MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS

Assignment
OPPONG Asiamah Samuel
41304418
MN2
State the difference between the Taylor’s Series and Taylor’s Polynomial
Taylor’s Polynomial, 𝑇𝑛 (𝑥) of a function say f(x) is the polynomial of degree n that has the same value,
first derivative value, second derivative, etc., and nth derivative value at x=a as the original function f(x)
while Taylor series is an infinite series

∞
𝑥𝑛
∑ 2 𝑛
𝑛 3
𝑛=1

Solution
Applying the Ratio Test
𝑈𝑛+1
lim | |=𝐿
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛
If L<1 The Series converges absolutely
L>1 The Series diverges
L=1 The Test fails
𝑥𝑛
Let 𝑈𝑛 =
𝑛 2 3𝑛

𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑈𝑛+1 =
(𝑛+1)2 3𝑛+1

𝑥 𝑛 .𝑥 1
𝑈𝑛+1 =
(𝑛2 +2𝑛+1)3𝑛 .31

𝑈𝑛+1
lim | 𝑈𝑛
| =𝐿
𝑛→∞

𝑥 𝑛 .𝑥 1 𝑥𝑛
lim |(𝑛2 +2𝑛+1)3𝑛 .31 ÷ 𝑛2 3𝑛 |
𝑛→∞

𝑥 𝑛 .𝑥 1 𝑛 2 3𝑛
lim | 2 × |
𝑛→∞ (𝑛 +2𝑛+1)3𝑛 .31 𝑥𝑛

𝑥1 𝑛2
lim |(𝑛2 +2𝑛+1).31 × 1
|
𝑛→∞

|𝑥| 𝑛2
lim |𝑛2 +2𝑛+1| since the function of x is not affected by the limit
3 𝑛→∞

𝑛2
Considering the lim | 2 |
𝑛 +2𝑛+1
𝑛→∞
 𝑛2
𝑛2
lim | 𝑛2 2𝑛 1
|
𝑛→∞ + +
𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛2

1
lim 2 1
𝑛→∞ 1+𝑛+ 2
𝑛

1
lim 2 1
𝑛→∞ 1+𝑛+ 2
𝑛

1 𝑎
2 1 , But ∞ = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
1+ +
∞ ∞

1
1+0+0

=1
|𝑥| 𝑛2
Hence lim | 2 |
3 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 +2𝑛+1

|𝑥|
3
.1
|𝑥|
=
3

𝑥𝑛 𝑈𝑛+1
By the Ratio Test ∑∞
𝑛=1 is convergent if lim | | <1
𝑛 2 3𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛

𝑈𝑛+1 |𝑥|
But lim | 𝑈𝑛
| = 3
𝑛→∞

|𝑥|
<1
3

|𝑥| < 3

𝑥<3
Or

−𝑥 < 3
𝑥 > −3
x becomes −3 < 𝑥 < 3 which is an open interval (−3,3)

Checking the two end points

𝑈𝑛+1
The Ratio Test fails or becomes inconclusive when lim | 𝑈𝑛
| =1
𝑛→∞

|𝑥|
In this case 3
=1

|𝑥| = 3

𝑥=3
Or
 −𝑥 = 3
𝑥 = −3
For 𝑥 = −3
∞
(−3)𝑛
∑ 2 𝑛
𝑛 3
𝑛=1
∞
(−1)𝑛 (3)𝑛
∑
𝑛 2 . 3𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
1
∑(−1)𝑛
𝑛2
𝑛=1
∞
1
∑(−1)𝑛
𝑛2
𝑛=1

1
Using the Alternating Series Test for the series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1(−1) 𝑛2

For Alternating Series If lim 𝑈𝑛 = 0 or

𝑛→∞

lim |𝑈𝑛 | = 0 and

𝑛→∞

lim |𝑈𝑛+1 | ≤ |𝑈𝑛 | then the series converges

𝑛→∞
1
Let 𝑈𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 𝑛2
1
Then |𝑈𝑛 | = 𝑛2

lim |𝑈𝑛 |
𝑛→∞
1
lim
𝑛→∞ 2
𝑛

1 1 𝑎
As n approaches infinity lim 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 , But ∞ = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 ∞

1 1
This implies ∞ = 0 Hence lim |𝑈𝑛 |= lim =0.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2
1
|𝑈𝑛+1 | =
(𝑛+1)2

Comparing |𝑈𝑛+1 | 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ |𝑈𝑛 |

|𝑈𝑛+1 | ≤ |𝑈𝑛 |
1 1
(𝑛+1)2
≤ 𝑛2
i.e. if n=1
1
4
<1

If n=2
1 1
9
< 4 , Decreasing monotonically

Hence the series converges by Alternating Test since lim |𝑈𝑛 | = 0 and |𝑈𝑛+1 | ≤ |𝑈𝑛 |
𝑛→∞

𝑥𝑛
This concludes that the power series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛2 3𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −3 , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 3

𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

For 𝑥 = 3
∞
(3)𝑛
∑
𝑛 2 3𝑛
𝑛=1

∞
1
∑
𝑛2
𝑛=1
1
∑∞
𝑛=1 is a P-series
𝑛2
1
For P-series ∑∞
𝑛=1 converges when p>1 and diverges when 𝑝 ≤ 1
𝑛𝑝
1
Hence ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛2 converges since p>1

P=2 by comparison with the general P-series expression

𝑥𝑛
Since2>1 the power series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛2 3𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3 , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 3

𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

The interval of convergence becomes −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
𝑥𝑛
The power series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛2 3𝑛 is convergent for all real numbers in the closed interval [−3,3]

The inequality |𝑥 − 𝑐|<R describes the radius of convergence where R=Radius of Convergence and
c=Centre.
|𝑥|
Comparing the inequality |𝑥 − 𝑐|<R with < 1 which is the same a |𝑥| < 3
3

The radius of convergence becomes 3 and the center becomes 0

 𝑥𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛2 3𝑛 is convergent for all real numbers in the closed interval[−𝟑, 𝟑] with its
The power series ∑∞
radius of convergence to be 3

∞
(𝑥 + 4)𝑛
𝑛
∑(−1)
𝑛6𝑛
𝑛=1

Applying the Ratio Test

𝑈𝑛+1
lim | |=𝐿
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛
If L<1 The Series converges absolutely
L>1 The Series diverges
L=1 The Test fails
(𝑥+4)𝑛
Let 𝑈𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 𝑛6𝑛
(𝑥+4)𝑛
|𝑈𝑛 | =
𝑛6𝑛

(𝑥+4)𝑛+1
|𝑈𝑛+1 |=
(𝑛+1)6𝑛+1

(𝑥+4)𝑛 (𝑥+4)
= (𝑛+1)6𝑛 61

𝑈𝑛+1
lim | 𝑈𝑛
| =𝐿
𝑛→∞
(𝑥+4)𝑛 (𝑥+4) (𝑥+4)𝑛
lim | (𝑛+1)6𝑛 61
÷ 𝑛6𝑛
|
𝑛→∞

(𝑥+4)𝑛 (𝑥+4) 𝑛6𝑛

lim | (𝑛+1)6𝑛 61
× (𝑥+4)𝑛 |
𝑛→∞

(𝑥+4) 𝑛
lim | × |
𝑛→∞ (𝑛+1).6 1

|𝑥+4| 𝑛
lim | | since the function of x is not affected by the limit
6 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1

𝑛
Considering the lim |𝑛+1|
𝑛→∞
𝑛
𝑛
lim 𝑛 1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+𝑛

1 𝑎
1 , But ∞ = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
1+
∞

1
1+0

=1
 |𝑥+4| 𝑛
Hence 6
lim |𝑛+1|
𝑛→∞

|𝑥+4|
6
.1
|𝑥+4|
= 6

(𝑥+4)𝑛 𝑈𝑛+1
By the Ratio Test ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛
is convergent if lim | | <1
𝑛6𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛

𝑈𝑛+1 |𝑥+4|
But lim | 𝑈𝑛
| = 6
𝑛→∞

|𝑥+4|
6
<1

|(𝑥 + 4)| < 6

𝑥+4<6
𝑥 < −4 + 6
𝑥 < −2
Or

−(𝑥 + 4) < 6
−𝑥 − 4 < 6
−𝑥 < 6 + 4
−𝑥 < 10
𝑥 > −10
x becomes −10 < 𝑥 < 2 which is an open interval (−10,2)

Checking the two end points

𝑈𝑛+1
The Ratio Test fails or becomes inconclusive when lim | 𝑈𝑛
| =1
𝑛→∞

|𝑥+4|
In this case 6
=1

|(𝑥 + 4)| = 6

𝑥+4=6
𝑥 = −4 + 6
𝑥 = −2
Or

−(𝑥 + 4) = 6
−𝑥 − 4 = 6
 −𝑥 = 6 + 4
−𝑥 = 10
𝑥 = −10
For 𝑥 = −10
∞
(−10 + 4)𝑛
∑(−1)𝑛
𝑛6𝑛
𝑛=1

∞
(−6)𝑛
∑(−1)𝑛
𝑛6𝑛
𝑛=1

∞
(−1)𝑛 (6)𝑛
∑(−1)𝑛
𝑛6𝑛
𝑛=1

∞
(−1)𝑛+𝑛
∑
𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
1
∑(−1)2𝑛
𝑛
𝑛=1

∞
1
∑
𝑛
𝑛=1
1
∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 is a Harmonic Series, hence it diverges

(𝑥+4)𝑛
This concludes that the power series ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛
𝑛6𝑛
is divergent for 𝑥 = −10 ,hence the endpoint
−10 is exclusive in the interval of convergence

For 𝑥 = 2
∞
(2 + 4)𝑛
∑(−1)𝑛
𝑛6𝑛
𝑛=1

∞
(6)𝑛
∑(−1)𝑛
𝑛6𝑛
𝑛=1
 ∞
1
∑(−1)𝑛
𝑛
𝑛=1
1
The series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1(−1) 𝑛 alternates

1
Using the Alternating Series Test for the series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1(−1) 𝑛

For Alternating Series If lim 𝑈𝑛 = 0 or

𝑛→∞

lim |𝑈𝑛 | = 0 and

𝑛→∞

lim |𝑈𝑛+1 | ≤ |𝑈𝑛 | then the series converges

𝑛→∞
1
Let 𝑈𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 𝑛
1
Then |𝑈𝑛 | =
𝑛

lim |𝑈𝑛 |
𝑛→∞
1
lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
1 1 𝑎
As n approaches infinity lim 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 , But = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 ∞ ∞

1 1
This implies ∞ = 0 Hence lim |𝑈𝑛 |= lim 𝑛=0.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
1
|𝑈𝑛+1 | =
𝑛+1

Comparing |𝑈𝑛+1 | 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ |𝑈𝑛 |

|𝑈𝑛+1 | ≤ |𝑈𝑛 |
1 1
≤
𝑛+1 𝑛

i.e. if n=1
1
2
<1

If n=2
1 1
3
<2

The series decreases monotonically

Hence the series converges by Alternating Test since lim |𝑈𝑛 | = 0 and |𝑈𝑛+1 | ≤ |𝑈𝑛 |
𝑛→∞
 (𝑥+4)𝑛
This concludes that the power series ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛
𝑛6𝑛
is convergent for 𝑥 = 2 ,hence the endpoint 2 is
inclusive in the interval of convergence.

The interval of convergence becomes −10 < 𝑥 ≤ 2

(𝑥+4)𝑛
The power series ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛
𝑛6𝑛
is convergent for all real numbers in the closed interval (−10, 2]

The inequality |𝑥 − 𝑐|<R describes the radius of convergence where R=Radius of Convergence and
c=Centre.
|𝑥+4|
Comparing the inequality |𝑥 − 𝑐|<R with 6
< 1 which is the same as |(𝑥 + 4)| < 6

The radius of convergence becomes 6 and the center becomes −4

(𝑥+4)𝑛
The power series ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛
𝑛6𝑛
is convergent for all real numbers in the interval (−10, 2] with its
radius of convergence to be 6

Rolle’s Theorem states that if f be a continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on the
open interval (𝑎, 𝑏), and if f(𝑎)= f(𝑏), then there is at least one number c in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that f'(𝑎)=0

The Mean Value Theorem states that if f is a continuous function on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and
differentiable on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏), then there exist a number c in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that

f'(𝑎) =
f(𝑏)−f(𝑎)
𝑏−𝑎

A power series converges uniformly and absolutely in any interval which lies entirely within its
interval of convergence
A power series can be differentiated or integrated term by term over any interval lying entirely
within the interval of convergence.
𝑓(𝑥) = (1 + 𝑥)𝑘
For Maclaurin’s series the Taylor series is centered at 𝑥 = 0
∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛 ′ (0)(𝑥)
𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 ′′′ (0) 3 𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯
𝑛! 2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑛=0

𝑓(𝑥) = (1 + 𝑥)𝑘

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑘(1 + 𝑥)𝑘−1

𝑓 ′ ′(𝑥) = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(1 + 𝑥)𝑘−2

𝑓 ′′ ′(𝑥) = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2)(1 + 𝑥)𝑘−3

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2)(𝑘 − 3)(1 + 𝑥)𝑘−4

𝑓 𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2) ⋯ (𝑘 − 𝑛 + 1)(1 + 𝑥)𝑘−𝑛

Hence 𝑓(0) = (1 + 0)𝑘 = 1𝑘 = 𝟏

𝑓 ′ (0) = 𝑘(1 + 0)𝑘−1 = 𝑘(1)𝑘−1 = 𝒌

𝑓 ′ ′(0) = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(1 + 0)𝑘−2 = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(1)𝑘−2 = 𝒌(𝒌 − 𝟏)

𝑓 ′′ ′(0) = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2)(1 + 0)𝑘−3 = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2)(1)𝑘−3 = 𝒌(𝒌 − 𝟏)(𝒌 − 𝟐)

𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2)(𝑘 − 3)(1 + 0)𝑘−4 = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2)(𝑘 − 3)(1)𝑘−4
𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) = 𝒌(𝒌 − 𝟏)(𝒌 − 𝟐)(𝒌 − 𝟑)

𝑓 𝒏 (0) = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2) ⋯ (𝑘 − 𝑛 + 1)(1 + 0)𝑘−𝑛

𝑓 𝒏 (0) = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2) ⋯ (𝑘 − 𝑛 + 1)(1 + 𝑥)𝑘−𝑛 = 𝒌(𝒌 − 𝟏)(𝒌 − 𝟐) ⋯ (𝒌 − 𝒏 + 𝟏)

∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛 𝑘(𝑘 − 1) 2 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2) 3 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2)(𝑘 − 3) 4
∑ 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑘(𝑥) + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 ⋯
𝑛! 2! 3! 4!
𝑛=0
𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛
+ 𝑥 +⋯
𝑛!
𝑘(𝑘−1) 2 𝑘(𝑘−1)(𝑘−2) 3 𝑘(𝑘−1)(𝑘−2)(𝑘−3) 4 𝑓𝑛 (0) 𝑛
= 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯
2! 3! 4! 𝑛!
∞ ∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2) ⋯ (𝑘 − 𝑛 + 1) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 =1+∑ 𝑥
𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑛=0 𝑛=1

Hence the Maclaurin series for 𝑓(𝑥) = (1 + 𝑥)𝑘 in sigma notation will be:
∞
𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2) ⋯ (𝑘 − 𝑛 + 1) 𝑛
1+∑ 𝑥 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑛!
𝑛=1

Applying the Ratio Test to determine the ratio of convergence

𝑈𝑛+1
lim | | =𝐿
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛

If L<1 The Series converges absolutely

L>1 The Series diverges
L=1 The Test fails
𝑘(𝑘−1)(𝑘−2)⋯(𝑘−𝑛+1) 𝑛
Let 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑛!
𝑥
𝑘(𝑘−1)(𝑘−2)⋯(𝑘−(𝑛+1)+1) 𝑛+1
𝑈𝑛+1 = (𝑛+1)!
𝑥
𝑘(𝑘−1)(𝑘−2)⋯(𝑘−𝑛) 𝑛 1
𝑈𝑛+1 = (𝑛+1)(𝑛!)
𝑥 .𝑥

𝑈𝑛+1
lim | 𝑈𝑛
| =𝐿
𝑛→∞

𝑘(𝑘−1)(𝑘−2)⋯(𝑘−𝑛) 𝑛 1 𝑘(𝑘−1)(𝑘−2)⋯(𝑘−𝑛+1) 𝑛
lim | (𝑛+1)(𝑛!)
𝑥 .𝑥 ÷ 𝑛!
𝑥 |
𝑛→∞

𝑘(𝑘−1)(𝑘−2)⋯(𝑘−𝑛+1)(𝑘−𝑛) 𝑛 1 𝑛!
lim | (𝑛+1)(𝑛!)
𝑥 .𝑥 × 𝑘(𝑘−1)(𝑘−2)⋯(𝑘−𝑛+1).𝑥 𝑛 |
𝑛→∞
 𝑘−𝑛 1
lim | .𝑥 × |
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1 1

𝑥(𝑘−𝑛)
lim | 𝑛+1
|
𝑛→∞

(𝑘−𝑛)
|𝑥| lim | | since the function of x is not affected by the limit
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1

(𝑘−𝑛)
Considering lim | 𝑛+1
|
𝑛→∞
𝑘 𝑛
( − )
𝑛 𝑛
lim | 𝑛 1 |
𝑛→∞ +
𝑛 𝑛

𝑘
( −1)
𝑛
lim | 1 |
𝑛→∞ 1+
𝑛

As n approaches infinity
𝑘
( −1) 𝑎
∞
| 1 | But ∞ = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
1+
∞

(0−1)
| 1+0 |

−1
|1|

|−1|

=1
(𝑘−𝑛)
Hence |𝑥| lim | |
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1

|𝑥|.1

= |𝑥|
𝑘(𝑘−1)(𝑘−2)⋯(𝑘−𝑛+1) 𝑛 𝑈𝑛+1
By the Ratio Test ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛!
𝑥 is convergent if lim | 𝑈𝑛
| <1
𝑛→∞

𝑈𝑛+1
But lim | 𝑈𝑛
| = |𝑥|
𝑛→∞

|𝑥| < 1

𝑥<1
Or

−𝑥 < 1
𝑥 > −1
−1 < 𝑥 < 1 which is an open interval (−1,1)
 The inequality |𝑥 − 𝑐|<R describes the radius of convergence where R=Radius of Convergence and
c=Centre.

Comparing the inequality |𝑥 − 𝑐|<R with |𝑥| < 1

The radius of convergence becomes 1 and the center becomes 0

Hence the radius of convergence = 𝟏

A power series in the variable of x is a series of the form

∞

∑ 𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜)

𝑛=0
∞

∑ 𝐶𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠

𝑛=0
∞

∑ 𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (1)
𝑛=0

∑ 𝐶𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (2)
𝑛=0

∑∞ 𝑛 2 3 4
𝑛=0 𝐶𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐶0 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑥 + 𝐶4 𝑥 ⋯ 𝐶𝑛 𝑥
𝑛

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐶0 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥 2 + 𝐶3 𝑥 3 + 𝐶4 𝑥 4 ⋯ 𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝐶1 + 2𝐶2 𝑥 + 3𝐶3 𝑥 2 + 4𝐶4 𝑥 3 ⋯ 𝑛𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 2𝐶2 + 3.2𝐶3 𝑥 + 4.3𝐶4 𝑥 2 ⋯ 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−2

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 3.2𝐶3 + 4. 3.2𝐶4 𝑥 + ⋯ 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−3

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = 4. 3.2𝐶4 + ⋯ 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3)𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−4
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑛! 𝐶𝑛
For Maclaurin’s series the Taylor series is centered at 𝑥 = 0

𝑓 ′ (0) = 𝐶0
𝑓 ′ (0) = 𝐶1
𝑓 ′′ (0) = 2𝐶2
𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 3.2𝐶3
𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) = 4. 3.2𝐶4
𝑓 𝑛 (0) = 𝑛! 𝐶𝑛 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (3)
 Making 𝐶𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛(3)
𝑓𝑛 (0)
𝐶𝑛 = 𝑛!

Substituting 𝐶𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (1)

∞
𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑛!
𝑛=0

For the Taylor Series the center is not is equal to zero, thus 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
𝐶𝑛 =
𝑛!
Substituting 𝐶𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (2)
∞
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 ′ 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑛!
𝑛=0

Hence Shown

𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 on the interval [−1,2]

𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2

Finding critical numbers of 𝑓 in the interval (−1,2 )

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥

12𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 = 0

12𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 1) = 0

12𝑥 2 = 0
𝑥=0
(𝑥 − 1) = 0

𝑥=1
Since 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥

The only critical numbers of 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 = 0,1

Evaluating 𝑓 at the two endpoints [−1,2] and at the two critical numbers x=0,1

𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3

𝑓(−1) = 3(−1)4 − 4(−1)3 = 3 − (−4) = 3 + 4 = 7

𝑓(2) = 3(2)4 − 4(2)3 = 3(16) − 4(8) = 48 − 32 = 16
𝑓(0) = 3(0)4 − 4(0)3 = 0

𝑓(1) = 3(1)4 − 4(1)3 = 3 − 4 = −1

By Comparison, you can determine that 𝑓(1) = −1 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓(2) = 16 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚