3 - Computers in Medical Imaging

Computers in Medical Imaging - Chapter 4 17-Feb-20
Computer Networks, PACS and Teleradiology – Chapter

17
Computers in Medical Imaging – Chapter 4

Computer Networks, PACS and
Teleradiology – Chapter 17
a copy of this lecture may be found at:

http://courses.washington.edu/radxphys/PhysicsCourse.html
Chapters 4 & 17 Lecture Objectives
 What are positional numbering systems and how are

they used to represent digital data?
 What are the major components of computer hardware
and software and how do they work together?
 How is digital radiological image data displayed and
manipulated?
 What is DICOM and why is it important to radiology?
 What are the key components of PACS and
Teleradiology and how do they work together as an
integrated system?
BME HCMUT 1
17
What do these numbers have in common?
 42
 52
 101010
 2A, yes this is a number
 They are all the same numeric quantity represented

using different base values
Decimal Form (Base 10)
 In general, a positional numbering system encodes the

numbers as: anbn + an-1bn-1 + . . . + a2b2+ a1b1+ a0b0 (0 <
ai < b, i = 0,1,2,...,n), where the integer b > 1 is the radix
(or base) of the numbering system
 Whenever it is not clear which base is being used either
a subscript will be used to denote it or the base will be
written in parentheses
 Decimal form (radix 10): 4210 = (4x101)+(2x100)
 The leftmost digit is called the most significant digit, the
rightmost the least significant digit
BME HCMUT 2
17
Binary Form (Base 2)
 Powers of 2: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024...

 Binary form (radix 2): 1010102 = (1x25)+(0x24)+
(1x23)+(0x22)+ (1x21)+(0x20) = 3210 + 810 + 210 = 4210
 Other radices used in computing
 Octal (b=8): (5x81)+(2x80) = 4010 + 210 = 4210
 Hexadecimal (b=16; A=10, … F=15):
(2x161)+(Ax160) = 3210 + 1010 = 4210
Conversion between Decimal and Binary Forms
 Conversions from decimal to

binary forms: keep dividing
by powers of the target radix
(b) until you are left with a
result < b
 Try the following:
 4210 in octal
 4210 in hex
 4210 in other
radices,
e.g., base 7
cf: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

6
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 62-63.
BME HCMUT 3
17
Digital Representation of Data (1)
 Bits, Bytes and Words

 Smallest unit of storage capacity = 1 bit (binary digit: 1 or 0)
 Bits grouped into bytes: 8 bits = byte
 Word = 16, 32 or 64 bits, depending on the computer system
addressing architecture
 Computer storage capacity is measured in:
 kilobytes (kB) - 210 bytes = 1024 bytes  a thousand bytes
 megabytes (MB) - 220 bytes = 1024 kilobytes  a million bytes
 gigabytes (GB) - 230 bytes = 1024 megabytes  a billion bytes
 terabytes (TB) - 240 bytes = 1024 gigabytes  a trillion bytes
 petabytes (PB) - 250 bytes = 1024 terabytes  a quadrillion bytes
 Digital Representation of Different Types of Data

 Alphanumeric text, integers, and non-integer data
 Storage of Positive Integers
 In general, n bits have 2n possible permutations and can
represent integers from 0 to 2n-1 (the range usually denoted with
square brackets):
 n bits represents 2n values with range [0, 2n-1]
 8 bits represents 28 = 256 values with range [0, 255]
 16 bits represents 216 = 65,536 values with range [0, 65535]
BME HCMUT 4
17
 Binary Representation of Signed Integers

 Include the use of negative numbers
 Reserve first bit for the sign (+/-): [-127,127] – one’s complement
 Two’s complement: [-128, 127] – simplifies electronic circuitry
 Floating Point Form
 For very large or very small numbers (e.g., 6.023 x 1023)
110011012
 Similar to scientific notation: 1.111111100010101011111112 x 2
 Binary Representation of Alphanumeric text
 ASCII = American Standard Code for Information Interchange
 ASCII code for representation of text, e.g., A = 010000012 or 4116
 Stored in one byte (128 characters = 7-bits)
 Computer needs to keep track of the data type
Analog and Digital

Representation of Data
 Analog: continuous waveform

where the amplitude
represents the numerical
signal magnitude
 Advantages of digital:
 resistance to accumulated
errors
 error correction possible with
the transmission of redundant
information
 digital circuitry most often less
expensive than analog
 Advantage of analog:
 Often transmitted quicker

10
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 67.
10
BME HCMUT 5
17
Conversion of Analog Data to Digital Form
 The electronic measuring devices of medical scanners (e.g.,

transducers and detectors) produce analog signals
 Analog to digital conversion (analog to digital converter – ADC)
 ADCs characterized by
 sampling rate or frequency (e.g., samples/sec – 1 MHz)
 number of bits output per sample (e.g., 12 bits/sample = 12-bit ADC)

11
11
ADC Potential Loss of Data
 Sampling and quantization (digitization): loss of data (necessary

evil)
 Minimum sampling frequency (Nyquist limit) to accurately represent
signal (more later in Chapter 10)
 Quantization error minimized through use of a larger number of
bits/sample

12
12
BME HCMUT 6
17
Transfers of Data in Digital Form
 Data are transferred between the various components of

the computer and with devices external to the computer
in binary format
 A voltage of fixed value (e.g., +5V) is used to represent 1
 Another voltage value (e.g., 0V) is used to represent 0
 Changes between the voltage states occur through
synchronization signals from the computer’s clock
 1 clock cycle = the minimum time increment (t) at which
a 1 → 0 or 0 → 1 transition can occur
 clock frequency = 1/t (usually given in MHz or GHz)
13
13
Serial vs. Parallel Transfer of Data
 Serial - pulses transmitted one after another over single wire

 Parallel - All pulses transmitted simultaneously over several wires
 If N wires are used, parallel transmission is predominantly N times
faster than serial transmission
 Bus: a bundle of wires used for parallel data transfers

14
14
BME HCMUT 7
17
Transfers of Data in Digital Form
 Each device connected to the bus is identified by an

address or a range of addresses
 Only one device at a time can transmit data on the bus
 In general only one device receives the transmitted data
 The sending device transmits receiving address & data
 The width of a bus refers to the number of wires used to
transmit data in parallel (e.g., 32 bits)
 A bus also contains wires for ground, control signaling,
etc.
15
15
Back to the Future
“I think there is a world market for

maybe five computers.”
- Thomas Watson, chairman of IBM, 1943
16
16
BME HCMUT 8
17
Components & Function of a Digital Computer

17
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 70 and 78.
17
Main Memory
 Random access memory

(RAM): volatile
 Buffer between CPU and mass
storage devices
 Memory addresses where data
and instructions reside
 Also read-only memory (ROM):
static
 DRAM: dynamic RAM
 SRAM: static RAM (cache)
 VRAM: video RAM (display
card)
 All RAM volatile!

18
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 71. cf: www.cfh-hk.com/4.htm .
18
BME HCMUT 9
17
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 CPU executes a sequence of instructions: program

 A CPU contained on a single chip: microprocessor
 A number of data storage locations: storage registers
 Data
 Memory addresses
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Logic operations and data transfer signaled via clock
 CPU speed measured in instructions or operations per
second (e.g., MIPS or GFLOPS) and determined by:
 CPU clock rate (e.g., MHz or GHz)
 Architecture (bits per instruction, e.g., 32-bit vs. 64-bit and
parallel processing capabilities)
19
19
CPU Program Execution
 A program is a sequence of
instructions for CPU execution
 Instruction cycle - CPU fetches the
instructions from memory and
executes them sequentially
 An instruction may cause the CPU
to perform one of the following:
 Mathematical operation
 Transfer data
 Compare
 Jump to an instruction other than
the next in the sequence
 Each instruction consists of two
parts: an opcode specifying the
operation to be performed and an
address
20
20
BME HCMUT 10
17
Input-Output (I/O) Bus and Expansion Slots
 Bus described under serial vs. parallel data transfer

 Most I/O buses are provided with expansion slots to
accommodate printed circuit (PC) cards with multiple
functions, e.g.:
 Modem card → modem; video display card → video monitor
 Makes it possible to customize general-purpose
computers for specific applications (e.g., MRI scanner)
and to add additional functions and capabilities (e.g.,
ADC)
 I/O Ports: serial, parallel, USB (Universal Serial Bus) and
SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
 Bus clock frequency (e.g., 1333 MHz)
21
21
Mass Storage Devices
 Permit the non-volatile storage of programs and data

 Various formats based on:
 Access time (e.g., msec or minutes): random or sequential
 Data transfer rate (e.g., kbps, Mbps or Gbps)
 Cost ($/GB)
 Portability
 Permanence (CD-R vs. CD-RW)
 All consist of:
 Mechanical drive
 Storage medium
 Controller
 Hierarchical: trade-off speed vs. cost per MB
 e.g., CPU registers / L2 / RAM / RAID / optical disk / digital tape
22
22
BME HCMUT 11
17
Mass Storage Devices
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

23
23
Display Interface and Keyboard/Pointing Devices
 Display computer information in visual form

 Usually displayed on a video monitor or printed
 Cathode ray tube (CRT)
 Flat-panel display (TFT = thin-film transistors)
 Video display controller/card
 Receive digital data from computer memory
 Store locally on card with VRAM (video RAM)
 Registers to manipulate the original image or text data
 DACs to convert into on-screen video image
 Usually computer equipped with keyboard, mouse,
trackball or joystick (could be head-less though)
24
24
BME HCMUT 12
17
Acquisition and Communications Interface
 Acquisition interface = ADC card(s), though more

efficient for the modality electronics to perform ADC
 Computers also communications devices (PACS)
 Modem = modulator/de-modulator (DAC - encoded
signal on wire - ADC)
 Network interface card (NIC), e.g., Ethernet
 Needs unique address on the network
 Phone number of modem pool, e.g., 206-685-5599
 Internet Protocol (IP) address, e.g., 128.95.120.1
25
25
Array Processor
 In the past when general-purpose CPU speeds were

relatively slow, custom-designed hardware (array
processors) were manufactured to perform compute-
intense mathematical operations (e.g., floating point
computation) in a reasonable amount of time
 Achieved speed through specially designed circuits to
make use of parallel processing and pipelining operation
 Attaches to the computer bus for fast I/O operation
 Not needed as often these days with very fast general-
purpose microprocessors and the parallel processing
capabilities inherent in some operating systems
26
26
BME HCMUT 13
17
Raphex 2002 General Question
 G83-G85. Match the following prefixes with the correct power of 10:
 A. 10-12
 B. 10-6
 C. 106
 D. 109
 E. 1012
 G83. micro
 G84. mega
 G85. giga
27
27
 G74-G77. For the following questions, select one of the computer

storage devices (answers may be used more than once).
 A. RAM
 B. Magnetic tape
 C. Hard disk
 D. CPU
 E. Optical disk
 G74. Which device has the longest access time?

 G75. Which device has the largest capacity?
 G76. Which storage device will lose information when the power
goes off?
 G77. Which device can you generally not write over again?
28
28
BME HCMUT 14
17
 G82. Concerning digital computers, all of the following

are true, except:
 A. ROM stands for Random Order Memory.

 B. A word is a set of consecutive bits treated as an entity, and
occupying one storage location in memory.
 C. A byte contains 8 bits.
 D. A modem is a device that converts a digital signal into a
frequency-coded signal for transmission over a telephone line.
29
29
Performance of Computer Systems
 Review
 There are many factors that affect the time required for a
computer to complete a task
 Clock speed of the CPU, e.g., 3.0 GHz
 CPU architecture, e.g., number of bits/instruction and
built-in parallelism or pipelining capabilities
 Bit width and clock speed of the I/O bus (e.g., 833 MHz)
 Memory hierarchy (L1/L2/L3), dimensions and elements
 Access and transfer times of mass storage devices
 MIPS, MFLOPS and benchmark testing get at actual perf
30
30
BME HCMUT 15
17
Computer Languages
 Machine Language
 Binary instructions to be executed by CPU requiring detailed
knowledge of the particular microprocessor chip
 01101010101010010010101010110100110101... ad nauseum)
 High-Level Languages
 Write program without detailed knowledge of the machine arch.
 Include FORTRAN, Basic, Pascal, C++, Java
 Requires an compiler or interpreter program to translate to binary
31
31
Hierarchy of Software
 Applications Software - programs to perform specific functions

desired by the user (e.g., Word or Excel)
 May be written in either high-level or machine language
 Generally an executable program run by the OS (PACS: javaw.exe)
 Hopefully user-friendly, flexible and intuitive to use
 Operating System (OS) - the program that, after being initially
loaded into the computer by a boot program (resides on boot sector
of the hard drive), manages all the other programs in a computer
 On instruction to run a program, the OS copies it from mass storage to
memory, initiates execution of the first instruction by the CPU, transfers
control to the program and regains control on completion of the task
 Handles complex I/O tasks and sharing of resources
 Examples: Windows XP, Linux, Mac OS X
32
32
BME HCMUT 16
17
Computer Security
 Goals
 Deny unauthorized persons access to data
 Protect programs and data from accidental or deliberate loss
 Data Backup: periodic schedule – don’t do a Homer Simpson – doh!
 Practicing “Safe Computing”
 Malicious programs exist, such as viruses, worms, Trojans, time bombs,
and password grabbers
 Types of viruses: executable file, boot sector and macro infectors
 Deny unauthorized users access to your system
 Good password selection (8-14 characters, not in the dictionary of any
known language, mix of upper/lower case and numbers, and should
contain at least one non-alphanumeric character, e.g., !, @, #, %, etc.)
 Firewall software/hardware and malware/bot threat detection
 Log out whenever you leave the computer for an extended time
 Grant each user only sufficient privileges required to accomplish
required tasks
33
33
Back to the Future
“Computers in the future may weigh

no more than 1.5 tons.”
- Popular Mechanics, forecasting the

relentless march of science, 1949.
34
34
BME HCMUT 17
17
Digital Storage of Images (1)
 Usually stored as a 2D array

(matrix) of addressable data,
I(x,y): I(1,1), I(2,1), … I(n,m-1),
I(n,m); n = column, m = row
 Each addressable location of
the image is called a pixel
(picture element) represented
by one value (e.g., digital
value, gray level or Hounsfield
unit)
35
c.f. Huang, HK. Elements of Digital Radiology, p. 8.
35
Digital Storage of Images (2)
 Typical matrices – CT: 512x512x12bits/pixel, CR: 1760x2140x10

bits/pixel and DR: 2048x2560x14 bits/pixel
 Total number of bytes/image = pixels/image ∙ bits/pixel‡ ∙ (1 byte/8
bits)
 ‡ aligned along byte boundaries, e.g., 12 bits/pixel  16 bits/pixel

36
36
BME HCMUT 18
17
Effect of Resolution and Bits per Pixel

10242, 642, 322, 162 matrices 8, 3, 2, 1 bits/pixel
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
37
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 82. of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 84.
37
Image Processing
 Addition or subtraction, e.g., digital subtraction angiography (DSA)

 Spatial filtering
 Smoothing (removing quantum mottle – noise)
 Edge enhancement, e.g., computed radiography (CR)
 Reconstruction from projections
 Back-projection, e.g., computed tomography (CT), single photon and
positron emission tomography (SPECT and PET)
 Fast Fourier Transform, e.g., magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
 Calculation of physiological performance indices, e.g., nuclear
medicine
 Generation and manipulation of volumetric data sets, e.g., MIPs
 Image co-registration (“fusion”), e.g., CT and PET
38
38
BME HCMUT 19
17
Computer-Aided Detection
 Also known as computer-aided diagnosis

 Computer program that uses specific image processing
algorithms and decision threshold parameters to detect
features in an image likely to be of clinical significance in
images
 Assist as a secondary reader to call attention to objects
that might have been overlooked
 For example, in mammography:
 Masses
 Microcalcification clusters
 Architectural distortions
39
39
Raphex 2001 Diagnostic Question
 D98. Going from a 256 x 256 image to a 512 x 512

image, which of the following may be true?
Resolution Pixel noise Storage bytes

 A. Decreases Decreases Increase x2
 B. Increases Decreases Increase x2
 C. Increases Increases Increase x4
 D. Increases Increases Increase x2
40
40
BME HCMUT 20
17
Back to the Future
“There is no reason anyone would

want a computer in their home.”
- Ken Olson, president, chairman and

founder of Digital Equipment Corp., 1977.
41
41
Image Display
 Conversion of a digital image matrix in the display card memory

(VRAM) into an analog video signal using a digital to analog
converter (DAC)
 Matrix digital values are scanned in raster fashion as a function of
time which through the DAC provides a time-varying analog signal
 The time-varying analog video signal is input to a video monitor

42
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 86 and 90.
42
BME HCMUT 21
17
Cathode Ray Tube Monitors
 Gray-scale monitors provide

better range of brightness and
dynamic range than COTS
color monitors
 CRT elements and function
 Intensity of light is proportional
to the electric current in the
beam, which is determined by
the analog voltage signal
applied from the video card
 A color CRT uses three
independent electron guns
with tightly clustered red, green
and blue phosphor regions

43
43
Flat Panel Monitors
 Most flat-panel monitors use

liquid crystal display (LCD)
technology
 When voltage is applied to the
liquid crystal material it rotates
incident polarized light
 This rotated light then passes
through another polarizer (90º
to the first) so that the input
voltage modulates the intensity
of fluorescent tube backlight
that gets through
 Active matrix LCDs are also
called thin-film transistor (TFT)
displays

44
44
BME HCMUT 22
17
Contrast Enhancement
 Although there are 12-bit DACs, the human visual

system (HVS) can only distinguish 26-28 shades of gray
 Thus for a 12-bit CT image, only 256 shades of gray are
visualized at any one time of the 4096 levels stored
 Also, radiographic contrast may vary between objects,
so there is a need to interactively alter image contrast
 Altering the contrast so that it is more optimal involves
the operation of a translation table (or look-up table –
LUT) sitting between VRAM and the DAC, allowing
displayed image contrast enhancement
45
45
Window and Level Controls

 Modification of the translation table causes changes in the displayed
image brightness and contrast and is usually done through window
(contrast) and level (brightness) controls (e.g., under mouse control)
 In the example (below), the window is kept constant as the level is
increased, causing the image to become darker and darker
 The narrower the window, the greater the displayed image contrast, but
more of the image saturated in either toe or shoulder regions of LUT

46
46
BME HCMUT 23
17
False Color Displays and Hardcopy Devices
 The amplitude of the signals

generated in the production of
radiographic images do not
have inherent color information
 When color is used to display
some aspect of the received
signal then the resulting
images are called false-color
or pseudo-color images
 Example: Doppler US and NM
 Multiple LUTs and DACs
 Hardcopy Devices - permit the
recording of digital images on
photographic film or paper,
e.g., laser imager
47
47
48
48
BME HCMUT 24
17
PACS Puzzle pieces
49
49
5 Step Basic Tango
50
50
BME HCMUT 25
17
27 Step
PACS Shuffle
51
51
ACR Standards for Teleradiology
 Teleradiology (transmission of images for viewing at sites remote

from where they are acquired) and reporting back
 ACR published the first ACR Std for Teleradiology in 1994 with
subsequent revisions between 1996-2006:
http://www.acr.org/SecondaryMainMenuCategories/quality_safety/gu
idelines/GeneralDiagnosticRadiology/ACRTechnicalStandardforTeler
adiologyDoc9.aspx
 The ACR Standard for Teleradiology document outlines the
qualifications of personnel involved, equipment guidelines, licensing,
credentialing, and liability, communication, quality control for
teleradiology, quality improvement and has a listing of up to date
references
52
52
BME HCMUT 26
17
DICOM (Digital Imaging and

Communications in Medicine)
 Most important functions

 unambiguous definition of terms used
 define models of image communication
 agreed upon by those who adopt the standard
 Has become the predominant standard for the
communication of medical images
 Takes into account existing standards for networks
 By necessity, written in dry language with a minimum of
explanatory information (thousands of pages)
 Web resource: http://medical.nema.org/
53
53
DICOM Service Classes

Storage, Query/Retrieve,
Study Component
Query/Retrieve
LiteBox
Results
MAGN
ETOM
Management
Media Exchange
Print Management Query/Retrieve,

Information Patient & Study
Management Management
System
 Service Classes – Users and Providers

 Information Objects and Information Object Definitions
 Service-object pairs (SOP)
54
54
BME HCMUT 27
17
Service-Object Pair (SOP) Class
DIMSE Service Groups
Data
Dictionary
SOP
Real-World
Object
Information Object
55
55
DICOM ‘Header’ Dump
56
56
BME HCMUT 28
17
Back to the Future
“But what ... is it good for?”
- Engineer at the Advanced Computing

Systems Division of IBM, 1968,
commenting on the microchip.
57
57
Networks for Image and Data Transfer
58
58
BME HCMUT 29
17
Local Area Network (LAN)
 Topology: star, ring and bus

 Protocol: Internet and Ethernet use TCP/IP = Transport Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol
 Media: wire, fiber-optic and air
 Ethernet
 Shared bandwidth and switched – full duplex
 10, 100, 1000 and 10,000 Mbps/sec
 ATM/SONET
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode/Synchronous Optical Network
 155, 622 and 2,500 Mbps
 DICOM (three necessary elements for network communication):
 IP address, port number and Application Entity Title (AET)
59
59
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Internet = LANs mesh connected with WANs all using TCP/IP

60
60
BME HCMUT 30
17
Acquisition of Digital Images
 Film digitization and frame grabbers (‘old school’)

 DICOM modalities (modality tag ‘0008,0060’)
 Computed Tomography (CT)
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MR)
 Nuclear Medicine (NM), SPECT (ST) and PET (PT)
 Ultrasound (US) and Color Flow Doppler (CD)
 Computed Radiography (CR)
 Digital Radiography (DX)
 Radio Fluoroscopy (RF)
 X-ray Angiography (XA)
 Digital Mammography (MG)
61
61
Storage of Images
 Data Storage Technologies (redundancy and backup)

 Hierarchical Storage Management (HSM) systems
 RAID: redundant array of inexpensive disks
 Magneto-optic disk (MOD/EOD) and WORM optical disks
 Now dual-layer DVD±R and DVD±RW
 Digital Linear Tape (DLT) and other tape formats, e.g., D2, D3 ...
 Data Compression
 Lossless (compression ratio < 4:1)
 Lossy (compression ratio > 4:1)
62
62
BME HCMUT 31
17
63
63
Display of Images for Primary Interpretation
 Large format raster-scanned CRT and LCD (flat panel)

 CRT/LCD more or less equivalent to film
 Lesser spatial resolution, greater contrast resolution (LUT)
 Pixel Resolution: 3 megapixels: 1536 x 2048
 Luminance: 500 cd/m2 vs. 1700 cd/m2 (film light box)
 Dynamic Range: bit depth (16-bit per pixel frame buffer)
 ROC Studies: video monitors OK for primary diagnosis
 Veiling Glare: stray ambient light reduces contrast
 Important to have room lighting down, but not dark
 Ambient room light should be equivalent to displayed mid-gray
64
http://www.moviesoundscentral.com/2001.htm.
64
BME HCMUT 32
17
Neuroradiology Reading Room 4B w/s

1200x1600, $54K
65
65
27 Step
PACS Shuffle
66
66
BME HCMUT 33
17
Display of Images for Consultation
67
67
68
68
BME HCMUT 34
17
PACS Web on
MCIS PC
1280x1024
$3K
69
69
5E ICU PACS 2C workstation

1280x1024, $27K (same monitors as Web)
70
70
BME HCMUT 35
17
Back to the Future
“I have traveled the length and breadth of

this country and talked with the best
people, and I can assure you that data
processing is a fad that won't last out
the year.”
- The editor in charge of business books

for Prentice Hall, 1957.
71
71
 D45. The number of 512 x 512 images with 12 bit pixel

values that can be stored on a 2 gigabyte optical disk is
approximately _______. (Assume integer byte values at
each pixel location.)
 A. 5
 B. 40
 C. 500
 D. 4000
 E. 5000
 2GB = 231; 512x512x2bytes/pixel = 219; 231/219 = 4096
72
72
BME HCMUT 36
17
 D50. A DICOM standard for cine specifies that the image

matrix is 512 x 512 with a depth of 8 bits per pixel. You
have the need to store high-speed, high-resolution DSA
raw data (1024 x 1024 x 16 bits). The relative disk
storage space needed to store an individual image for
the latter is ________ times as large as the original.
 A. 32
 B. 16
 C. 8
 D. 4
 E. 2
73
73
BME HCMUT 37

3 - Computers in Medical Imaging

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Computers in Medical Imaging - Chapter 4 17-Feb-20

Computer Networks, PACS and Teleradiology – Chapter

Computers in Medical Imaging – Chapter 4

a copy of this lecture may be found at:

Chapters 4 & 17 Lecture Objectives

 What are positional numbering systems and how are

What do these numbers have in common?

 They are all the same numeric quantity represented

Decimal Form (Base 10)

 In general, a positional numbering system encodes the

Binary Form (Base 2)

 Powers of 2: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024...

Conversion between Decimal and Binary Forms

 Conversions from decimal to

cf: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

Digital Representation of Data (1)

 Bits, Bytes and Words

Digital Representation of Data (2)

 Digital Representation of Different Types of Data

Digital Representation of Data (3)

 Binary Representation of Signed Integers

Analog and Digital

 Analog: continuous waveform

cf: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

Conversion of Analog Data to Digital Form

 The electronic measuring devices of medical scanners (e.g.,

cf: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

ADC Potential Loss of Data

 Sampling and quantization (digitization): loss of data (necessary

cf: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

Transfers of Data in Digital Form

 Data are transferred between the various components of

Serial vs. Parallel Transfer of Data

 Serial - pulses transmitted one after another over single wire

cf: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

Transfers of Data in Digital Form

 Each device connected to the bus is identified by an

Back to the Future

“I think there is a world market for

- Thomas Watson, chairman of IBM, 1943

Components & Function of a Digital Computer

cf: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

 Random access memory

cf: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 CPU executes a sequence of instructions: program

CPU Program Execution

Input-Output (I/O) Bus and Expansion Slots

 Bus described under serial vs. parallel data transfer

Mass Storage Devices

 Permit the non-volatile storage of programs and data

Mass Storage Devices

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

Display Interface and Keyboard/Pointing Devices

 Display computer information in visual form

Acquisition and Communications Interface

 Acquisition interface = ADC card(s), though more

 In the past when general-purpose CPU speeds were

Raphex 2002 General Question

Raphex 2000 General Question

 G74-G77. For the following questions, select one of the computer

 G74. Which device has the longest access time?