Lesson 6

Learners with Additional Needs

Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you must have:

a. identified the various additional needs learners might have;

b. described the nature and learning characteristics of students with additional needs;
c. demonstrated understanding on general instructional and classroom management
strategies that work best in inclusive classes;
d. identified different marginalized groups.

Introduction

Children learn every day. This happens in various settings and different ways.
Learning at times happens intentionally and with great effort while there are situations
where it happens almost effortlessly. This chapter focuses on learners with additional
needs, highlighting the definition, identification, learning characteristics, and general
education adaptations.
Vocabulary List

How strong is your vocabulary? There is only one way to find out.

Instruction: Let’s check if you are able to understand the concepts below. On your own,
give the meaning of each terminology.

Terminology Meaning
1. Marginalization

2. Additional needs
 ACTIVITY

Think of a person you know or a famous person who has difficulty in any
of the domains of development. On a sheet of paper, use any graphic organizer to
create a profile of this person, his/her strengths, interests, accomplishments,
difficulties, needs, and other information you have. How does seeing the “whole
person” affect your view of this person and not just his/her difficulties? How is
such a perspective important in teaching and learning in an inclusive classroom?

ABSTRACTION

I. LEARNERS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED

A. Definition
Aren’t all students gifted?
Some teachers find the terms ‘gifts’ and ‘talents’ a little disturbing. If we talk about
‘gifted’ students, does this mean some students aren’t gifted? Does this suggest some students
are of less value than others? Aren’t all students gifted in some way?
Let’s look closer at the issues. Firstly, the issue of value. Identifying a student as gifted
doesn’t mean she is of greater worth than other students, just as identifying a student as
developmentally disabled doesn’t mean that she is of less worth.
What is the difference between giftedness and talented? The term gifted refers to
students with extraordinary abilities in various academic areas. However, talent focus on
students with extraordinary abilities in specific areas.
Basically, learners who are gifted and talented are students with higher abilities than
average and are often referred to as gifted students. This group refers to students whose
talents, abilities, and potentials are developmentally advanced. They require special provisions
to meet their educational needs, thus presenting a unique challenge to teachers.
 There is also another way to look into gifted which is conceptualized by Gardner in
1993. According to him, intelligence is multifaceted.

Figure 6.1. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence. Retrieved from

https://www.institute4learning.com/resources/articles/multiple-intelligences/

Table 6.1. The concepts on intellectual giftedness

B. Identification
To identify gifted and talented students, one must do the following:

 Locate the student’s domain of giftedness

 Describe the student’s domain of giftedness
 Describe the student’s field of talent
C. Learning Characteristics
Not all learners will exhibit the learning characteristics listed below. However, these are
the common manifestations of gifted and talented learners. One might possess a
combination of characteristics in varying degrees and amounts.

 High Level of intellectual curiosity

 Reads actively
 High degree of task commitment
 Keen power of observation
 Highly verbal
 Gets bored easily
 Can retain and recall information
 Excited about learning new concepts
 Independence in learning
 Good comprehension of complex contexts
 Strong, well-developed imagination
 Looks for new ways to do things
 Often gives uncommon responses to common questions
D. General Educational Adaptations
Learners who are gifted and talented usually get bored since they have mastered
the concepts taught in classes. One thing that is common among gifted students is that
they are very inquisitive. Fulfilling their instructional needs may be a challenging task.
These are some suggested strategies for teaching gifted students.

 Teachers may give enrichment exercises that will allow learners to study the same topic
at more advanced level.
 Acceleration can let students who are gifted and talented can move at their own pace
thus resulting at times to in completing two grade levels in one school year.
 Open-ended activities with no right or wrong answers can be provided, emphasizing on
divergent thinking wherein there are more possibilities than pre-determined answers.
 Leadership roles can be given to gifted students since studies have shown that gifted
students are often socially immature.
 Extensive reading on subject of their own interest may be coordinated with the school
librarian to further broaden their knowledge.
 Long-term activities may be provided, that will give the gifted students an opportunity
to be engaged for an extended period of time.

II. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING

A. Definition
Students in the classroom will exhibit different levels of clarity of eyesight or visual
acuity. There may be some students with hampered or restricted vision. Learners with
difficulty seeing are those with issues regarding sight that interfere with academics. The
definition from Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) states that “an
impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child’s educational
performance which includes both partial sight and blindness.” These students may need to
have their eyesight corrected by wearing glasses or other optical devices.

B. Identification
 Learners with difficulty seeing often have physical signs, such as crossed eyes, squinting,
and eyes that turn outwards.
 They may also be clumsy, usually bumping into objects which causes them to fall down.
 They like to sit near the instructional materials or at times would stand up and go near
the visual aids.
 Learners with difficulty seeing may also show poor eye-hand coordination. This can be
seen in their handwriting or poor performance in sporting activities.
 Another indication is poor academic performance as these students might have difficulty
reading as well as writing.

C. Learning Characteristics

 Visual Impairments, whether mild, moderate, or severe, affect the student’s ability to
participate in normal classroom activities.
 Learners with difficulty seeing have restricted way to learn incidentally from their
surroundings since most of them learn through visual clues. Because of this, the other
senses are used to acquire knowledge. Due to the limited ability to explore the
environment, low motivation to discover is present.

D. General Educational Adaptations

Modification in teaching is needed to accommodate students with difficulty
seeing. The following strategies may be considered:

 If the use of books is part of your lesson, students with difficulty seeing should be
informed ahead of time so that they can be ordered in braille or in an audio recorded
format.
 Portions of textbooks and other printed materials may be recorded so that visually-
impaired students can listen instead of focusing on the visual presentation.
 All words written on the board should be read clearly.
 Students with difficulty seeing should be seated near the board so that they can easily
move close to the instructional materials used during the lesson.
 A buddy can be assigned to a student with difficulty seeing as needed. This can be crucial
to assist in the mobility of the student such as going to the other places in school during
the day.
 Students with difficulty seeing might need more time to complete a task or homework.
This might be on a case to case basis.
 Teachers should be aware of terminology that would require visual acuity (such as over
there or like this one) which the impaired student may not possess.
 Teachers should monitor the students closely to know who needs extra time in
completing tasks.

III. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY HEARING

 A. Definition
This refers to students with an issue regarding hearing that interferes with academics.
The definition from Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) defines it as “an
impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance but is not included under the definition of ‘deafness’.” Deafness is
considered when hearing loss is above 90 decibels. A hearing loss below 90 decibels is
called hearing impairment.
What is the CHALLENGE?
The main challenge of hearing-impaired students is communication, since most of them
have varying ways of communicating. The factors affecting the development skills include;
* Intelligence;
* Personality;
* The degree and nature of deafness and residual hearing;
* Family environment; and
* The age onset.
The latter plays the most crucial role in the development of language as those who have
hearing loss present at birth are more functionally disabled than those who lose hearing
after language and speech development.

B. Identification
To identify learners with difficulty hearing, observe a student and see if he/she does the
following items below.

 Speaking loudly
 Positioning ear toward the direction of the one speaking
 Asking for information to be repeated again and again
 Delayed development of speech
 Watching the face of the speaker intently
 Favoring one ear
 Not responding when called
 Has difficulty following directions
 Does not mind loud noises
 Learning close to the source of sounds

C. Learning Characteristics
Some of the common characteristics of deafness commonly found in classrooms include the
following:
 Difficulty following verbal directions
 Difficulty with oral expression
 Some difficulties with social/emotional or interpersonal skills
 Will often have a degree of language delay
 Often follows and rarely leads
  Will usually exhibit some form of articulation difficulty
 Can become easily frustrated if their needs are not met — which may lead to some
behavioral difficulties
 Sometimes the use of hearing aids leads to embarrassment and fear of rejection from
peers

D. General Educational Adaptations

Language will be the priority area for students who are deaf or hard of hearing. It is the
basic requirement for success in all subject areas and will influence the student’s
comprehension in your classroom. Language development and its impact on the learning of
students who are deaf or hard of hearing can be complex and difficult to attain.
You may find that students will need interpreters, note-takers, or educational assistants to
facilitate communication. This process will usually require external personnel involvement.
However, some of the basic steps that you as a teacher can take to address the needs of a
hearing impaired student include:
 Many students with hearing disabilities will have some form of specialized equipment
recommended by an audiologist. Help the child to feel comfortable with their hearing
device and promote understanding and acceptance with other children in the class.
 Remember that devices do not return the child's hearing to normal.
 Noisy environments will cause grief to the child with a hearing device and noise around
the child should be kept to a minimum.
 Check the device often to ensure it is working.
 When using videos, make sure you use the 'closed captioning' feature.
 Shut classroom doors/windows to help eliminate noise.
 Cushion chair bottoms.
 Use visual approaches whenever possible.
 Establish predictable routines for this child.
 Provide older students with visual outlines/graphic organizers and clarification.
 Use a home/school communication book.
 Enunciate words clearly using lip movement to assist the child to lip read.
 Keep close proximity to the student.
 Provide small group work when possible.
 Make assessment accommodations to enable a clear picture of demonstrated academic
growth.
 Provide visual materials and demos whenever possible.

IV. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY COMMUNICATING

A. Definition

A communication disorder is an impairment in the ability to receive, send, process,

and comprehend concepts or verbal, nonverbal and graphic symbol systems. A
communication disorder may be evident in the processes of hearing, language, and/or
speech. A communication disorder may range in severity from mild to profound. It may be
developmental or acquired. Individuals may demonstrate one or any combination of
communication disorders. A communication disorder may result in a primary disability or it
may be secondary to other disabilities.

Types of Communication Impairments and Disorder

A Speech disorder is an impairment of the articulation of speech sounds, fluency and/or

voice.

1. An articulation disorder is the atypical production of speech sounds characterized by

substitutions, omissions, additions or distortions that may interfere with intelligibility.
Example: “I want a boo wowipop” instead of “I want a blue lollipop.”
2. A fluency disorder is an interruption in the flow of speaking characterized by atypical
rate, rhythm, and repetitions in sounds, syllables, words, and phrases. This may be
accompanied by excessive tension, struggle behavior, and secondary mannerisms.
Example: “I want a……banana.” (Blocks)
“I waaant a bbbanawa” (Prolongations)
“I want a ba-ba-ba- banana.” (Repetitions)
3. A voice disorder is characterized by the abnormal production and/or absences of vocal
quality, pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or duration, which is inappropriate for an
individual's age and/or sex.
Example: Breathiness, hoarseness, hypernasality, and hyponasality
4. A phonological disorder – a child produces production of multiple patterns of sound
errors with obvious impairment of intelligibility. There is also noted inconsistent
disarticulation of sounds (i.e. sometimes a child is able to articulate it but not in other
words).
Example: “Cat bye is tood.” Instead of “that pie is good.”

A language disorder is impaired comprehension and/or use of spoken, written and/or

other symbol systems. The disorder may involve (1) the form of language (phonology,
morphology, syntax), (2) the content of language (semantics), and/or (3) the function of
language in communication (pragmatics) in any combination and are often classified as
expressive and receptive.
1. Form of Language
a. Phonology is the sound system of a language and the rules that govern
the sound combinations.
b. Morphology is the system that governs the structure of words and the
construction of word forms.
c. Syntax is the system governing the order and combination of words to
form sentences, and the relationships among the elements within a
sentence.
2. Content of Language
a. Semantics is the system that governs the meanings of words and
sentences.
3. Function of Language
a. Pragmatics is the system that combines the above language components
in functional and socially appropriate communication.

A hearing disorder is the result of impaired auditory sensitivity of the physiological

auditory system. A hearing disorder may limit the development, comprehension,
 production, and/or maintenance of speech and/or language. Hearing disorders are
classified according to difficulties in detection, recognition, discrimination,
comprehension, and perception of auditory information. Individuals with hearing
impairment may be described as deaf or hard of hearing.

1. Deaf is defined as a hearing disorder that limits an individual's aural/oral

communication performance to the extent that the primary sensory input for
communication may be other than the auditory channel.
2. Hard of hearing is defined as a hearing disorder, whether fluctuating or permanent,
which adversely affects an individual's ability to communicate. The hard-of-hearing
individual relies on the auditory channel as the primary sensory input for
communication.

Central auditory processing disorders are deficits in the information processing of

audible signals not attributed to impaired peripheral hearing sensitivity or intellectual
impairment. This information processing involves perceptual, cognitive, and linguistic
functions that, with appropriate interaction, result in effective receptive communication
of auditory presented stimuli.

B. Identification

Communication difficulty is oftentimes one of the most common red flags

observed by family members, daycare workers, and early childhood teachers. Noted
absence, delay, and difficulties in speech and/or language often prompt family members
to consult their general pediatrician who then makes referrals to developmental
pediatricians and other specialists.

How do specialists determine a speech and/or language problem? A

comprehensive speech and language evaluation to determine the presence of a
communication disorder involves several components ( Heward 2013).

 Case history and physical examination

 Hearing
 Articulation
 Phonological awareness and processing
 Overall language development and vocabulary
 Assessment of language function
 Language sample and observation in natural settings

Assessments in speech, language, and communication must take into

consideration the student’s cultural and language context, particularly for
children growing up in bilingual environments

C. Learning Characteristics

Children with communication disorders frequently struggle across social

settings, whether at home, school, or in other places in the community. Some of the
difficulties that characterize communication disorders are presented in Table 6.2
 Expressive Language Difficulties Receptive Language Difficulties
 Limited vocabulary use  Develop language slowly.
 Use of non-specific vocabulary (i.e.  Rarely be interested when people
thing, stuff) are talking, either at home or
 Difficulty defining or describing school.
 Unable to recall the appropriate  Have trouble following directions,
word to use especially when directions are
 Poor grammar spoken.
 Short or incomplete sentences  Often misunderstand what was
 Difficulty telling stories asked or said. For example, if you
 Unable to clearly convey a concept say, “Where is the dog going?” they
or idea may respond with what it’s doing
 Problems putting sentences —“The dog is barking.” Or, they
together coherentl might answer a different question,
as in “The dog is brown.”
 Have a limited vocabulary and have
trouble learning new words.
 Be able hear or see words but have
trouble understanding their
meaning.

Table 6.2 Language Difficulties. Retrieved from https://bilinguistics.com/expressive-

language-disorder-causes-characteristics-and-resources/ and
https://intermountainhealthcare.org/services/pediatrics/services/rehabilitation/
services/receptive-language-disorder/

Despite these language difficulties, children with communication disorders are known to
have their own strengths and abilities. This can be understood using the theory of multiple
intelligence of Gardner (1983).

D. General Educational Adaptations

1. Treat the student with a disability as you would any other student.
2. Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar
disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination
of effort and by asking for help when needed.
3. Students with communication disorders should be encouraged to discuss their
functional difficulties and needs in private during the first week of classes and to talk
about ways to compensate.
4. When it appears that a student needs help, ask if you can help. Accept a "No Thank You"
graciously.
5. Encourage classmates to accept the student with communicative problems.
6. Be a good speech model. This will indicate to all that good communication is desirable.
7. An atmosphere conducive to easy and good interactive communication should be
established and maintained in the classroom.
8. Consult a Speech Language expert concerning each child with a communicative disorder
in your class and work with him/her throughout the class.
9. Keep up-to-date on the student's accomplishments in therapy.
10. Give students with speech impairments opportunity to speak in class.
11. Give them time to express themselves, do not interrupt or try to fill in gaps for them.
12. Speak to them naturally.

Teacher Presentation
1. Maintain contact with student.
2. Allow students to tape lectures.
3. Provide an interpreter (signed English or American Sign Language) to those who
require another form of communication.
4. Encourage and assist in facilitation of participation in activities and discussions.
5. Be patient.
6. Be a good listener.

* Universal Design for Learning, alongside different accommodations (i.e. presentation,

response, setting, and timing) that are appropriate to the child, and collaboration between
the general education teacher and the special education professional, will all help ensure
that children with communication difficulties/disorders have a chance to be successful in an
inclusive classroom.

V. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY MOVING/WALKING

This section will focus on learners with difficulty moving and/ or walking, thus focusing
on physical and motor disabilities, their learning characteristics, abilities, and the support
they need in an inclusive classroom.
A. Definition
When a child has difficulty moving and/or walking, the physical domain of development
is affected. Examples of physical disability are developmental coordination disorder or
dyspraxia, stereotypic movement disorder, tics and cerebral palsy. Each one is defined in the
succeeding sections.
Developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD), also known as dyspraxia, is a condition
affecting physical co-ordination. It causes a child to perform less well than expected in daily
activities for their age, and appear to move clumsily. (e.g. dropping or bumping into objects.)
DCD is thought to be around 3 or 4 times more common in boys than girls, and the condition
sometimes runs in families.
Stereotypic movement disorder is a condition in which a person makes repetitive,
purposeless movements. These can be hand waving, body rocking, or head banging. The
movements interfere with normal activity or may cause bodily harm.
Stereotypic movement disorder is more common among boys than girls. The movements
often increase with stress, frustration, and boredom.
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a group of disorders that affect a person’s ability to move and
maintain balance and posture. CP is the most common motor disability in
childhood. Cerebral means having to do with the brain. Palsy means weakness or problems
with using the muscles. CP is caused by abnormal brain development or damage to the
developing brain that affects a person’s ability to control his or her muscles.

B. Identification
Developmental Coordination Disorder. Identifying children with motor difficulties
begins with family members and early childhood practitioners. Once the child is showing
difficulties and delays in fine and/or gross motor movements, parents, oftentimes consult
their general pediatrician who in turn may refer to other specialists such as developmental
pediatrician, a physical therapist, or an occupational therapist.
Signs of DCD can appear soon after birth. Newborns may have trouble learning how to suck
and swallow milk. Toddlers may be slow to learn to roll over, sit, crawl, walk, and talk.
As you enter school, symptoms of the disorder may become more noticeable. Symptoms of
DCD may include:
 an unsteady walk
 difficulty going down stairs
 dropping objects
 running into others
 frequent tripping
 difficulty tying shoes, putting on clothes, and other self-care activities
 difficulty performing school activities such as writing, coloring, and using scissors
People with DCD may become self-conscious and withdraw from sports or social activities.
However, limited exercise can lead to poor muscle tone and weight gain. Maintaining social
involvement and good physical condition is essential for overcoming the challenges of DCD.
In conducting an assessment, a specialist determines the child’s development history,
intellectual ability, and gross and fine motor skills. To differentiate between the two, gross
motor skills involve the use of large muscles in the body to coordinate body movement,
which includes throwing, jumping, walking, running, and maintaining balance. On the other
hand, fine motor skills involve the use of smaller muscles that are needed in activities like
writing, cutting paper, tying shoelaces, and buttoning.
The evaluator needs to know when and how developmental milestones are achieved.
Assessment is conducted to check the child’s balance, sensitivity to touch, and performance
in other gross and fine motor activities ( Nordqvist 2017). Oral motor coordination in doing
activities like blowing kisses or blowing out birthday candles also be reported. Moreover, an
evaluator will check for the following:
1. Strength and flexibility by palpating muscle bulk and texture, assessing flexibility of
joints, and the quality and intensity of grasp
2. Motor planning which includes observing functional fine and gross motor skills and
determining hand dominance or lack thereof ( Harris et.al 2015).
Stereotypic Movement Disorder. Similar steps are followed in the identification of the
presence of Stereotypic Movement Disorder (SMD) among children.

C. Learning Characteristics
Motor difficulties and disabilities are known to significantly affect a child’s ability to
perform daily activities, which include memory, perception and processing, planning,
carrying out coordinated movements. Speech may also affected as motor control is needed
in articulation and production. Moreover. Developmental coordination disorder also affects
psychosocial functioning as children report to have lower levels of self-efficacy and
competence in physical and social domains, experience more symptoms of being depressed
and anxious, as well as display externalizing behaviors (Harris et.al. 2015)
On the other hand, a “range of strengths” needs to be acknowledged in every child with a
disability (Armstrong 2012). Students with motor/movement disorders may excel in other
areas of intelligences that are not controlled by motor functions. In fact, some children and
adults who are physically handicapped or have cerebral palsy have learned to paint with
their mouth or feet to compensate for their rigid limbs and have done so successfully. Some
children may do well in logical thinking and comprehension and even in writing using
assistive technology.
Hence, for children in motor difficulties and disabilities, support systems are needed to
ensure that they are given equal opportunities to access learning experiences in school
along alongside their typically developing peers.
D. General Educational Adaptations
First and foremost, children with motor difficulties and disabilities need primary
intervention with specialists such as physical and occupational therapists. These
professionals are responsible for setting goals in motor development, planning, mobility as
well as in providing teachers and others with information about the child’s physical
conditions, limitations, and abilities (Kirk et.al. 2015).
Physical accessibility of a school and classrooms to children with motor
difficulty/disability is essential such as ramps and elevators for schools with multiple levels
of buildings is necessary. Table 6.3 shows some practical classroom accommodations for
children with physical disabilities.

Characteristics of a Student Commonly Suggested

with Physical Disabilities Accommodations/Classroom Adaptations

Has unique needs in terms of

physical space or has Create a physically accessible environment that
difficulty using chairs/tables is not mobility-limited.
in the classroom/lab.

Be flexible with the schedule. Students may

Student needs specialized
arrive late or have to leave before the class is
transportation.
over due to adapted transportation services.
Characteristics of a Student Commonly Suggested
with Physical Disabilities Accommodations/Classroom Adaptations
Replace written exams or assignments with an
Is often physically unable to
oral exam or presentation.
hold a pen and write for
Use of note takers.
extended periods of time or
Use of assistive technology (e.g., computer,
may experience challenges
assistive software, mini recorder, etc.). 5
with input, output, and
Use of a scribe or speech-to-text software to
information processing when
record answers on tests/exams.
working on assignments,
Provide a room other than the classroom for
tests, and/or exams.
exams if required.

Student has difficulty finishing Extra time for tests/exams and perhaps some
assignments and/or tests in components of coursework.
allotted time.

When speaking to a person who uses a

Experiences fatigue and wheelchair for a long period of time, avoid the
limited mobility when need for them to strain in order to look up at
speaking to a person for a you by sitting beside or leaning toward them
long period of time. during the conversation, in order for them to
avoid experiencing fatigue and/or pain.

Provide digital copies of texts. (It is very

Requires extra time to obtain
important to provide students with a complete
formats compatible with
list of reference documents as early as possible
assistive technology.
or prior to the start of the semester).

Feels excluded during group

Make sure that the person is always included
exercises or has difficulty
with others when forming groups.
moving around the classroom.

To reduce fatigue of students with physical

disability, it may be helpful to limit the number
Expends a great deal of
of exams on a given day or week. Extra time
energy to complete daily
should be planned for oral reports on occasion
tasks.
if the person has diction problems.
Perhaps suggest a reduced course load.
 Characteristics of a Student Commonly Suggested
with Physical Disabilities Accommodations/Classroom Adaptations

Ensure all off-site activities are accessible or

Experiences challenges with
daily living activities and
mobility.
provide alternative assignment options.
Individuals with a motor disability sometimes
use a service animal, which is usually trained to
respond to unique commands. (It is preferable
to ask permission before you pet the service
animal).

Table 6.3 Classroom Accommodations and Adaptations for Children with Physical
Disabilities. Retrieved from
https://www2.unb.ca/alc/modules/physical-disabilities/implications-for-
learning.html#:~:text=Use%20of%20assistive%20technology%20(e.g.,mini
%20recorder%2C%20etc.).&text=Use%20of%20a%20scribe%20or,or%20tests%20in
%20allotted%20time.

VI. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING AND FOCUSING

In this section, we will learn about students who find it difficult to remember
lessons, concepts, and even instructions as well as those who find it a challenge to
sustain in their focus.

A. Definition
The International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health of the
World Health Organization (2001) provides definitions of specific mental functions
and focusing. Memory functions include short-term memory, long term memory,
and retrieval, while attention functions include sustaining, shifting, dividing, and
sharing attention.

Students with Learning Disability (LD) and/or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity

Disorder (ADHD) are characterized by having difficulties with memory and attention
functions. The subsequent sections present the definition, identification, and
learning characteristics for each disability.

1. Learning Disability
Learning disabilities are due to genetic and/or neurobiological factors that alter
brain functioning in a manner which affects one or more cognitive processes related
to learning. These processing problems can interfere with learning basic skills such
as reading, writing and/or math. They can also interfere with higher level skills such
as organization, time planning, abstract reasoning, long or short term memory and
attention. It is important to realize that learning disabilities can affect an
individual’s life beyond academics and can impact relationships with family, friends
and in the workplace.
In Federal law, under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the
term is “specific learning disability,” one of 13 categories of disability under that law.

“Learning Disabilities” is an “umbrella” term describing a number of other, more

specific learning disabilities, such as dyslexia and dysgraphia. Find the signs and
symptoms of each, plus strategies to help below.

Types of Learning Disabilities

Dyscalculia. A specific learning disability that affects a person’s ability to

understand numbers and learn math facts.

Dysgraphia. A specific learning disability that affects a person’s handwriting ability

and fine motor skills.

Dyslexia. A specific learning disability that affects reading and related language-
based processing skills.

Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities. Has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like

facial expressions or body language and may have poor coordination.

Oral / Written Language Disorder and Specific Reading Comprehension

Deficit. Learning disabilities that affect an individual’s understanding of what they
read or of spoken language. The ability to express one’s self with oral language may
also be impacted.

Related Disorders

ADHD. A disorder that includes difficulty staying focused and paying attention,
controlling behavior and hyperactivity.

Dyspraxia A disorder which causes problems with movement and coordination,

language and speech.

Executive Functioning. Affects, planning, organization, strategizing, attention to

details and managing time and space.

2. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a brain disorder that affects
how you pay attention, sit still, and control your behavior. It happens in children
and teens and can continue into adulthood.

ADHD is the most commonly diagnosed mental disorder in children. Boys are
more likely to have it than girls. It’s usually spotted during the early school years,
when a child begins to have problems paying attention.

DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association 2013) provides the diagnostic criteria

for ADHD, which include inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity, and a
combination of the two. For a child to be diagnosed with ADHD, the observed
behaviors should meet the following criteria:
 Display a persistent pattern for at least 6 months that significantly
interferes with functioning or development.
 Observed in two or more settings ( e.g., at home, school, work; with
friends or relatives; and in other activities)
 Several of the symptoms were present before the age of 12 years.
 The behaviors are not resulting from other disorders (e.g. schizophrenia,
anxiety disorder, personality disorder, etc.)

Table 6.4 Signs of ADHD.

https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/adh
d/Pages/Diagnosing-ADHD-in-Children-Guidelines-Information-for-
Parents.aspx

B. Identification
 Identifying students with LD and ADHD begins with the parents
and teachers. The presence of difficulties in mental functions provided above
(Types of Learning Disabilities and the behaviors enumerated in Table 6.4, as
well as meeting the provided criteria for persistence and consistency in more
than one setting, may create the impetus for parents to consult specialists and
for teachers to apply pre-referral strategies before referring the student for
special education testing.

C. Learning Characteristics

Students with LD are known to have challenges in language, literacy, and

memory (Kirk et.al. 2015) as well as in math, writing, and focusing/attending
skills. Nonetheless, it is important to note that these are merely general
characteristics as there are individual differences in terms of abilities and
difficulties among children with LD and ADHD.

D. General Educational Adaptations

The use of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles, such as

providing multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement
are effective for all types of learners and provide a level playing field for
students with LD, SLD, and ADHD (see Table 6.5). Through a variety of
approaches, students with difficulty remembering and focusing are given
opportunities to compensate for their weaknesses and use their strengths
to learn as much as their typically developing peers.

Table 6.5. Application of UDL in an inclusive classroom.

UDL Principle Examples

Multiple means of representation
Multiple means of expression
 Audio books alongside real books
 Multiple presentations and videos
to supplement textbooks
 Math-manipulative materials and
illustrations to reinforce lessons
 Hands-on experiences, use of
multisensorial activities in addition
to teacher-talk
 Use reading materials that include
rich visual representation in the
form of photos, graphic organizers,
diagrams, etc.
In addition to traditional measures of
assessment, provide variety of ways to
demonstrate understanding of
concepts/lessons:
 Debates
 Build models
  Experimentation
 Digital audio presentations
 Writing activities
 Portfolio assessment
 Photographs/pictures
 Blogs
 Draw pictures/use graphic
organizers to illustrate concepts or
content

Provide varied activities to support

student engagement through:
Multiple means of engagement
 Hands-on, kinesthetic activities
 Plays/drama/dance
 Simulation games
 Role playing
 Discussion and debates
 Give opportunity for student choice
( e.g. range of reading materials,
activities)
 Use inquiry-based learning and
project-based approach

Table 6.6. Types of Accommodations to provide support for students with

difficulty remembering and focusing

Type of Accommodation Accommodations/Supports

Provide the following:
 Audio files to supplement a slide
presentation
Presentation  Bigger font sizes in reading
materials and worksheets
 Leveled books that match
student’s reading level
 Audio books and/or have a peer
read aloud the selection
 Digital text that provides word
meanings

Allow students to use the following:

 Use text-to-speech software to
facilitate writing
 Use word processor with spelling
 and grammar check
 Waive incorrect spelling in specific
subjects ( do not mark
misspellings as incorrect provided
Response content is accurate)
 Graphic organizers as a pre-
writing task
 Math supports:
1. calculation devices
( calculator)
2. concrete material and
manipulatives
3. chart of math facts and
formula
4. special paper with grids for
computation

Setting  Preferential seating ( away from

sources of distraction)
 Play appropriate background
music through individual
earphones while studying
 Allow students to move or run
around a few times before class or
in between classes
Scheduling  Provide extended time
 Break tasks into sections
 Time limits for assignment and
countdown
 Allow for quick brain breaks to
move around and stretch in
between activities
Behavior Management  Teach self-talk skills
 Teach physical relaxation
techniques such as mindful
breathing
 Use squeeze balls to release
tensions
 Allows students to doodle while
listening to lecture ( Andrade
2010 in Armstrong 2012)

VII. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WITH SELF-CARE

This section presents another set of learners with specific difficulties in self-care,
or caring for oneself.
 A. Definition

Self-care often refers to a person’s capacity to perform daily living

activities or specific to body care such as the following skills: washing oneself,
brushing teeth, combing, trimming nails, toileting, dressing, eating, drinking, and
looking after one’s health. Self-care gradually learned by very young typically
developing children through adult modeling and direct instruction within
developmental expectations. On the other hand, children with additional needs may
struggle with the basic activities of daily living. Oftentimes, such students are those
with moderate to severe cognitive deficits, including individuals with Intellectual
Disability or Intellectual Developmental Disorder (ID or IDD).

Intellectual disability is a developmental disorder that includes deficits in

intellectual and adaptive functioning across domains of conceptual, social, and
practical that occur during the developmental period.

B. Identification

Young children suspected to have cognitive deficits which manifest as

difficulties with self-care can be identified at a very young age. The traditional
approach to measuring levels of severity of ID was determined through the use of
intellectual tests:

 Mild level IQ 50-70

 Moderate IQ 35-50
 Severe IQ 20-35
 Profound IQ below 20

However, based on the definition provided by the American Psychiatric

Association (2013), using measures of intelligence is only one aspect as adaptive
functioning also needs to be assessed to identify if a child has an intellectual disability.
In place of IQ levels, the support needed by a person with ID is used to determine the
level or degree of severity of the disability.

The presence of ID or IDD is measured by direct observation, structured

interview, and standardized scales such as the AARM Adaptive Behavior Scale
(Lambert et al. 1993 in Heward 2013) and Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales
(Sparrow et al. 2016).

C. Learning Characteristics

Students who have difficulty with self-care oftentimes reach

developmental milestones at a later age compared to typically developing peers.
They learn to sit up, crawl, walk, and talk later than other children and may have
trouble remembering and understanding consequences of actions. Due to cognitive
difficulties, children with ID may also have deficits in the areas of reasoning,
planning, judgment, and abstract thinking.

On the other hand, depending on the level of support needed, a student

with ID learns adaptive skills at a slower pace, resulting in delay compared to same
aged typically developing students. They benefit from modeling and can imitate well.
Moreover, adults with mild intellectual disability eventually learn to be functional
and independent in society.

Youths with intellectual disabilities are known to be friendly, sociable and

are reported to have positive coping skills.

D. General Educational Adaptations

Specific approaches have been found to be effective in teaching students

with difficulty with self-care, namely the use of direct/explicit instruction, task
analysis, forward and backward chaining, as well as the use of video modeling. It
is essential that the instructions given are simple and straight forward and that
hands-on, experiential activities are used.

A task analysis is used to break complex tasks into a sequence of smaller

steps or actions. For some individuals on the autism spectrum, even simple tasks
can present complex challenges. Having an understanding of all the steps
involved for a particular task can assist in identifying any steps that may need
extra instruction and will help teach the task in a logical progression (Cooper,
Heron, Howard, 2020).

The process of breaking down a complex task into its smaller steps or
components. Tasks with many steps or components may be divided into phases
for teaching purposes. (Alberto & Troutman, 2003)

Garguilo (2012) provided working guidelines on how to do task analysis.

1. Define the target behavior or task.

2. Identify the required skills needed to successfully complete the task.
3. Identify the necessary materials to perform the task.
4. Observe an able and competent person perform the task.
5. List the needed steps in sequential order to complete the task.

In an inclusive classroom, self-care skills such as washing hands and brushing

teeth can be tasks analyzed into the simplest steps and presented in a poster
accompanied by pictures (see Figure 6.1).
 Figure 6.1. Handwashing Routine Task Analysis. Retrieved from
https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Browse/Search:task%20analysis
%20washing%20hands

Forward and background chaining is used alongside task analysis. In

forward chaining, the program begins with the first step in the sequence, such
as getting the toothbrush and toothpaste, then providing the needed hand-over-
hand assistance, and then gradually fading verbal and the gestural prompts. On
the other hand, in backward chaining, the teacher models all the steps from the
beginning and then allows the child to do the last step of the behavior chain with
assistance and prompts. The use of video-based intervention including video
modeling sand video prompting for teaching daily living skills, such as brushing
teeth, setting a table, washing dishes, etc. has been found effective for learners
with intellectual and learning difficulties ( Rayner 2011, Bellini & Akullian 2017
cited in Heward 2013).

In summary, this chapter has presented important definitions,

identification and assessment, learning characteristics, and general educational
adaptations for learners with additional needs. You have learned the different
disability labels that are associated with difficulties, their challenges in learning,
their strengths, and educational adaptations in the form of accommodation.
While awareness and understanding of their disability and needs are essential,
as educators supportive of inclusive education, it is of utmost importance that we
see learners with additional needs beyond their difficulties, to enable them to
explore and use their range of strengths and abilities as well as provide
opportunities for them to succeed and flourish in the own niches.

VIII. LEARNERS IN OTHER MARGINALIZED GROUPS

A. Definitions
 The United Nations Development Programme of 1996 ( as cited in
Messiou 20120 defines marginalization as “ the state of being considered
unimportant, undesirable, unworthy, insignificant, and different, resulting in
inequity, unfairness, deprivation, and enforced lack of access to mainstream
power”.

B. Different Learners in Marginalized Groups

1. Child Laborers/ Domestic Workers

The International Labor Organization (ILO) describes child
labor as “work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential, and their
dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development.” Child labor is
caused by poverty, lack of education, and the lack of schools.
2. Indigenous People
Indigenous peoples are inheritors and practitioners of
unique cultures and ways of relating to people and the environment. They have
retained social, cultural, economic and political characteristics that are distinct
from those of the dominant societies in which they live.
3. Abused Children
Child maltreatment is the abuse and neglect that occurs to
children under 18 years of age. It includes all types of physical and/or emotional
ill-treatment, sexual abuse, neglect, negligence and commercial or other
exploitation, which results in actual or potential harm to the child’s health,
survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility,
trust or power. (World Health Organization)
4. Refugees or Displaced Children
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR) defines refugee as “someone who has been forced to flee his or her
country because of persecution, war, or violence.
5. Children in Conflict Zones
Conflict zone refers to war or political instability that
disrupts essential services such as housing, transportation, communication,
sanitation, water, and health care which requires the response of people outside
of the community affected.
In December 2018, Manuel Fontaine, UNICEF Director for
Emergency Programs, said, “ Children living in conflict zones around the world
have continued to suffer through extreme levels of violence over the past 12
months, and the world has continued to fail them.

APPLICATION
Let’s check your progress!
Name:_____________________________________Date:_________________Score:__________________

Learning Task 1
Choose a self-care skill and apply task analysis to help a child the skill. Identify
the steps (with pictures) and the materials you will use.

Learning Task 2
Read the case below and answer the questions that follow.

A co-teacher complains to you about two of her 3 rd grade students diagnosed

with ADHD. In a regular class of 25 students, these two boys have become too difficult to
handle. They often disrupt the class with side comments or questions that are tangential
to the topic. They also often move around during class discussion and work through
written tasks quickly resulting in haphazard answers. The only time they are engaged is
when there are hands-on activities for them to do. So, the teacher decided to sit them
together in class to make it easier for her to manage them. Knowing about the learning
profiles of children with ADHD, what practical advice can you give your co-teacher?
Begin by listing the students’ areas of strengths and difficulties. Then list and explain
your action plan for the boys and the whole class.

A. AREAS OF STRENGTHS AND NEEDS

AREA/DOMAIN STRENGTHS DIFFICULTIES

B. RECOMMENDATIONS AND ACCOMMODATIONS

TYPE OF ACCOMMODATION DESCRIPTION
Presentation
Response
Setting
Schedule
OTHERS ( UDL, BEHAVIOR, ETC.)

ASSESSMENT
Let’s check your learning!

Name:___________________________________Date:_____________________Score:_______________
Multiple Choice

Write only the letter of the correct answer. (10 points)

1. What problem refers to vocabulary and comprehension difficulty?

a. Fluency disorder
b. Language disorder
c. Articulation disorder
d. Phonological disorder
2. Which technique will work best for learners with communication difficulty?
a. Use sign language to supplement their speech.
b. Use visuals and hands-on experiences in teaching.
c. Exaggerate speech for learners to understand.
d. Allow the child to sit near the window to help him/her calm down.
3. What disorder is characterized by clumsiness and slow motor skills?
a. Dysgraphia
b. Cerebral palsy
c. Stereotypic Movement Disorder
d. Developmental Coordination Disorder
4. What support should be prioritized for learners with motor difficulties?
a. Extended time in school
b. Opportunity to lead in class
c. Safe access to classrooms and school facilities
d. Access to join extra-curricular activities
5. What specific learning disability refers to math difficulties?
a. Dyslexia
b. Dyspraxia
c. Dysgraphia
d. Dyscalculia
6. Which of the following is not needed in the diagnosis of ADHD?
a. The behaviors are due to learning and/or personality disorders.
b. Behaviors must be displayed in at least two different settings.
c. The behaviors have been observed before the child reaches age 12.
d. The behaviors have been persisting for the past 6 months.
7. Which of the following accommodations will help learners with memory and
attention difficulties?
a. Have a regular graded oral recitations so learners will develop their memory.
b. Use advance organizers and interactive learning activities to sustain their
interest.
c. Provide challenging activities, such as longer texts to read, to keep them
engaged.
d. Give daily timed worksheets to train them to focus on tasks.
8. What approach breaks down a task into sequence of steps to develop gradual mastery
of a skill?
a. Task analysis
b. Direct instruction
c. Universal Design for Learning
d. Strengths-based approach
9. Mr Sanchez ensures that when he speaks to his class, he is facing all of them. What
type of learner with additional needs does he have in his class?
a. difficulty in hearing
b. gifted and talented
c. difficulty seeing
d. communication difficulty
10. Mrs. Jimenez given enrichment activities to her students to ensure that meaningful
learning takes place in her class. What type of additional needs does her students have?
a. gifted and talented
b. difficulty in seeing
c. difficulty in hearing
d. difficulty with self-care

Essay
Answer comprehensively. (10 points)

1. What are the different marginalized groups and how do these affect children?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________.

References:
Books:
1. Halal, Cristine A., et.al (2020). Foundations of Special and Inclusive Education. Rex
Book Store

Online Sources:

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Communication and Learning Disorders. Retrieved from

https://us.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-assets/81537_book_item_81537.pdf

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%20a,problems%20with%20using%20the%20muscles.

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Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health/developmental-coordination-
disorder
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%2C%20etc.).&text=Use%20of%20a%20scribe%20or,or%20tests%20in%20allotted
%20time.

Learning Disabilities Association of America Types of Learning Disabilities. Retrieved from

https://ldaamerica.org/types-of-learning-disabilities/
WebMD. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Retrieved from
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disorderadhd#:~:text=Attention%20deficit%20hyperactivity%20disorder%20(ADHD)
%20is%20a%20brain%20disorder%20that,to%20have%20it%20than%20girls.

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Department of Economic and Social AffairsIndigenous Peoples. Retrieved form

https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/about-
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%20which%20they%20live.

Child maltreatment. Retrieved from

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/child-maltreatment

Children in Conflict Zones. Retrieved form

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4921424/#:~:text=Key%20Words%3A
%20Conflict%20zone%2C%20Children,the%20community%20affected%20%5B1%5D.