Trigonometric Functions

and Their Inverse Functions

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Trigonometric functions

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Example 6

i) Work out the triple angle formulas for sin 3α, cos 3α.
(Hint: sin 3α = sin(α + 2α))

ii) Rewrite functions like into the form

for some constant R, C.

For example,

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Example 6 -- solution
Solution:

i)

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Example 6 -- solution

ii)

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Trigonometric functions
The horizontal line test shows that sin x, cos x, or tan x
have no inverse function in general. For example,
the periodic function sin x is obviously not one-to-one.

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Trigonometric functions
However, after restricting the domain to ,the function
y = sin x is one-to-one, and hence has an inverse function.

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Trigonometric functions
Inverse function of sin x : arcsin x

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Trigonometric functions
Inverse function of cos x : arccos x

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Trigonometric functions
Inverse function of tan x : arctanx

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Trigonometric functions
Remark:

The inverse trigonometric functions are also

dented by arcsinx, arccos x, and arctanx respectively.

Another way to look at these inverse trigonometric functions is to

consider solutions of trigonometric equations:

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Trigonometric functions
Remark:

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Trigonometric functions
General solution of trigonometric functions:

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Example 7
Find the general solution of the equations:

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Example 7 -- solution
Solution:

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Example 7 -- solution
Solution:

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Example 7 -- solution
Solution:

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1.5 The Limit of a Function

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Velocity and Tangent

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Example 1
Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper observation
deck of the CN Tower in Toronto, 450 m above the ground.
Find the velocity of the ball after 5 seconds.

If the distance fallen after t seconds is denoted by s(t) and

measured in meters, then Galileo’s law is expressed by the
equation
s (t) = 4.9t 2

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Example 1 – Solution
We can approximate the desired quantity by computing the
average velocity over the brief time interval of a tenth of a
second from t = 5 to t = 5.1:

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Example 1 – Solution
The table shows the results of similar calculations of the average
velocity over successively smaller time periods.

It appears that as we shorten the time period, the average velocity is

becoming closer to 49 m/s. 22
Example 1 – Solution
The instantaneous velocity when t = 5 is defined to be
the limiting value of these average velocities over shorter
and shorter time periods that start at t = 5.

Thus the (instantaneous) velocity after 5 s is

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Tangent

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Example 2

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Example 3

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Example 3 – Solution

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Example 4
Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the natural
exponential function y = ex at the point (0, 1).

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Example 4 – Solution

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Example 5
Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the
function y = sin x at the point (0, 0).

Solution:

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The limit of a function

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Intuitive Definition of a Limit
In general, we use the following notation.

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Intuitive Definition of a Limit
The values of f(x) tend to get closer and closer to the
number L as x gets closer and closer to the number a (from
either side of a) but x  a.

Notice the phrase “but x  a” in the definition of limit. This

means that in finding the limit of f (x) as x approaches, we
never consider x = a.

In fact, f (x) need not even be defined when x = a.

The only thing that matters is how f is defined near a.

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Example 6
Guess the value of

Solution:
Notice that the function is not
defined when x = 1, but that doesn’t matter because the
definition of says that we consider values of x
that are close to a but not equal to a.

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Example 6 – Solution
The tables below give values of f (x) (correct to six decimal
places) for values of x that approach 1
(but are not equal to 1).

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Example 6 – Solution
On the basis of the values in the tables, we make the
guess that

Another solution:

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Example 7
Guess the value of

Solution:
The function is not defined when x = 0.

Using a calculator (and remembering that, if , sin x

means the sine of the angle whose radian measure is ), we
construct the table of values correct to eight decimal
places.

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Example 7 – Solution
From the table below and the graph in Figure we guess that

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Example 8
The Heaviside function H is defined by

[This function is named after the electrical engineer Oliver

Heaviside (1850–1925) and can be used to describe an
electric current that is switched on at time t = 0.]

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Example 8 -- solution
Its graph is shown in Figure.

As t approaches 0 from
the left, H(t) approaches 0.

As t approaches 0 from the right, H(t) approaches 1. There

is no single number that H(t) approaches as t approaches
0.

Therefore does not exist.

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One-sided Limits
We noticed in Example 8 that H(t) approaches 0 as t
approaches 0 from the left and H(t) approaches 1 as t
approaches 0 from the right.

We indicate this situation symbolically by writing

The symbol indicates that we consider only

values of t that are less than 0. Likewise, indicates
that we consider only values of t that are greater than 0.
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One-sided Limits

Notice that Definition 2 differs from Definition 1 only in that

we require x to be less than a.
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One-sided Limits
Similarly, if we require that x be greater than a, we get “the
right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L”
and we write

Thus the symbol means that we consider only

x > a.

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One-sided Limits
These definitions are illustrated in Figure.

(a) (b)

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One-sided Limits
By comparing Definition l with the definitions of one-sided
limits, we see that the following is true.

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Example 9
The graph of a function g is shown in Figure 10. Use it to
state the values (if they exist) of the following:

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 10 46
Example 9 – Solution
From the graph we see that the values of g(x) approach 3
as x approaches 2 from the left, but they approach 1 as x
approaches 2 from the right.
Therefore

(a) and (b)

(c) Since the left and right limits are different, we conclude
from that does not exist.

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Example 9 – Solution
The graph also shows that

(d) and (e)

(f) This time the left and right limits are the same and so,
by , we have

Despite this fact, notice that g(5)  2.

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Precise Definition of a Limit
We want to express, in a quantitative manner, that f (x) can
be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently
close to a (but x  a).

This means that f (x) can be made to lie within any

preassigned distance from L (traditionally denoted by ε, the
Greek letter epsilon) by requiring that x be within a
specified distance  (the Greek letter delta) from a.

That is, Notice

that we can stipulate that x  a by writing

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Precise Definition of a Limit
The resulting precise definition of a limit is as follows.

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Precise Definition of a Limit
Definition 4 is illustrated in the following Figures.

If a number ε > 0 is given, then we draw the horizontal lines

and the graph of f. (See Figure

bellow.)

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Precise Definition of a Limit
If then we can find a number  > 0 such
that if we restrict x to lie in the interval and
take
x  a, then the curve y = f (x) lies between the lines
(See Figure bellow.) You can see
that if such a  has been found, then any smaller  will also
work.

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Precise Definition of a Limit
It’s important to realize that the process illustrated in
Figures bellow must work for every positive number ε, no
matter how small it is chosen.

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Precise Definition of a Limit
Figure 14 shows that if a smaller ε is chosen, then a
smaller  may be required.

Figure 14

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Example 10
Prove that

Solution:
Let ε be a given positive number. According to Definition 4
with a = 3 and L = 7, we need to find a number  such that

Therefore we want:

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Example 10 – Solution
Note that
So let’s choose

We can then write the following:

Therefore, by the definition of a limit,

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Calculating limits

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Calculating Limits
In this section we use the following properties of limits,
called the Limit Laws, to calculate limits.

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Calculating Limits
These five laws can be stated verbally as follows:

Sum Law
1. The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits.

Difference Law
2. The limit of a difference is the difference of the limits.

Constant Multiple Law

3. The limit of a constant times a function is the constant
times the limit of the function.

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Calculating Limits
Product Law
4. The limit of a product is the product of the limits.

Quotient Law
5. The limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits
(provided that the limit of the denominator is not 0).

If we use the Product Law repeatedly with g(x) = f (x), we

obtain the following law.

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Calculating Limits
In applying these six limit laws, we need to use two special
limits:

If we now put f (x) = x in Law 6 and use Law 8, we get

another useful special limit.

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Calculating Limits
A similar limit holds for roots as follows.

More generally, we have the following law.

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Example 11
Evaluate the following limits and justify each step.

(a) (b)

Solution:
(a)

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Example 11 – Solution cont’d

(b) We start by using Law 5, but its use is fully justified

only at the final stage when we see that the limits of the
numerator and denominator exist and the limit of the
denominator is not 0.

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Example 11 – Solution cont’d

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Calculating Limits

The trigonometric functions also enjoy the Direct

Substitution Property.

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Calculating Limits
We know from the definitions of sin  and cos  that the
coordinates of the point P in Figure are (cos , sin).

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Calculating Limits
As   0, we see that P approaches the point (1, 0) and so
cos   1 and sin   0.

Thus

Since cos 0 = 1 and sin 0 = 0, the equations in assert that

the cosine and sine functions satisfy the Direct Substitution
Property at 0.

The addition formulas for cosine and sine can then be used
to deduce that these functions satisfy the Direct
Substitution Property everywhere. 68
Calculating Limits
In other words, for any real number a,

This enables us to evaluate certain limits quite simply. For

example,

Functions with the Direct Substitution Property are called

continuous at a.
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Calculating Limits
In general, we have the following useful fact.

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