
motherboard.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT NEEDED TO
SET UP A COMPUTER
• Screwdrivers
• Antistatic wrist member
• Pliers
• Device manuals
• Device drivers – programs that help a hardware work
with the existing hardware configuration.

Steps of computer set-up and cabling 1
1. Connecting basic
computer components.
2. Connecting devices to
motherboard –
indentifying connecting
points on the
motherboard. Carefully
identify the points on the
motherboard before you
start connecting the
computer ports.
3. Connecting the hard disk, floppy drive, CD-ROM
a. Wear antistatic material to discharge any static change on
the body.
b. Check for a free drive bay to hold disk drive.
c. Slide the disk into its bay and screw it.
d. Connect the power supply cable to the device.
e. Connect the cable both to the drive then to motherboard.
f. If installation is complete replace the system unit cover.

4. Connecting other peripheral devices.
a. Identify its port and data cable or interface cable.
b. Connect the data cables of all devices to their respective
ports.
c. Switch on the computer power source.
d. Successful boot means the computer was properly setup.

Computer software
Computer software
• These are a set of instructions or programs that guide a
computer in its operations (or to process data).

Classifications of software
• According to purpose
• According to method of acquisition
• According to end user licence

Operating systems
System
software firmware
Utility software
Networking software
According to
purpose Word processors
Application Spreadsheets
software
Desktop publishing
Presentation software
etc
In house( tailor
software made)
According to
acquisition
Off the shelf
Open source
proprietary
According to end user freeware

license
shareware
a. Classification according to purpose
1. System Software
• Performs a variety of fundamental operations that
avail computer resources to the user.
• These functions include:
• Booting the computer and making sure al the fundamental
elements are working properly.
• Performing operations such as loading, retrieving, execution
and storing application programs
• Storing and retrieving files
• Performing a variety of system utility functions

System Software
a. Operating systems
An operating system consist of a set of complex programs
that supervise the hardware resources of a computer
during processing and also controls execution of user
programs called applications.
It also acts as an interface (go-between) between the
applications and the computer hardware.
Examples include
• Microsoft Windows(2000,7,8,10,XP)
• Linux (UBUNTU,Redhat,Android)
• Macintosh OS- MAC OS
• UNIX

System Software
b. Firmware
- Also known as stored logic.
- This is a combination of hardware and software
instructions recorded on an electronic chip.
- This can be mounted or plugged into the
motherboard as a read-only memory chip.
- Firmware may hold an operating system(e.g. as in
smartphones), utility programs, language processors,
etc
- Examples is BIOS.

System Software
c. Utility software
• This is a special program that performs commonly used
services that make certain aspects of computing go on
smoothly. e.g. sorting, copying, disk management, etc
• There are two basic types of utility programs:
• System level
• Application level utility

Utility software
1. System level utility
Helps the user to work with the operating system and its
functions. E.g. notifies the user when he/she enters a
wrong command and gives suggestions on how the
error can be corrected.
2. Application level utility
Make application programs run more smoothly and
efficiently. They are purchased separately or may be
part of an operating system.

Utility programs examples

System Software
d. Networking software
• Used to establish communication between two or more
computers by linking them using a communication
channel like cables to create a computer network.
• May come as independent software or integrated in an
operating system.
• Example is Novel Netware, Windows NT, Linux

2. Application software
• Also known as application packages.
• Are programs designed to help the user accomplish
specific tasks.
• Examples include

Examples of application software
Application software Uses Examples
Word processor Production of textual documents such as •Microsoft Word

letters, memos, reports, CVs •Word Pro
•Word star
•Word Perfect
•Apple Works
Spreadsheets Enables the user to perform calculations e.g. •Ms-excel
preparing budgets •Lotus 1,2,3
•Visicalc
Databases Keeping and managing records and files •Ms Access
•Oracle
•Dbase
Desktop publishing Designing publications like newspapers, •Adobe Pagemaker
magazines, bronchures, cards •Ms-Publisher
•Adobe In design
Graphics software Design and manipulate graphics •Corel draw
•Photoshop
Presentations Software Creating presentations e.g. sales •Ms powerpoint
presentations, demonstrations •Harvard Graphics
•Impress
Accounting Software Carrying out accounting tasks •Quickbooks
•Sage Pastel
Web authoring software Designing and developing webpages •Ms-Frontpage
Prepared By Tr. John @Cute Ideas Ent•Dreamweaver 371
b.According to acquisition
• According to acquisition, software can be classified as

either:
• In-house developed software / tailor made
• Vendor off-the-shelf

a. Inhouse
In-house developed
• These are programs that are uniquely designed and tailored to
meet a particular user’s needs. E.g. a school may decide to
computerize its operations.
• These programs are not available in the shops and once
developed for one company or user they may not address the
needs of other users.
• These programs can either be developed by a programmer
employed within the organization or the organization may seek
the services of a software house or consultant to develop an in-
house program.

b. Vendor off-the-shelf
Vendor off-the-shelf
• These programs are developed by software engineers,
packaged and then made available for purchase through a
vendor, a distributor or directly from the developer.
• Also known as standard software.
• These programs can either be:
• Suite.
• This is a collection of closely related software bundled into one package.
• e.g. Microsoft Office, Lotus Suite
• Single purpose- these are available independently
• e.g. QuickBooks, Sage Pastel

Advantages and Disadvantages of
standard /Off-the-Shelf
Advantages of standard /Off-the-Shelf
• Are usually well tested by a pool of professional programmers hence minor or no errors.
• Most of the packages are menu-driven hence easy to learn and use
• Cheaper than in-house programs
• They are readily available for almost any task
• They can be easily modified to meet user’s needs.
• Packages are generally portable
Disadvantages of standard /Off-the-Shelf
• They may not fit well into the organization's processing tasks as they are intended to meet
a variety of user’s needs.
• They may have some features not needed by the user which may take extra storage
• The user may not be free to correct any routines of the package.
NB: the advantages of off the shelf forms the disadvantages for in house programs and vice
versa.

Assignment:
• state at least three advantages and disadvantages of in

house programs
• -state at least three manufactures of off the shelf
packages

c. According to End-User-License
• According to End-User-License software
may be classified as:
• Open source
• Proprietary
• Freeware
• Shareware

According to End-User-License
Open source
• Also known as non-proprietary software;
• Refers to software whose source code(programmed set of instructions) is freely made
available to users.
• The users are encouraged to use, modify and distribute the modified product.
• For example UBUNTU, Open Office, VLC, Android
Proprietary
• Software whose source code is hidden from users.
• Modifications are only made by the software manufacturers.
• For example Microsoft Windows, Microsoft Office. Adobe PageMaker
Freeware
• Software products made freely available to users.
• For example: VLC, AVG free edition, Avast Free Edition, Mozilla Web browser
Shareware
• Software products available free for a certain period after which users have to pay a fee to
continue enjoying the full features of the program.
• For example WinZip, Internet Download Manager
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
• Before purchasing a computer, hardware or software
resources, it is advisable to do a requirement analysis of
all the requirements necessary in order to balance
between cost and user needs.
• Requirement analysis involves:
• Identifying user needs
• Hardware evaluation
• Software evaluation

Hardware considerations
1. Microprocessor type and speed
• This determines the processing power , speed and cost of a
computer.
• Some of the microprocessors available today include Intel’s
(Pentium IV, Celeron, Core I3),AMD’s(Athlon, Duron)
• Consider an acceptable speed that meets the user requirements
at a fair price.
2. Computer memory capacity
• Memory determines what operating system and application can
be installed.
• For multimedia applications a computer should have sufficient
memory to handle the heavy applications that require a lot of
memory space in order to run.
• Consider the following when purchasing a computer or RAM
module for upgrade
• The type of memory package e.g. DDR I, DDR 2
• Whether there is an empty memory slot
• Compatibility with other installed modules if upgrading.
• Capacity of the module.
3. Cost
• The price should be within budget
• It is important to consider the cost of a computer so as not
to buy a very costly system.
• Do a market survey to compare prices before purchasing a
computer

4. Warranty
• This is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out
terms and conditions of after selling a product in case of failure or
malfunction.
• It is important to consider whether the seller is ready to actually
provide after sales services.
Factors to consider when evaluating warranty
• Period/duration/scope of cover: the warranty should specify the
duration of time covered.
• Service agreement/level: the warranty should indicate the type of
service to be provided.
• Cost implication/liability agreement: cost sharing between the dealer
and the buyer in the event of any loss or malfunction.
• Preventive maintenance: regularity of service at intervals,etc

5. Upgradability and compatibility
• Compatibility refers to the ability of a hardware device to
work harmoniously with parts from other manufacturers.
• A hardware bought should be compatible.
• Also you should consider a computer that is upgradable.
E.g. should support large hard disks, high speed serial bus
devices such as firewire and USB available in the market
today.

6. Portability
• Refers to the ability of a hardware device to be moved
from one place to another.
• People who work away from the office are more suited by
portable devices such as laptops and PDAs.

7. Special user needs
• Consider the unique user needs. E.g. consider buying
voice input devices for the visually impaired.
8. Monitor
• Choice of the monitor may depend on size, resolution
and technology used on it. E.g. flat panel displays are
replacing CRTs

9. Multimedia capability
• When dealing with multimedia applications consider buying
a computer with a CD/DVD drive, sound card and SVGA
monitor.
10. Other considerations
These include
• Available ports e.g. HDMI
• Wireless connectivity such as WiFi support, Bluetooth
support
• System unit form factor: whether desktop or tower
• Brand name of the computer: whether DELL, HP

Software considerations
1. Authenticity
This refers to genuineness, validity and or legitimacy of an
item.
Make sure you acquire an original copy of software
accompanied by the developer’s license and certificate of
authenticity.
2. Documentation
This refers to manuals prepared by the developer having the
details on how to install, use and maintain the software.
Documentation enables the user to work with the software
with minimum guidance.
Always consider software that has documentation.

3. User needs
• This dictates the type of operating system and application
programs to be considered for acquisition. E.g for typing
textual documents you need a word processor.
• People with disability will also require special software that
recognizes other forms of input like voice and natural sound.
4. Reliability and security
• A good software should be reliable and have security
mechanisms that protect data and information from illegal
access.

5. User friendliness
• This is a measure of how easily the users can be able to operate the
computer.
• The ease to use a program will most likely influence whether the user will
prefer it or not.
6. Cost
• Always consider the cost of acquiring software against the benefits that it
is likely to bring.
7. Compatibility and system configuration
• Software compatibility refers to the ability of a software to work with the
existing hardware, operating system or application programs and should
be readily upgradable.
8. Portability
• This refers to the ability of a program to be copied or installed in more
than one computer.
• Consider a software which can be installed in more than one machine.

OPERATING SYSTEMS

OPERATING SYSTEMS (OS)
• This is the main program that controls the execution of

user applications and enables the user to access hardware
and software resources of a computer.
• User applications send messages via the operating
system so as to instruct the hardware to perform a
particular task.

• The figure below represents communication between the
user programs and hardware via the operating system :
User
(runs application programs)
Application software
(Sends users requests to OS)
Operating system
(Receives executes requests)
hardware
(Receives and does OS commands)

Parts of the operating system
• The operating system consists two main parts:
• Shell
• This is the outer part of an operating system used to interact with the
operating system.
The shell as an interface between users and the operating system.

Parts of the operating system
• The shell acts an interface to kernel, hiding complexity of
kernel's functions from users. Takes commands from user
and executes kernel's functions
- Kernel
• Core component of Operating System, interacts directly
with hardware, provides low level services to upper layer
components.
• The kernel is responsible for managing and controlling
computer resources such as the processor, main memory,
storage devices, input devices, output device and
communication devices.
Reasons why an Operating system is needed in a
computer (why operating systems were developed).
• Modern computer systems are so complex & fast such that they
need internal control.
• To ensure that the full system software facilities are readily
available.
• Due to the complexity of systems, jobs need to be controlled in
what they are allowed to do for security.
• To increase the throughput, i.e., to increase the amount of data
that can be processed through the system in a given period of
time.
• Improve communication between the user & the computer.
• To make complex tasks very simple for the user to carry out.
• It helps the computer to correct any problem that might occur.
- When an error occurs that can cause the computer to stop functioning, a
diagnostic message is displayed. The meaning of the message is then
checked in the computer operations manual.
• Reduces job setup time.
-When one job is running, other programs can be read onto the job
queue. The Input/Output devices can also be made ready without delay.
• Most computers allow many programs to be run & also many
users to use the system at the same time.
Functions of operating systems
a. Processor scheduling
• A multi-user or multi-tasking computer system which
can be accessed by different users or applications
simultaneously. The CPU can only execute one program
at any one time and therefore it is the work of the
operating system to schedule jobs according to
priorities so as to allocate those jobs CPU time.
• The OS decides which program will be allowed to the
CPU and for how long

b. Resource allocation
• Each available resource in a computer is assigned an Interrupt Request (IRQ).
• The operating system uses the IRQ to allocate resources being requested.
• Poor resource allocation causes deadlock.
• Deadlock
• This is a situation where a particular job holds a requested resource and fails to
release it, yet it is requesting for a resource held by the other job.
Conditions required for deadlock

• 1. Competition for non-sharable resources
• 2. Resources requested on a partial basis
• 3. An allocated resource can not be forcibly retrieved
Techniques to deal with deadlock:

- Deadlock avoidance schemas
- Turn non sharable resources into sharable ones (e.g. a printer can be made sharable, via a spooling
technique)

c. Memory management
• Data and instructions entered in the computer are temporarily held in the main
memory before and after processing.
• Since RAM is a scarce resource, the operating system determines which task remain
in memory awaiting for execution and which one will be kicked out back to secondary
storage.
• The operating system also decides how much memory to assign to particular tasks.
How the operating system manages memory
• The operating system may organize the main memory into blocks called page frames.
• Processes are equally divided into pieces that can fit into the frames called pages.
• The operating system swaps pages between the main memory and the secondary
storage.
• In the hard disk where the pages are held it is referred to as virtual memory.

Memory management(cont)
• Keep track of which part of memory are currently being
used and by whom.
• Decide which process are loaded into memory when
memory space becomes available.
• Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.

Functions of Operating system
d. Input/output management
• The operating system coordinates between the various
input / output and other peripheral devices such as the
auxiliary storage devices making sure that data is
transmitted securely.
• For example, when printing the operating system searches
for a printer, chooses the correct one, translates the name
for the CPU and finally the CPU sends the document to the
printer. This makes the CPU available for other activities.

Functions of operating system
e. Communication control and management
• The operating system is responsible for managing various
communication devices and provides an environment within
which communication protocols operate.

f. Error handling
• The operating system alerts the user of errors that may
arise out of illegal operations, hardware or software
failure and may even express what the error is and
where possible make suggestions on how to correct the
error.
• For example if a printer is jammed and cannot printer,
the operating system will stop the print job and alert
the user with a warning message.

g. Interrupt handling
• An interrupt is a break from the normal sequential
processing of instructions in a program.
• The operating system deals with critical requests
causing the processor to stop executing the current
process to attend to it, before returning the control
back to the process that was initially interrupted.

Other functions of the operating systems
include:
• Manages files and folders in the system (Naming,
Creating, Moving, Finding and Deleting folders etc).
• Manages system security. -- By means of password and
similar other techniques, preventing unauthorized
access to programs and data.
• Job accounting -- Keeping track of time and resources
used by various jobs and users.

Characteristics of an operating system.
An OS should have the following characteristics:
Reliable.
The OS should be at least as reliable as the hardware on which it runs. If a software or hardware error
occurs, the system should be able to detect the error and either try to correct the problem or try to
minimize the damage to the users of the system from the error.
Protected.
A user doesn’t want other users to interfere with him. Therefore, the system should protect users
from being affected both by errors of other users and by malicious attempts at tampering.
Efficient.
The OS is usually a complex program that uses a large part of the hardware resources for its own
functions. The resources consumed by the OS are not available for users.
Therefore, the system itself should be very efficient, & should manage user’s resources to minimize
their idle time.
Convenient.
Systems should be designed keeping users in mind.
Therefore, an OS should be flexible & convenient to use. In addition, in order to allow the sharing of
resources, the OS must be in complete control of the allocation of the computer resources.
Predictable.
User demands on the system are generally unpredictable. At the same time, users prefer to get
service that does not vary widely over extended periods of time. An estimate as to when the user will
get his input should be given.
Types of operating systems
• Operating systems can be classified according to:
1.Number of tasks
2.Number of users
3.User interface

1. Classification according to number
of tasks
a.Single tasking operating system

• Allows processing of one application program at a time.
• This means that the user can only run one interactive
program at a time. The user must exit from the program
before loading and running another program.
• Examples:
- MS DOS

Classification according to number of
tasks
b. Multi tasking operating system
• Allows a single CPU to execute more than one application program
apparently at the same time.
• Through processor scheduling, the OS allocates time slices to the ready
tasks, this enables the CPU to switch its attention between programs. This
happens very fast that it appears as if the tasks are being executed
simulatenously.
• Examples:
- Windows 7,8,10,XP
- MAC OS
- UNIX

2. Classification according to number
of users
1. Single user operating system
• Designed to be used by only one person.
• They cannot support more than one person and runs only
one user application program at a time.
• Examples:
- MS DOS

Classification according to number of
users
b. Multi user operating system
• Allows more than one users to interactively use a computer.
• Also known as time sharing.
• All mainframes are multi user systems.
• Examples:
- Unix
- Windows 2003 server
- Novel
- Linux
- Windows NT
3. Classification according to user
interface (Human Computer Interaction)
• User interface refers to the interaction between the user and a computer.
• Features/characteristics of a user-friendly HCI.

• It should be relatively easy for the user to try to start using the system.
• The system should be self-contained, so that the user is not forced into
accessing manuals.
• The amount of effort & the information required for the user to get
the system complete required tasks should be minimal.
• The system should be robust & reliable, i.e., the user should be
protected from unexpected system actions, including system failures.
• The system should be able to adjust to different levels of expertise
between users & also as users grow in competence.
• The user should be made to feel in control of what is going on.
• The system should behave in a logical & consistent manner, enabling
the user to reason about what is going on and apply what has been
learned.
a. Command based operating system
• These let the user type a command at a command prompt.
• The computer reads the typed command from the command line and execute it.
• Command Line Interface's do not make use of images, icons or graphics. All the user is
sees is a plain black screen
Because they use no graphics they require very little computer power
• There are over 270 different commands that can be entered at the command prompt.
Commands have to be entered precisely without spelling mistakes or else the operating
system will return an error.
• Remembering commands and the exact way to enter them can be difficult and so
Command Line Interface Operating Systems are considered hard to use

Key features of a Command Line
Interface:
keyboard for entering commands
console for entering commands
A command prompt where commands are typed

Command Line Interface

Command Line Interface
Examples
•MS-DOS
•UNIX

Dos commands
• Internal vs external commands
• Internal commands are the most commonly used commands
which are stored in the main memory for fast access.e.g.
dir,date,time
• External commands- these are commands not frequently
used. They are therefore not loaded in main memory when
the computer boots up. E.g. disccopy, backup, format

Dos commands
• Del
• Dir
• Copycon
• Copy
• Format
• Type

Practice commands
• Create a text file named “practise” and write the
following text.
mid term is next week.

b. Menu driven operating system
• These provide the user with a list of options to choose

from.
• It is suitable for beginners who have difficulty recalling
commands.
• Examples:
- DOS shell
- DOS editor

c. Graphical User Interface
operating system
• GUI's are visual (graphical) interfaces and they are more
popular than CLI's because they are very easy to use. The
graphics do need more computer power however.
• Instead of typing in commands, the user can use a mouse to
point and click objects on the screen.
• Makes use of a feature called WIMP
• Windows- these are the rectangular areas where users work on.
• Icons- pictorial representation of commands, files, folders or
applications

c. Graphical User Interface
operating system
icons

c. Graphical User Interface operating
system
• Menus- list of options from which the user can select
from.
• Types of menus
• Drop down – sub menu that starts from the top going
downwards.
• e.g.

system
• Pop up – this appears anywhere on the screen after
pressing the right mouse button.
• e.g.

system
• Side kick – this is a sub menu that appears to the right or
left of a menu.

system
• Pointing devices- these control a pointer on the screen and
also make selections

system

system
• Examples of GUIs
- Microsoft Windows 7,8,10,XP,Vista
- Macintosh
- Ubuntu

Factors to consider when choosing an
operating system
i. Hardware configuration of the computer: these are such things
as memory capacity, processor speed and hard disk capacity.
ii.The type of computer in terms of size and make: Most Apple
computers don’t run on Microsoft Operating systems.
iii.The application software intended for the computer: e.g. .exe
application files can only run on Windows Operating systems.
iv.User friendliness of the Operating system
v.The documentation available
vi.The cost of the operating system
vii.Reliability and security provided by the operating system
viii.Availability in the market
Organization of information by the
operating system
Factors that dictate how an operating system

organizes information
i. Rapid access: the organization method should allow quick access to stored
data.
ii.Ease of update: the organization method should allow ease of update and the
operating system must be able to keep a record of the date of modification.
iii.Economy of storage: the organization method should use the least storage
possible
iv.Simplicity of maintenance: should enable quick navigation through the file
system and make it easy for it to be maintained.
v. Reliability: the organization method must be reliable.

How an operating system organizes
information
• The OS organize its information in a three-tier

hierarchy in terms of:
 Drives
 Folders and sub folders
 Files

How an operating system
organizes information

a. Files
• A file is a collection of related data given a unique name for ease
of access, manipulation and storage on a backing storage.
Details of a file
• A unique name and an optional extension: the name and
extension are separated by a period (.). e.g. WEKAWEKA.mp3.
• The file name is WEKAWEKA and the extension is mp3.
• Extensions identify the type of file, e.g.
• .doc , .docx – a word processor file
• .txt – a plain text file
• .mp3 – a compressed music file
• .jpeg - a compressed photographic file
• .xls, .xlsx - a spreadsheet file.
• The size it occupies on the disk
• The date and time the file was created
• Date of modification
Types of files
• There are three types of files namely:
• System files
• Application files
• Data files

a. System files
• They contain information that is critical for the
operation of the computer.
• Examples:
• .sys files
• .bat files
• .dll files
• .ini files

b. Data files
• Contain user specific data.
• Created by application programs. E.g.
File extension Program that has created it
.txt Notepad
.doc / .docx Microsoft word
.ppt /.pptx Powerpoint
.xls / .xlsx Microsoft Excel
.pub Microsoft Publisher
.jpeg /.jpg Image file
.mp3 / .wav Audio files
.mp4 / .vob / .avi Video file

c. Application files
• They hold programs that are executable. E.g. .exe
Application file Executable program

Notepad.exe Notepad
Winword.exe Microsoft Word
Calc.exe Calculator
Excel.exe Microsoft Excel
MsPaint.exe Ms Paint
Msaccess.exe Microsoft Access

assignment
• complete the following table:
File extension File type
.txt Data
.exe
.ppt
.dll
.sys

Folders
• Also known as directory in some operating systems
such as DOS and UNIX.
• This is a named storage location where related files can
be stored.
• All folders originate from a special directory called the
root directory or root folder.
• A folder created inside another folder is called sub
folder.

Drives
• A drive is a secondary storage media.
• Drives may be given labels such as letters A-Z to
identify them with letter A and B reserved for Floppy
Disk Drive. For example:

Drive letters
Storage location Drive letter Remarks
Floppy drive A and B Assuming a computer has 2
floppy drives, one will be
assigned letter A and the
other B
Hard disk C,D,E,F Assuming a computer has 4
hard drives, they will be
assigned letters C-F
Optical drives D,E,F,G Assuming a computer has 1
hard drive and three CD/DVD
drives they will be assigned
letters D-E
Other removable D,E…,Z Assuming a computer has 1
hard drive and 0 CD/DVD
drives they will be assigned
letters D-Z.
Network drive D,E…,Z Assuming a computer has 1
hard drive and 0 CD/DVD
drive, they will be assigned
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Assignment
Y-2003
FORM 1 FORM 2 MISCELENEOUS
CHEMISTRY
MATHS CHEMISTRY MATHS
FILE 01 FILE 04 FILE 07 FILE 10

ASSIGNMENT (CONT)
1. What is the name of this file structure?
2. What will happen if an attempt to delete Form 2 while file 10

in mathematics is open?
3. State four advantages of this structure.
4. State the path to file 03.

Getting started with Microsoft
Windows
Desktop
- The first screen a user sees when windows
loads successfully showing that the
computer is ready for use.

Windows desktop features
• Background – this is the work space area on the
monitor on which icons and running tasks are placed.
• Icons – these are pictorial representations of commands
which are manipulated using a pointing device. E.g.
trash can to symbolize the recycle bin
• Task bar – this is the elongated bar at the bottom of the
screen.
• It enables the user to easily switch between different
programs and tasks that are currently running.

Parts of taskbar
toolbars
Parts of taskbar
• Start button – is the leftmost button. Displays the start
menu items when clicked
• Task manager – this is where the buttons of currently
running tasks are displayed.
• System tray – is the rightmost. Has icons running in the
background but not displayed on the screen. E.g antivirus
program, time and calendar, etc

Start menu items
• A list of choices that appear when the user clicks the
start button.
1. Programs menu / all programs
Displays list of programs displayed on the computer.
2. Control panel
Computer maintenance and configuration toolbar.
Provides tools that maintain and make changes to the
computer setup.

Start menu items
3. Run (Windows + R)
• Enables the user to:
• Install programs on hard disk
• Open files and folders from a storage location
• Run programs e.g. typing “WinWord” opens MS-Word

Start menu items
4. Log off
Terminates the current users sessions.
To go back to switch to a new user or new session, the user
must log in.
Log in: security measure that restricts unauthorized users from
accessing computer resources.

Start menu items
5. Turn off
Lets the user shut down , restart the computer or make the
computer go into hibernation or standby mode.
• Hibernation – saves all open windows then turns the computer off.
• Stand by – makes computer consume less power in idle mode but
remain available for immediate use.

Start menu items
6. Documents
Location for default storage of data files created in the
computer. E.g. MS-Word documents.

Managing files and folders
• To manipulate files and folders you can either use My
Computer icon or Windows Explorer (for Windows XP).
• Windows explorer
• Lets the user display the drives and folders in a
hierarchy or tree structure.
• Has the highest level called the root.
• The explorer divides the window into two panes:

Windows explorer
• Left pane: displays a list of drives and folders.
• Right pane: displays a list of files and sub folders contained
in a particular open drive or folder.

Creating a new folder
• Right click in the location you want to create a folder.
• Select new then folder
• Give the folder a name and then press enter key.

Renaming a file or folder
• Refers to changing the name of a file or folder from a
previous name to a new one.
• Right click the file/folder then rename
• Type the new name
• Press enter

Sorting files or folders
• Sorting is arranging files or folders in a particular order
either alphabetically, by size, date of creation or date of
modification.
• Windows sorts alphabetically by default.
• Right click on an empty space in the file or storage location
• Select sort by
• Select the method to sort by e.g. size, type, name, etc

Copying files or folders
• Copying is creating a duplicate.
• Copy and paste commands are used to create duplicates
of items.
• Once copied, information is held in a temporary location
known as the clipboard from where it can be
transferred to the destnation.

Copying files or folders
• To copy:
• Select the item to copy
• Right click then select copy or press CTRL + C
• Open the destination folder or drive
• Right click then choose paste or press CTRL + V

Moving files or folders
• Moving is changing the location of a file or folder.
• Cut and paste commands are used.
• Select the item to move
• Right click then choose cut or press CTRL + X
• Open the destination folder or drive
• Right click then choose paste or press CTRL + V

Deleting files or folders
• Refers to removing items from the storage medium.
• When an item is deleted, it is stored in a special folder called
recycle bin.
• Note:
• Don’t attempt to delete system and application
files from the hard disk as this may cause
system malfunction.
• Items deleted from removable storage media
such as flash disks is not taken to the recycle
bin rather it is completely lost.
• When deleting an item make sure it is not
open.
• To delete an item
• Select the item to delete
• Right click then select delete OR press delete key on the
keyboard.
• Confirm by clicking yes when asked whether you want to move
the item to the recycle bin.
• To restore deleted items:
• Double click the recycle bin icon on the desktop
• Select the item to be restored
• Select restore

• To permanently delete an item
• Select the item to delete
• Press SHIFT + DELETE
Or
- Go to the recycle bin then select empty recycle bin or delete

Searching files or folders
• Click start button, then type the name of the file or
folder to search at the search box

Searching files or folders
• in case you don’t know the location or name of the file to
search exactly then you can use a wildcard.
• A wildcard is a character that stands for another character.
E.g. *
• To use a wildcard to search:
• Click start button
• Type *.<extension of the file to search> e.g. *.doc, *.mp3
• All the files which have that extension will be displayed :e.g *.doc will
return all document files in the computer

Task
• What will the following return
• B*k.doc
• *.mp4
• Ali*.mp3

DISK MANAGEMENT USING
WINDOWS
• Microsoft windows provides the user with storage
media utilities such as
• Disk formatting
• Scanning a storae device for problems
• Disk defragmentation
• Disk compression
• Scanning for viruses
• Backing up data
• Disk partitioning

Disk formatting
• It is preparing a new disk for use by creating tracks and
sectors on the surface of the disk so that the OS can
recognize it and make it accessible.
• Other drives e.g. flash disk can be formatted to create a
file system on them.

Disk formatting
• To format a storage medium
• Double click my computer
• Right click on the drive to format
• Select format
• Choose a file system e.g. FAT 32 or NTFS
• File system is the technology that an OS uses to organize data on a
storage medium.
• FAT is for Flash disks, NTFS for hard disks, UDF for CDs
• Give the drive a label
• Check (tick) Quick format
• Click start to start the process
• Wait for the process to complete then close

Scanning a storage device for problems
• Windows scandisk is a disk management tool that helps

the user to check and repair minor drive problem, such
as lost storage locations or damaged surfaces.
• To scan a drive for errors:
• In my computer window, right click the window
• In the properties dialog box, select tools tab
• Click check now
• On the dialog box displayed, select a fix disk option then click
start

Defragmenting a disk
• A single file may have several pieces(fragments) scattered in several noncontiguous sectors on a disk.
• Defragmentation is the process of consolidating these fragments so that each file occupies a single,
contiguous space on the drive.
• The read and write head has to move back and forth over the disk surface to retrieve the fragmented
parts of the file which translates to:
• Wastage of time
• Free disk space
• Windows defragmenter consolidates these fragments so that each file occupies a single, contiguous
space on the drive.
• To defragment a drive:
• In my computer window, right click the drive
• Select properties
• In the properties dialog box click tools tab
• Click defragment now
• Select the volume to defragment
• Click defragment button to start the process
• Wait for the process to complete then close the defragmenter.

Compressing files, folders or a drive
• Compressing files or folders reduces the amount of space they
occupy on a drive while compressing a drive decreases the amount
of space used by all of the files and folders stored on that drive.
• To compress the drive:
• Double click my computer
• Right click the drive you want to compress
• Click properties
• On the general tab, select the compress drive to save disk space check box
• To compress a file or folder
• Open drive where the file or folder is located
• Right click the file or folder then select properties
• On the general tab, click advanced button
• Select compress contents to save disk space check box and then click ok to
close the dialog box
• In the properties dialog box, click ok to start the zip process
• In confirm attribute changes dialog box, select whether to zip the folder only
or the entire content then click ok.
Scanning for viruses
• Viruses or malware are harmful programs deliberately
intended to make a computer fail or malfunction
• Scanning for viruses refers to checking your system for
viruses and removing them using antivirus programs such
as Norton, McAfee, Kaspersky, Avast etc
• To scan for viruses:
• In my computer window, right click the drive
• Select scan with
• Select heal, delete or quarantine the infected files.

Backing up data.
• This tool enables the user to create copies of data and
programs on separate storage areas to avoid loss of data
and programs in case the storage device fails.
• The backups should be kept away from the computer
room to ensure security of the information in case of a
calamity such as fire.
• To back up data:
• In my computer window, right click the hard drive
• Click properties
• Click tools tab
• Click back up now
• Follow the back up wizard

Partitioning a disk
• This refers to the process of dividing a large physical disk into
two or more partitions called logical drives.
• A logical drive is treated as a separate drive and is assigned a
drive letter.
• Reasons for partitioning a disk:
1.When you want to install more than one operating systems on the same
disk.
2.For purposes of back up on the same disk but different partitions so that
if one partition fails, the other will still be working.
- Disk partitioning is done during installation of an OS or using
disk partitioning tools available in the market such as Easeus
Partition Manager

Trouble shooting windows related
problems
• Troubleshooting refers to the process of diagnosing and
trying to fix hardware or software related problems.
• These problems include:
- Failure to boot
- Computer hangs now and then
- Abnormal restarting

Trouble shooting windows related
problems
• Reasons for the above named problems
- There was a problem in the installation process e.g.missing files
- Insufficient system memory
- Problem with hard disk boot sector due to virus infection
- Corrupted windows registry system
- Due to interrupt request conflicts
• Solutions / troubleshooting
- Study the troubleshooting guide
- Use the device manager to check the devices causing problems
- Reinstall the operating system if the problem above persists

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COMPUTER STUDIES FORM 1

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e.g. 1,3 e.g. addition e.g. 4

• Information Communication Technology(ICT) – this is

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5+0 0+4 0+3

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5+3 5+4 0+0

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2nd generation • Magnetic tape used for storage Transistors

3rd generation • Keyboard used for input Integrated circuits(IC)

5th generation • Expert system and natural parallel architecture or

 What are peripheral devices: (2mks)

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• Who is known as the “father of modern computer?”

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