BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SESSIONAL

Experiment Name:
1. Study and performance test of a four-stroke cycle petrol engine.
2. Study and performance test of a four-stroke cycle diesel engine.
3. Determination of higher calorific value of liquid fuel using bomb calorimeter.
4. Determination of viscosity, specific gravity and density of Diesel and Mobil using
viscometer.
5. Study of a refrigeration and air conditioning system.

N.B.

• Student must have to do all of the above experiments.

• Make a loose sheet for data and calculation for each experiment.
• Student have to submit lab report on the performance day.
• The cover sheet should include:
— the name of the experiment, experiment number
— the course title, course number
— student name, student ID, group members, and group number
— date of the experiment, date of the submission
• Students are advised to write the loose sheet (as fair lab manual) before coming into the lab.
— objectives
— theory with figure
— apparatus
— procedure/working principle
— data table
• Make a fair lab manual after taking data.
• Complete fair lab manual with added the followings:
— calculations
— results
— discussion
— conclusion
• Discussion and conclusion should be unique as per experiment. Copy will not be accepted from others.
• Keep preparation for Table Viva every day. This may influence your final lab marks.
• Always keep some graph papers (8.5inch x 11.5inch), and rough sheets with you.
• Bring pen, pencil, sharpener, eraser, ruler, and other necessary items.
• Cell phone are not allowed during sessional class. (Cell phone must be switched off mode. Keep it within
your own bag in your own responsibility)
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STUDY AND PERFORMANCE TEST OF A FOUR STROKE CYCLE PETROL ENGINE

Objectives:

a) To learn about the petrol engine working procedure.

b) To know about petrol engine structure.
c) To determine the brake power and brake thermal efficiency of the engine.

Theory:

An engine may be defined as a device that converts heat energy into mechanical energy. In a four-
stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston for two revolutions of the
crankshaft.

This is achieved by carrying out suction, compression, expansion, and exhaust process in each stroke.
Following it may be noted that the distance between the two extreme pistons. The piston is known as
the top dead center (TDC) and the bottom dead center (BDC) is called a stroke.

A petrol engine is an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol fuels.
It was invented in 1876 in Europe. In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually pre-mixed before
compression. The pre-mixing was formerly done in a carburetor, but now it is done by electronically
controlled fuel injection.

The main parts of the engine:

Cylinder
It is one of the most essential parts of the engine in which the piston moves to and fro to develop
power. It is made of steel alloys or aluminium alloys.

Cylinder head
It is fitted on the top of the cylinder and acts as a cover to close the cylinder. The cylinder head contains
inlet and exit valve for admitting fresh charge and exhausting burnt gases. It also contains a spark plug
for igniting the fuel air mixture, towards the end of the compression stroke.

Piston
It is considered the heart of an ignition compression engine whose main function is to transmit the
force exerted by the burning of fuel oil to the connecting rod, the pistons are generally made of
aluminium or steel alloy. It has to be had to tolerate the heat generated by the engine.

Piston Ring
These are circular rings and made of special steel alloys which return elastic properties even at high
temperatures. Generally, there are two sets of rings mounted for the piston.

The functions of the rings are to provide air tight seal to prevent leakage of the burnt gases into the
lower portion as well as into the engine cylinder.

Connecting Rod
It is a link between the piston and crankshaft, whose main function is to transmit force from the piston
to crankshaft.

Moreover, it converts reciprocating motion of the piston into circular motion of the crankshaft, in the
working stroke. The upper end of the connecting rod is fitted to the piston and the lower end to the
crank.

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Crankshaft
It is considered as the backbone of an IC engine whose function is to convert the reciprocating motion
of the piston into the rotary motion with the help of connecting rod. This shaft contains one or more
eccentric portions is called cranks.

The crankshaft moves the flywheel because it connected with the flywheel.

Crankcase
It is a cast-iron case that holds the cylinder and crankshaft of an I.C. engine. It also serves as a sump
for the lubricating oil. the lower portion of the crankcase is known as bad plate, which is fixed with
the help of bolts.

Flywheel
It is a big wheel mounted on a crankshaft that functions to maintain its speed constant.

There are several efficiency terms for a petrol engine. These are given below:

Brake thermal efficiency

It is the ratio of the heat equivalent to one kw hour to the heat in fuel per brake power hour.

Mathematically brake thermal efficiency —

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 1 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝜼=
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
3600
= × 𝐵. 𝑃
𝑚𝑓 × 𝑐
Here,

mf = mass of fuel consumed in kg per hour

C= Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg of fuel

In case of proxy break, let

w = brake load in newtons

D = diameter of the brake drum in m
N = speed of the engine in R.P.M.

∴ Brake power of the engine,

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑚 × 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝐵. 𝑃 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
60
𝑇 × 2𝜋𝑁
= 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
60
𝑤𝐷 × 2𝜋𝑁
= 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
60
Apparatus:

a) petrol engine,
b) stop watch,
c) tachometer,
d) measuring cylinder

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Working Principle:

It is also known as otto cycle. It requires four strokes of the piston to complete one cycle of operation
in the engine cylinder. The four strokes of a petrol engine sucking fuel air mixture (petrol mixture with
proportionate quantity of air in the carburettor known as charge) are described below:

Suction Stroke

In this stroke, the inlet valve opens and charge is sucked into the cylinder as the piston moves
downward from top dead centre (TDC). It continues steel the piston reaches its bottom dead centre
(BDC).

Compression Stroke

In this is stroke, both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed and the charge is compressed as the
piston moves upwards from BDC to TDC. As a result of compression, the pressure and temperature of
the charge increases considerably (the actual values depend upon the compression ratio). This
completes one revolution of the crankshaft. Spark Plug

Suction or
Charging Stroke
Figure 1: 4-stroke petrol engine working method.
Expansion Stroke

Shortly before the piston reaches TDC (during compression stroke), the charge is ignited with the help
of a spark plug. It suddenly increases the pressure and temperature of the products of combustion
but the volume, practically, remains constant. Due to the rise in pressure, the piston is pushed down
with a great force. The hot burnt gases explain extend due to high speed of the piston. During this
expansion, some of the heat energy produced is transformed into mechanical work. It may be noted
that during this working stroke, both the valves are closed and piston moves from TDC to BDC.

Exhaust Stroke

In this stroke, the exhaust valve is open as Piston moves from BDC to TDC. This movement of the
piston pushes out the products of combustion, from the engine cylinder and are exhausted through

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the exhaust valve into the atmosphere. This completes the cycle, and the engine cylinder is ready to
suck the charge again.

Procedure:

1. The Test Engine Fuel Tank has enough fuel for the test was ensured.
2. The engine was started.
3. A load was applied after starting the engine.
4. The R.P.M. reading was taken.
5. Then, for the 10cc fuel consumption time was taken
6. The steps from 1 to 5 were repeated four more times.
7. Different values were noted down in data table.
8. Flywheel diameter was measured and the values were calculated.
Data Table:
Number of R.P.M Load in lb Fuel Flywheel
observations consumption diameter
time for 10cc (s) (inch)
1 2437 4 79
2 2715 4 72
3 2909 4 67 13
4 3170 4 61
5 3371 4 50

Calculations:
The arm length, 13 inch = 0.33 m
Calorific Value (C) = 45000 kJ/kg
We know, 1lb = 0.45 kg
1liter = 740gm petrol
RPM = revolutions per minute 60s = 1m

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑚 × 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

𝐵. 𝑃 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
60

For observation 1:
Brake power = (4lb × 0.45kg/lb × 9.8m/s2 × 0.33m × 2 × 3.14 × 2437rpm) / 60 rpm-s × 1000
= 0.59 kilowatts

Mass of fuel consumed in kg per hour = mf = density(kg/m3)×volume(m3)×60×60(sec/hour)/time(sec)

= (7.4×10-3 kg) / 79s / 3600s/h = 0.34 kg/h

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Specific fuel consumption = mf/BP

= 0.34 kg/h / 0.59 kw (SI unit kg.m2.s-3) = 0.58

Efficiency, η1 = (BP × 3600 / mf × 45000)

= (0.59 × 3600 / 0.34 × 45000) × 100 =

Similarly for observation 2,3,4,5 can be calculated.

Results:

η = (η1+η2+η3+η4+η5) / 5 =

Discussion:

The experiment was done very carefully to minimise errors. But it has some lacking due to engine
problem and human errors.

As we see the data table, the RPM is decreasing along the increase of load. Besides, fuel consumption
also increases as the load is increasing.

If we could able to overcome the errors from the experiment, the RPM should be same. Moreover, as
the load rises, the fuel consumption time should less.

Though the rpm was not constant, the efficiency values were as expected. So, it can be said that, the
performance test was determined nicely and we gained the experiment purpose.

Conclusion:

The petrol engine is one of the most popular engines. Its efficiency may seem poor, but uses in multi-
purpose make it essential. So, the petrol engine is so much preferable for its versatile application.

The process differs from a diesel engine in the method of using spark plugs to initiate the combustion
process. Though its efficiency is less then diesel engine, it has more option for application. That’s why
it is so much preferable for using.

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STUDY AND PERFORMANCE TEST OF A FOUR STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE

Objectives:

a) To learn about the diesel engine working procedure.

b) To know about diesel engine structure.
c) To determine the brake power and brake thermal efficiency of the engine.

Theory:

An engine may be defined as a device that converts heat energy into mechanical energy. In a four-
stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston for two revolutions of the
crankshaft.

This is achieved by carrying out suction, compression, expansion, and exhaust process in each stroke.
Following it may be noted that the distance between the two extreme pistons. The piston is known as
the top dead center (TDC) and the bottom dead center (BDC) is called a stroke.

A diesel engine uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn fuel. Which is injected into
the combustion chamber this is in contrast to spark-ignition engines such as a petrol engine (gasoline
engine) or gas engine using a gasoline fuel such as opposed to gasoline, which uses a spark plug to
ignite an air-fuel mixture. The engine was developed by the scientist Rudolf Diesel in 1893.

The main parts of the engine:

Cylinder
It is one of the most essential parts of the engine in which the piston moves to and fro to develop
power. It is made of steel alloys or aluminium alloys.

Cylinder head
It is fitted on the top of the cylinder and acts as a cover to close the cylinder. The cylinder head contains
inlet and exit valve for admitting fresh charge and exhausting burnt gases. It also contains a fuel
injection nozzle valve that sprays fuel oil at the end of the compression stroke.

Piston
It is considered the heart of an ignition compression engine whose main function is to transmit the
force exerted by the burning of fuel oil to the connecting rod, the pistons are generally made of
aluminium or steel alloy. It has to be had to tolerate the heat generated by the engine.

Piston Ring
These are circular rings and made of special steel alloys which return elastic properties even at high
temperatures. Generally, there are two sets of rings mounted for the piston.

The functions of the rings are to provide air tight seal to prevent leakage of the burnt gases into the
lower portion as well as into the engine cylinder.

Connecting Rod
It is a link between the piston and crankshaft, whose main function is to transmit force from the piston
to crankshaft.

Moreover, it converts reciprocating motion of the piston into circular motion of the crankshaft, in the
working stroke. The upper end of the connecting rod is fitted to the piston and the lower end to the
crank.

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Crankshaft
It is considered as the backbone of an IC engine whose function is to convert the reciprocating motion
of the piston into the rotary motion with the help of connecting rod. This shaft contains one or more
eccentric portions is called cranks.

The crankshaft moves the flywheel because it connected with the flywheel.

Crankcase
It is a cast-iron case that holds the cylinder and crankshaft of an I.C. engine. It also serves as a sump
for the lubricating oil. the lower portion of the crankcase is known as bad plate, which is fixed with
the help of bolts.

Flywheel
It is a big wheel mounted on a crankshaft that functions to maintain its speed constant.

There are several efficiency terms for a diesel engine. These are given below:

Brake thermal efficiency

It is the ratio of the heat equivalent to one kw hour to the heat in fuel per brake power hour.

Mathematically brake thermal efficiency —

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 1 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝜼=
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
3600
= × 𝐵. 𝑃
𝑚𝑓 × 𝑐
Here,

mf = mass of fuel consumed in kg per hour

C= Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg of fuel

In case of proxy break, let

w = brake load in newtons

l = length of the arm in metres
N = speed of the engine in R.P.M.

∴ Brake power of the engine,

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑚 × 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝐵. 𝑃 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
60
𝑇 × 2𝜋𝑁
= 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
60
𝑤l × 2𝜋𝑁
= 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
60
in case of rope brake let,

w = brake load in newtons

S = spring balance reading in a N
D = diameter of the brake drum in m

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d = diameter of the rope

N = speed of the engine in R.P.M.

∴ Brake power of the engine,

(𝑤−𝑠)𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝐵. 𝑃 = 60
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 (Without diameter of the rope)
(𝑤−𝑠)𝜋(𝐷+𝑑)𝑁
= 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 (Considering the diameter of the rope)
60

Apparatus:

diesel engine, stop watch,

tachometer
Working Principle:

Diesel is also known as compression ignition engine because the ignition takes place due to the heat
produced in the engine cylinder at the end of compression stroke. The four strokes of a diesel engine
sucking pure air are described below:

Suction Stroke

The inlet valve opens and the exhaust valve remains closed, only air pressure is moved down into the
cylinder as the piston moves from the top to the bottom dead centre.

Compression Stroke

As the piston moves from the bottom dead centre to the top dead centre, the inlet valve closed,
exhaust valve remains closed. The air trapped into the cylinder in compressed in the cylinder till the
piston approaches the top dead centre. The air temperature reaches about 800° C by compression. At
the end of the compression stroke, the fuel is injected at very high pressure into the compressed hot
air.
Fuel injection valve

Suction or
Charging Stroke
Figure 2: 4-stroke diesel engine working method.

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Expansion Stroke

During this stroke both valves remain closed. The piston at the top dead centre (TDC) is pushed by
expansion of burning gases. Actual work is obtained during this is stroke. Due to the force obtained by
the high pressure of the burning gases.

Exhaust Stroke

During this stroke, the piston moves from the bottom dead centre to top dead centre. Exhaust valve
open and the inlet valve remains closed. Burnt gases of the previous stroke are expelled from the
cylinder by the movement of the piston.

Procedure:

1. The Test Engine Fuel Tank has enough fuel for the test was ensured.
2. The engine was started.
3. A load was applied after starting the engine.
4. The R.P.M. reading was taken.
5. Then, for the 10cc fuel consumption time was taken
6. The steps from 1 to 5 were repeated four more times.
7. Different values were noted down in data table.
8. Flywheel diameter was measured and the values were calculated.
Data Table:
Number of R.P.M Load in lb Fuel Flywheel Brake Brake thermal
observations consumption diameter power (kw) efficiency
time for 10cc (s) (inch) (%)
1 917 3.6 96.53 0.506 12.78
2 906 4.8 88.6 0.67 15.51
3 895 6.0 83.8 13 0.82 17.94
4 887 7.1 77 0.97 19.52
5 882 8.0 72.15 1.08 20.38

Calculations:
The arm length, 13 inch = 0.33 m
Calorific Value (C) = 44500 kJ/kg
We know, 1lb = 0.45 kg
RPM = revolutions per minute 60s = 1m

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑚 × 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

𝐵. 𝑃 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
60

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For observation 1:
Brake power = (3.6lb × 0.45kg/lb × 9.8m/s2 × 0.33m × 2 × 3.14 × 917rpm) / 60 rpm-s × 1000
= 0.506 kilowatts

Input power = mf × C = (10cc × 0.86kg/cc × 44500kJ/kg) / 96.53s × 1000 = 3.96 kilowatts

Efficiency, η1 = (BP/IP) × 100 = (0.506/3.96) × 100 = 12.78%

Similarly for observation 2,3,4,5 can be calculated.

Results:

η = (η1+η2+η3+η4+η5) / 5 =

Discussion:

The experiment was done very carefully to minimise errors. But it has some lacking due to engine
problem and human errors.

As we see the data table, the RPM is decreasing along the increase of load. Besides, fuel consumption
also increases as the load is increasing.

If we could able to overcome the errors from the experiment, the RPM should be same. Moreover, as
the load rises, the fuel consumption time should less.

Though the rpm was not constant, the efficiency values were as expected. So, it can be said that, the
performance test was determined nicely and we gained the experiment purpose.

Conclusion:

The diesel engine is one of the most popular prime movers. It is manufactured from same to 1500mm
cylinder with speed running from 100 RPM to 5400 RPM. Its efficiency may seem poor, but uses in
multi-purpose make it essential. So, the diesel engine is so much preferable for its versatile
application.

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DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND DENSITY OF DIESEL AND MOBIL USING VISCOMETER

Objectives:

a) To determine the viscosity, density, and specific gravity of Diesel.

b) To ascertain the viscosity, density, and specific gravity of Mobil.

Theory:

In order to do the experiment, the most important things are to know about the viscosity, density and
specific gravity.

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow, which is being deformed by either tensile or
shear stress. In general, in any flow, layers move at different viscosities and the fluid viscosity arise
from the shear stress between these layers, that ultimately opposed any applied force.

The relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient can be obtained by considering two plates
separated at a distance ‘Y’ and by a homogeneous substance.

Assuming that the area of each plate is ‘A’, neglecting the edge effect and the lower plate is fixed, a
force ‘F’ be applied to the upper plate. If this force causes the substance between the plates to
undergo shear flow with a velocity gradient u/y, then the substance is then called a fluid.

The applied force ‘F’ is directly proportional to the area of plates and velocity gradient. This is —
𝑢
𝐹∝𝐴
𝑦
𝑢
𝐹=𝜇𝐴
𝑦

Where, μ is the proportionality factor called dynamic viscosity. Dynamic viscosity is also called
absolute viscosity.

The ratio of the internal force to the viscous force is called kinematic viscosity where the viscous force
is nothing but fluid density. It is denoted by ν
𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌
Here,

μ = dynamic viscosity

ρ = fluid density

The viscosity of fluid is obtained by a machine called viscometer.

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance compared to the density of water at 4° C. The
standard value of density of water is 1 g/ml. The specific gravity of a substance may be defined as —

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
specific gravity, 𝑆 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 4° 𝐶

But in laboratory the temperature is not usually obtained as 4° C. Therefore, if the atmospheric
temperature is θ° C then,

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𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Apparent specific gravity, 𝑆𝐴 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝜃° 𝐶

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝜃° 𝐶

So, actually specific gravity, 𝑆 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝜃° 𝐶 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 4° 𝐶

= 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 4° 𝐶

⇒ 𝑺 = 𝑺𝑨 × 𝝆𝜽

Another property is density. The density of a material is defined as the mass per unit volume. This is denoted by
ρ. If the mass of a substance is m and its volume is v then density is —

ρ = m/v

Apparatus:

1) Viscometer
2) Measuring balance
3) Biker

Procedure:

1. The viscosity of different fuels was determined by using a viscometer.

2. The readings were taken directly on the metre by rotating a rotor of in the sample fluid.
3. The rotor inserted into the connector hole of the meter and it was turned on in the counter
clockwise direction.
4. The cup was filled with the fluid and the rotor was centred in the cups.
5. The viscometer was switched on and the readings were noted.
6. The mass was measured by using balance.
7. The volume of fuel was measured by measuring cylinder.
8. To determine the specific gravity the mass of the water was measured and density was
measured.
Then by using formula, the specific gravity of the sample fuel was calculated.
Data Table:
For determination of viscosity:
number of name of the fuel using rotor number viscosity
observations
01 Diesel 4 6
02 Mobil 3 250
For density and specific gravity:

average
no. of name of volume average specific
mass (g) density specific
obs. the liquid (ml) density gravity
gravity
50 40 800 8×10-4
01 Diesel 100 82 820 815.56 8.2×10-4 8.15×10-4
150 124 820.67 8.26×10-4
50 44 880 8.8×10-4
02 Mobil 100 86 860 873.33 8.6×10-4 8.73×10-4
150 132 880 8.8×10-4

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Calculations:
Density for diesel:

ρ1 = 40/50×10-3 = 800 g/L3

ρ2 = = g/L3

ρ3 = = g/L3

Density for mobil:

ρ1 = 44/50×10-3 = 880 g/L3

ρ2 = = g/L3

ρ3 = = g/L3

Again, specific gravity for diesel:

SG1 = 800×10-3/1000= 8×10-4

SG2 =

SG3 =

Specific gravity for mobil:

SG1 = 880×10-3/1000= 8.8×10-4

SG2 =

SG3 =

Results:

Average density for diesel = (ρ1+ρ2+ρ3)/3

Average density for mobil = (ρ1+ρ2+ρ3)/3

Average Specific gravity for diesel = (SG1 + SG2 + SG3)/3

Average Specific gravity for mobil = (SG1 + SG2 + SG3)/3

Discussion:

The experiment was done very carefully to minimise errors. But it has some lacking due to device
problem and human errors.

Conclusion:

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DETERMINATION OF HIGHER CALORIFIC VALUE OF LIQUID FUEL USING BOMB CALORIMETER

Objectives:

a) To determine the higher calorific value of liquid fuel.

b) To use bomb calorimeter.

Theory:

Bomb calorimeter is a device that is used to determine the higher calorific value of the solid and liquid
fuel. In the bomb calorimeter main component is the bomb a chamber where fuel is burnt in the
crucible and water is surrounded by the bomb. on the head of the bomb, there are two valves, one
for oxygen and the other one is for exhaust gas called the release valve.

In the inner side of the bomb, there exists a crucible made of silica, which is used as the pot where
fuel is burnt. Two fuse wires dipped into the fuel, but it is not in contact with the crucible. There are
two ignition rod which are connected with the battery outside the bomb calorimeter. Those ignition
rods are made of ‘Pt’ in general. A thermometer is submerged into the water to record the
temperature rise when fuel is burnt and the generated heat absorbed by the water. In general, a
thermometer of Backmann type used to determine the higher calorific value of the fuel.

Higher calorific value may define as the total amount of the heat generated when one unit mass of
fuel is burnt completely and the combustion products are cooled to room temperature.

The device that is widely used to determine the higher calorific value of the solid and liquid fuel is
Oxygen Bomb calorimeter. A bomb was placed or submerged into water in the calorimeter. Then the
fuel is burnt in the crucible of the bomb. As a result, heat is generated, surrounded water absorb that
heat and its temperature rises. The temperature rising is determined with the help of thermometer
and then from this rising of the temperature higher value of that fuel which was burnt during the
experiment is determined.

Higher calorific value can be expressed as —

(𝑚𝑤 + 𝑚𝑒 )𝐶𝑤 × (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
𝐻. 𝐶. 𝑉 =
𝑚𝑓

Here,

mW = mass of the water in kg

me = mass of the equivalent water in apparatus in kg
Cw = specific heat of water in KJ/kg
t2 = final temperature
t1 = initial temperature
mf = mass of the fuel in kg

From this data, the higher calorific value of any kind or solid fuel can be measured.

Apparatus:

1. Bomb Calorimeter 4. Thermometer

2. Fuel 5. Electricity
3. Oxygen 6. Water

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Procedure:

1. Fuel is put in the crucible.

2. Oxygen enters till 35 psi pressure.
3. Bomb is submerged in water.
4. Fuse wire is heated up electricity.
5. Fuse ignites, continues to burn.
6. Heat generated during combustion absorbed by water.
7. Measure temperature rising.
8. Calculates the values.
Calculations:
Here,

mW = mass of the water in kg = 2kg

me = mass of the equivalent water in apparatus in kg = 0.30kg
Cw = specific heat of water in KJ/kg = 4.2
t2 = final temperature = 29.267° C
t1 = initial temperature = 33.761° C
mf = mass of the fuel in kg = 1/1000

Higher calorific value = (2+0.30)4.2(33.761-29.267)/1/1000

= 43412.04

Results:

Percentage of errors,

= (44500-43412.04)/44500

= 2.44%

Discussion:

The experiment was done very carefully to minimise errors. But it has some lacking due to setup
problem.

Conclusion:

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STUDY OF A REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

Objectives:

a) To study about refrigeration system and principle of it.

b) To know about air conditioning system and principal attached to it.

Theory:

Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from a substance. It also includes the process of reducing
and maintaining the temperature of a body below the general temperature of its surroundings. In
other words, the refrigeration means a continued extraction of heat from a body, whose temperature
is already below the temperature of its surroundings.

Refrigerators work on the second law of thermodynamics. Refrigerant is used in heat cycle to transfer
heat from one area and remove it to another.

Air conditioning system is the process of treating air so as to control simultaneously temperature,
humidity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet the requirements of the conditioned space. The air
conditioning is that branch of engineering science which deals with the study of conditioning of air for
human comfort.

Four important factors of it —

1. Temperature of air
2. Humidity of air
3. Purity of air
4. Motion of air

Refrigeration system in figure indicates compression refrigeration system with an evaporative

condenser. It includes the blower section (industrial grade), evaporative condenser, compressor,
evaporator, expansion valve, strainer, charging, and discharge valve.

Air conditioning system in this experiment includes circulation tans air conditioning unit, supply duct,
supply outlets, return outlets, filters, evaporator, compressor, condenser, expansion valve.

Working Principle:

A refrigeration cycle (here an ideal vapour compressor refrigerator cycle) consists of four processes
discussed below.

Process 1-2
Isentropic compression of saturated vapour in the compressor.

Process 2-3
Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser.

Process 3-4
Throttling of refrigerant in an expensive expansion device.

Process 4-1
Constant pressure heat absorption in evaporator.

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a refrigeration system in here is simple vapour refrigeration system consists of following five essential
parts

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