Applied Mathematics

athematics IB MTU

CHAPTER 3: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

3.1. Revision on Intuitive Definition and General Concepts about Limit
Introduction:: The concept of a limit is the fundamental building block on which all other
calculus concepts are based. The basic idea underlying the concept of the limit of a function at
a point ′ ′ is to study the behavior of at points close to ′ ′ but not necessarily to′ ′ .
essarily equal to
Example
Let us investigate the behavior of the function defined by ( ) = − + 2 for values of x
near to 2.
The following table gives values of ( )

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for values of close to 2 but not equal to 2.

From the above table and the graph of , we see that when is close to 2 (on either side of 2),
( ) is close to 4.
We express this by saying
"the limit of the function f(x) = x − x + 2 as x approaches 2 is equal to 4".
The notation for this is
lim → ( − + 2) = 4

In general, we use the following notion

Definition
We write → ( ) = and say “the limit of f(x), as x approaches a, equals L” if we can the
value of f(x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by taking x to sufficiently close to a
(on either side of a) but not equal to a.
An alternative notation for → ( ) = is ( ) → as → which is usually read as “f(x)
approaches L as x approaches a”
Note: the phrase “but not equal to a” in the definition of limit means that in finding the limit of
f(x) as x approaches a, we never consider x = a. In fact, f(x) need not even be defined when x = a.
The only thing that matters is how f is defined near a.

Observe the following figure. In part (c), f(a) is not defined and in part (b), ( ) ≠ . But in
each case, regardless of what happens at, it is true that lim → ( ) =

3.2. Basic limit theorems

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Example

Solution

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Note

Example

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Solution

Example

Solution

Theorem:

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Theorem (the squeeze theorem)

Example

Solution

3.3.One sided limits

Left-hand limit
Definition
We write → ( )=
and say the
−
( ) [ ( )
if we can make the values of ( ) arbitrarily close to L by taking to be sufficiently close to

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′ ′ and less than ′ ′

Right-hand limit
Definition
We write → ( )=
and say the − ( ) [
( ) ] if we can make the values of
( ) arbitrarily close to L by taking to be sufficiently close to ′ ′ and greater than ′ ′

Graphical representation of Left--hand limit and Right-hand limit

By

comparing limit definition with Left-hand

Left limit and Right-hand
hand limit, the following is true.

( )= ( )= ( )=
→ → →

Example
The graph of a function is shown in the following figure. Use it to state the values (if exist) of
the following:
( ) lim ( ) ( ) lim ( ) ( ) lim ( )
→ → →
( ) lim ( ) ( ) lim ( ) ( ) lim ( )
→ → →

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Solution
From the given graph
( ) lim → ( )=3 ( ) lim → ( )=1
( ) Since the left and right limits are different, so we conclude that
lim → ( ) does not exist.
The graph also shows that
( ) lim → ( )=2 ( ) lim → ( )=2
( ) This time the left and right limits are same, sos we have
lim ( ) = 2
→
Exercise
1. The graph of a function is shown in the following figure. Use it to state the values(if
exist). If it does not exist, explain why?

2. The graph of a function is shown in the following

figure. Use it to state the values(if exist). If it does
not exist, explain why?

3.4. Infinite Limits and Limit at Infinity and Asymptotes

Infinite Limits

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Definition:

Example

Solution

Definition:

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Note:

Graphically,

Definition:

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Exercise.
a.

b.

c.

d.

Limit at Infinity
Definition :

Example

Graphically,

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Definition:

Note:

3.5.Formal definition of limit

Definition :
Let be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number′ ′, except possibly at
′ ′ itself. Then we say that the limit of ( ) as approaches is L, and we write
lim ( ) =
→
if for every number > 0 there is a corresponding number > 0 such that
| ( )− |< ℎ 0<| − |<

Example
Solution

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Note – the intuitive definition of one-sided limits that were given in the previous section can be
precisely defined as follows.

Continuity and one sided Continuity

Definition

lim ( ) = ( )
→

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Note that the above definition implicitly requires three things if is continuous at :
i. ( ) (i.e., is in the domain of )
ii. lim → ( ) exists
iii. lim → ( ) = ( )

If is not continuous at , we say that is discontinuous at , or has discontinuity at .

Example
Show that the function ( ) = is continuous at = 4
Solution
Given ( ) =
i. ( ) = (4) =
ii. lim → ( ) = lim → = exists
iii. lim → = = (4)
Therefore ( ) = is continuous at =4

Example
Show that ( ) is discontinuous at = 2 where
≠2
( )=
1 =2
Solution
i. (2) = 1
( )( )
ii. lim → ( ) = lim → = lim → = lim → +1=3
iii. But lim → ( ) ≠ (2)
Therefore, the function ( ) is not continuous at 2.

One-sided continuity

Definition :
A function is continuous from the right at a number if
lim ( ) = ( )
→
and is continuous from the left at if
lim ( ) = ( )
→

Definition:
A function is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in

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the interval. (At an endpoint of the interval we understand continuous to mean

continuous from the right or continuous from the left).
left

Example:
Show that the function ( ) = 1 − √1 − is continuous on the interval [−1, 1
1].
Solution
If −1 < < 1,, then using the limit rules, we have
lim ( ) = lim ( 1 − 1 − )
→ →
= 1 − lim 1 −
→

=1− lim (1 − )
→

=1− 1− = ( )
Thus, by definition is continuous at if −1 < < 1.
We must also calculate the right--hand limit at −1 and the left-hand limit at 1.
lim → ( ) = lim → (1 − √1 − )
= 1 − lim(1 − )
= 1 = (−1)
So is continuous from the right at −1.
Similarly, lim → ( ) = lim → (1 − √1 − )
= 1 − lim (1 − )
= 1 = (1)
So is continuous from the left at 1.
Therefore, according to above definition, is continuous on [−1, 1]
The graph of is sketched in above figure. It is the lower half of the circle + ( − 1) = 1.

Theorem: If and are continuous at and is a constant,

then the following functions are also continuous at :
1. + 2.
− 3. 4. 5. ( )≠0

Theorem
i. Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it is continuous on
ℝ = (−∞, ∞)
ii. Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is, it is

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Continuous on its domain.

Theorem:
If is continuous at and is continuous at ( ), then ( )( ) = ( ) is
continuous at .

Theorem:
If is a positive even integer, then ( ) = √ is continuous on [0, ∞).
If is a positive odd integer, then is continuous on (−∞, ∞).

3.6. The Intermediate Value Theorem

Suppose that is continuous on the closed interval [ , ] and let be any number
strictly between ( )and ( ). Then there exists a number in ( , ) such that
( )=

The Intermediate value theorem states that a continuous function takes on every intermediate
value between the function values ( ) ( ). It is illustrated in the following figure.

Example:

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Let ( ) = 3 + 5. Find a real number with 2 < < 5 such that ( ) = 13

Solution
is continuous on (−∞, ∞) since it is polynomial function; hence continuous on [2, 5].
Here = 13, (2) = 11 and (5) = 20
So (2) < 13 < (5)
( ) = 13
⇒ 3( ) + 5 = 13 ⇒ 3 = 8
⇒ = 8⁄3

Example:
Let ( ) = − + 5. Find a real number with −3 < < 2 such that ( ) = 10
Solution:
is continuous on (−∞, ∞) since it is polynomial function; hence continuous on [-3, 2].
Also, (2) < 10 < (−3) since (2) = 7 (−3) = 17
Therefore, there exist a number with −3 < < 2 such that ( ) = 10.
( ) = 10
⇒ − + 5 = 10 ⇒ − − 5 = 0
±√ √ √
⇒ = . But > 2 hence =

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CHAPTER 4: DERIVATIVES AND APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES

4.1. Definition of Derivative

Definition
The derivative of a function at a number , denoted by ′ ( ), is
′( )
( + ℎ) − ( )
= lim
→ ℎ
if this limit exists.

If we write = + ℎ, then ℎ = − and ℎ approaches 0 if and only if approaches .

Therefore an equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative, is

′(
( )− ( )
) = lim
→ −

Example
Find the derivative of the function ( ) = − 8 + 9 at the number .
Solution
From definition of derivative, we have
′( ) ( ) ( )
= lim →
[( + ℎ) − 8( + ℎ) + 9] − [ − 8 + 9]
= lim
→ ℎ
+ 2 ℎ + ℎ − 8 − 8ℎ + 9 − + 8 − 9
= lim
→ ℎ
= lim → = lim → (2 + ℎ − 8)
=2 −8
′( )
Therefore, =2 −8
4.2. Geometric interpretation of derivative as a slope of tangent

Definition
The tangent line to = ( ) ( , ( ))is the line through( , ( ))whose slope is equal to
′ ( ),
the derivative of at .

Thus the geometric interpretation of a derivative is shown in the following figure.

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Using the point-slope

slope form of the equation of a line, we have the following:

If ′ ( ) exists, then an equation of the tangent line to the curve = ( ) at the point
( , ( )) is
− ( ) = ′ ( )( − )

Example
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola = −8 +
9 at the point (3, −6)
Solution
From definition of derivative, we have
′( ) ( ) ( )
= lim →
[( + ℎ) − 8(( + ℎ) + 9] − [ − 8 + 9]
= lim
→ ℎ
+ 2 ℎ + ℎ − 8 − 8ℎ + 9 − + 8 − 9
= lim
→ ℎ
= lim → = lim → (2 + ℎ − 8)
=2 −8
′( )
Therefore, =2 −8
Therefore the slope of the tangent line at (3, −6) is
′ (3)
= 2(3) − 8 = −2.
Thus the equation of the tangent line, as shown in the Figure, is

− (−6)
(− = (−2)( − 3) = −2

The derivative as a function

′( ( ) ( )
If we replace by in the definition, ) = lim → we obtain

′(
( + ℎ) − ( )
) = lim
→ ℎ

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Example

Solution:

Example

Solution

4.3. Differentiable functions

If we use the traditional notation = ( ) to indicate that the independent variable is and the
dependent variable is , then some common alternative notations for the derivative are as
follows:
′( )
= ′= = = ( )= ( )= ( )

The symbols and ⁄ are called differentiation operators because they indicate the
operation of differentiation, which is the process of calculating a derivative.

Definition:

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differentiableat if ′(a) exists.

i. A function is differentiableata
ii, A function is differentiable on some open interval (a, b) if and only if is
differentiable at every point on (a, b).
iii, A function is differentiable on an closed interval [ , ] if and only if is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
differentiable at every point on (a, b) and lim → and lim →
exists.

Example:

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Theorem: If is differentiable at , then is continuous at . but converse is not true.

For example, the function ( ) = | | is continuous at 0 but it is not differentiable at 0.

lim → ( ) = lim → |x| = 0 = (0)but it is not differentiable at 0.
Exercise: show that the converse of the above theorem is not true for the function

 x 2 for x  1
f ( x)   at x = 1
 1 for x 1

4.4. Derivatives of different functions and Properties of derivative

Derivatives of polynomials

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Power functions

Note.

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Exponential functions

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Rational functions

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Trigonometric functions

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Logarithmic functions

4.5. The Chain Rule

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Example
Differentiate = ln( + 1)
Solution: Let = + 1.. Then = ln ,
By using Chain Rule, we have
= = = (3 )
3
=
+1
Example
Find ln(sin )
Solution
Let = sin ,then = ln
By using Chain Rule, we have
1 1
= = = cos = cot
sin

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Example
1.

Solution:

2.

Solution

Exercise:
1.
2.

Remark :

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Example:

Notice that we used the chain rule twice.

Example

4.6. Higher order derivatives

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Example 1.

Solution

Example 2.

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4.7. Implicit Differentiation

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Example

4.8. Indeterminate forms and L’Hospital Rule

In general, if we have a limit of the form

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( )
lim
→ ( )
Where both ( ) → 0 ( )→0 → , then this limit may or may not exist and is called
an Indeterminate form of type .
Similarly, if both ( ) → ∞( − ∞)and ( ) → ∞ ( − ∞), then the limit may or may not
exist and is called an indeterminate form of type ∞⁄∞.
We introduce a systematic method, known as L’Hospital Rule, for the evaluation of
indeterminate forms.

L’Hospital Rule
Suppose and are differentiable and ′ ( ) ≠ 0 on an open interval I that contains
(except possibly at ). Suppose that
lim → ( ) = 0 and lim ( ) = 0
→
or that lim ( ) = ±∞ and lim ( ) = ±∞
→ →
∞
(In other words, we have an indeterminate form of type .) Then
∞
( ) ′
( )
lim = lim ′
→ ( ) → ( )
If the limit on the right side exists ( ∞ − ∞).

Example 1
Find lim → .
Solution
Since lim → 2 − 1 = 0 lim → = 0,
we can apply L’Hospital Rule
2 −1 (2 − 1) 2 2
lim = lim = lim = 2
→ → ( ) → 1
Example 2
Calculate lim →∞ .
Solution
We have lim →∞ =∞ lim →∞ = ∞,
soL’Hospital Rule gives
lim = lim
→∞ →∞ 2
Since →∞ 2 →∞ → ∞, the limit on the right side is also indeterminate, but a
second

application of L’Hospital Rule gives

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lim = lim = lim =∞

→
→∞ →∞ 2 →∞ 2
Indeterminate Products

Example 3
Evaluate lim → ln .
Solution
The given limit is indeterminate because → 0 while ln → −∞. Writing = ,
we have 1/ → ∞ as → 0 ,
soL’Hospital Rule gives
ln
lim ln = lim = lim
→ → →

= lim (− ) = 0
→
Indeterminate Differences
If lim → ( ) = ∞and lim ( ) = ∞, then the limit
→
lim [ ( ) − ( )]is
is called an indeterminate form of type   
→
Example 4
Compute lim →( ) (sec − tan )
Solution
First notice that sec → ∞ and tan → ∞as → ( ) , so the limit is indeterminate.
Here we use a common denominator:
1 sin
lim (sec
sec − tan ) = lim ( − )
→ → cos cos
1 − sin
= lim
→ / cos
−
= lim =0
→ / − sin
Note that the use of L’Hospital Rule is justified
because1 − sin → 0 and cos → 0 as → /2 .

Indeterminate Powers

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Example 5
Calculate lim → (1 + sin 4 ) .
Solution
First notice that as → 0 . We have 1 + sin 4 → 1 and cot → ∞,
so the given limit is indeterminate.
Let = (1 + sin 4 )
Then ln = ln [(1 + sin 4 ) ] = cot (1 + sin 4 )
So, L’Hospital Rule gives
ln (1 + sin 4 )
lim ln = lim
→ → tan

= lim =4
→
So far we have computed the limit of ln ,
but what we want the limit of y.
To find this we use the fact that = :
lim (1 + sin 4 ) = lim
→ →
= lim =
→

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CHAPTER 5: INTEGRATION
5.1. Antiderivatives
Definition
′( ) = ( ) for all
A function is called an antiderivative of on an interval if
in .

Theorem
If is an antiderivative of on an interval , then the most general antiderivative of
on is
( )+
Where is an arbitrary constant
Example
Find the most general antiderivative of each of the following functions:
(a) ( ) = sin (b) ( ) = , ≥ 0
Solution
(a) If ( ) = − cos , then ′ ( ) = sin , so an antiderivative of sine is –cosine.
The most general antiderivative is ( ) = − cos +
1 ( 1)
(b) = =
1 1
Thus the general antiderivative of ( )= is
1
( )= +
1
This is valid for ≥ 0 since then ( ) = is defined on the interval. If n is negative (but 
1), it is valid on any interval that does not contain 0.
Table of Anti-Differentiation Formulas

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4
Example1. Find all functions such that ′ ( ) = 4 sin − 3 5 + 6 3
3/4
Solution: We want to find an antiderivative of ′ ( ) = 4 sin − 3 5 + 6
Using the formulas together with Theorem, we obtain
6 7/4 6
24 7/4
( ) = 4(− cos ) − 3 +6 7 + = −4 cos − + +
6 2 7
4

Example 2.Find f if
Solution: f ' ( x )  8 x 3  12 x  3

 f(x) = 2x4 + 6x2 + 3x + C  f(1) = 11 + C and f(1) = 6

 11 + C = 6  C = -55
Therefore, f(x) = 2x4 + 6x2 + 3x – 5

Example 3.
Solution:

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5.2. Indefinite Integrals and Techniques of Integration

and also

Table of indefinite integrals

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Example 1

Solution

Example 2

Solution

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Techniques of Integration
i. Integration by substitution

Example 1

Solution

Example 2

Solution

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Example 3

Solution

Example 4

Solution

Example 5

Solution

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Therefore,

ii. Integration by parts

………….. 1

………………… 2

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……………. *

Putting this in Equation *, we get

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………….. *

………….. **

** *

iii. Integrationby method of partial fractions

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………………… 1

Example

Solution

CASE 1.The denominator Q(x)) is a product of distinct linear factors.

Example

Solution

…….….. *
*

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…………. **
**

CASE 2.The denominator Q(x)) is a product of linear factors, some of which are repeated.

Example

Solution

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CASE 3.Q(x)) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is repeated.

Example
Solution

1 1 1 1
x2 +4 = 4(x2/4 + 1) = 4[(x/2)2 +1] and so  =  2 2du … let u = x/2
4 (x )2  1 4 u  1
2
1 x
= tan 1 ( )
2 2
CASE 4.Q(x)) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factor.
Example
Solution

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iv Integration by Trigonometric substitution

Example

Solution

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Example

Solution

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5.3. Definite Integrals

If is a function defined on a closed interval [ , ], let be a partition of [ , ]
with partition points 0 , 1 , … … , , where
= 0< 1< 2<⋯< =
∗
Choose points in [ 1, ] and let ∆ = − 1 and ∥ ∥= max {∆ }.
Then the definite integral of from to is

∗
( ) = lim ( )∆
∥ ∥→0
1
If this limit exists.
If the limit does exist, then is calledintegrable on the interval [ , ].

Basic PropertiesDefinite Integrals

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Remark :
If > , then ∫ ( ) = −∫ ( ) .
If = , then ∫ ( ) =0

Theorem

If is either continuous or monotonic on [ , ], then f is integrable on [ , ]; that is

the definite integral ∫ ( ) exist.

5.4 Fundamental theorem of calculus

The fundamental theorem of calculus, Part 1 (FTC 1)

If is continuous on [ , ], then the function defined by

( )= ( ) ≤ ≤
′
Is continuous on [ , ] and differentiable on ( , ), and ( )= ( ).

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 (FTC 2)

If is continuous on [ , ], then

( ) = ( )− ( )
′
Where is any antiderivative of , that is, a function such that = .

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The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Suppose is continuous on [ , ].
′
1. If ( )=∫ ( ) , then ( )= ( )
2. ∫ ( ) = ( )− ( ), where is any antiderivative of , that is
′
= .

Example. 1.

Solution

Example 2.
4
Find ∫1 sec .
Here we have to be careful to use the Chain Rule in conjunction with Part 1 of the
SolutionHere
Fundamental Theorem.
Let = 4 . Then
4

sec = sec
1 1
= [∫1 sec ] … by chain rule
= sec …byFTC1
4 3
= sec ∙4

1 3
Evaluate the integral ∫
Example 3.Evaluate 2
.
Solution
3 1 4
The function ( ) = [ 1] and its antiderivative is ( ) =
is continuous on [-2, ,
4
so Part 2 of thee Fundamental Theorem gives
1
3 1 1 15
= (1) − (−2) = (1)4 − (−2)4 = −
2 4 4 4

Example 4.

Solution

Example 5.

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Solution

Example 6.

a. b.
Solution

a.

b.

Example 7.
Solution
then

Example 8.

i. ii.
Solution

i.

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ii.

Example 9.

a. b.
Solution

a.

b.

4.6. Application of Integration

i. Areas between Curves

Example 1.

Solution

Example 2.

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Solution

Example 3.

Solution

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Note:

Example 4.

Solution

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ii. Volume

Example 1.

Solution

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Example 2.

Solution

Example 3.

Solution

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