Chapter 8: Gas Power Cycles

Termodinámica Aplicada. Applied Thermodynamics

Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León | August 25, 2023
BACHELOR IN AEROSPACE ENGINEERING. COURSE 2
Chapter 8 Outline
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León

Otto Cycle 1 Otto Cycle

Diesel Cycle
2 Diesel Cycle
Dual Cycle
3 Dual Cycle
Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles
4 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles
Brayton Cycle
5 Brayton Cycle
Jet-Propulsion
Cycles
6 Jet-Propulsion Cycles
Chapter 8 Basic Considerations
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León
Ideal Cycle
Otto Cycle A cycle that resembles the actual cycle closely but is made up totally of internally
reversible processes. Most power-producing devices operate on cycles.
Diesel Cycle ⇒ Reversible cycles such as Carnot cycle have the highest thermal efficiency of all
heat engines operating between the same temperature levels. Unlike ideal cycles, they
Dual Cycle are totally reversible, and unsuitable as a realistic model.

Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles

Modeling is a powerful engineering tool that

provides great insight and simplicity at the expense The analysis of many complex processes can be
of some loss in accuracy. reduced to a manageable level by utilizing some
idealizations.
Chapter 8 Basic Considerations
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León
The idealizations and simplifications in the analysis of power cycles:
Otto Cycle The cycle does not involve any friction. Therefore, the working fluid does not
experience any pressure drop as it flows in pipes or devices such as heat
Diesel Cycle exchangers.
All expansion and compression processes take place in a quasi-equilibrium
Dual Cycle
manner.
Stirling and The pipes connecting the various components of a system are well insulated, and
Ericsson Cycles heat transfer through them is negligible.
On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the area
Brayton Cycle enclosed by the cyclic curve to the area
under the heat-addition process curve
Jet-Propulsion
represents the thermal efficiency of the
Cycles cycle.
Any modification that increases the ra-
tio of these two areas will also increase
On both P-v and T-s diagrams, the area enclosed by the
process curve represents the net work of the cycle.
the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Chapter 8 Basic Considerations
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León
The Carnot cycle is composed of four to-
Otto Cycle tally reversible processes: isothermal heat
addition, isentropic expansion, isothermal
Diesel Cycle heat rejection, and isentropic compression.

Dual Cycle

Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles

A steady-flow Carnot engine.

P-v and T-s diagrams of a Carnot cycle.
Chapter 8 Air-Standard Assumpions
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León

Air-standard assumpions:
Otto Cycle
The working fluid is air, which continuously
circulates in a closed loop and always
Diesel Cycle
behaves as an ideal gas.
Dual Cycle All the processes that make up the cycle
are internally reversible.
Stirling and The combustion process is replaced by a
Ericsson Cycles heat-addition process from an external
source.
Brayton Cycle
The combustion process is replaced by a
The exhaust process is replaced by a
Jet-Propulsion heat-addition process in ideal cycles. heat-rejection process that restores the
working fluid to its initial state.
Cycles
Cold-air-standard assumptions: When the working fluid is considered to be air
with constant specific heats at room temperature (25o C).
Air-standard cycle: A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are applicable.
Chapter 8 An overview of reciprocating
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega engines
Universidad de León

Otto Cycle

Diesel Cycle

Dual Cycle

Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle
Nomenclature for reciprocating engines. Spark-ignition (SI) &
Compression ignition (CI) engines.
Jet-Propulsion
Mean effective pressure:
Cycles
Compression ratio:
Wnet
M EP =
r = Vmax /Vmin = VBDC /VT DC Vmax − Vmin
Wnet = M EP × P iston area × Stroke
Chapter 8 Otto Cycle
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León The Otto Cycle is the ideal cycle for SI engines.

Otto Cycle ignición

Diesel Cycle ciclo

real
Dual Cycle

Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles
ahora solo aire y
com isen
Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles

idealizado
Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-v diagrams.
Chapter 8 Otto Cycle
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León Four-stroke cycle: 1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution
Two-stroke cycle: 1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution
Otto Cycle 1 − 2 Isentropic compression
2 − 3 Constant-volume heat adition
Diesel Cycle
3 − 4 Isentropic expansion
Dual Cycle 4 − 1 Constant-volume heat rejection

Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles Schematic of a two-stroke reciprocating engine. The
two-stroke engines are generally less efficient than
their four-stroke counterparts but they are relatively
simple and inexpensive, and they have high
power-to-weight and power-to-volume ratios.
T-s diagram of the ideal Otto cycle.
Chapter 8 Otto Cycle: Thermal Efficiency
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León (qin − qout ) + (win − wout ) = ∆u
qin = u3 −u2 = cv (T3 −T2 ) qout = u4 −u1 = cv (T4 −T1 )
Otto Cycle
wnet qout T4 − T1
ηth,Otto = =1− =1−
qin qin T3 − T2
Diesel Cycle  k−1  k−1
T1 v2 v3 T4
= = =
Dual Cycle T2 v1 v4 T3
1
Stirling and ηth,Otto = 1 − k−1
r
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles

The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle increases

Thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle as a with the specific heat ratio k of the working fluid. In
function of compression ratio (k = 1.4). SI engines, the compression ratio is limited by
autoignition or engine knock.
Chapter 8 Diesel Cycle
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León In diesel engines, only air is compressed during the compression stroke, eliminating
the possibility of autoignition (engine knock). Diesel engines can be designed to operate
Otto Cycle at much higher compression ratios than SI engines, typically between 12 and 24.
1 − 2 Isentropic compression etapa admison calor p=cte

Diesel Cycle 2 − 3 Constant-pressure heat addition

3 − 4 Isentropic expansion
Dual Cycle
4 − 1 Constant-volume heat rejection
Stirling and se inyecta combustible una vez comprimido el aire

Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle
curvas v=cte mas inclinadas

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles

In diesel engines, the spark plug is replaced by a fuel injector,

and only air is compressed during the compression process.
Chapter 8 Diesel Cycle
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León qin − wb,out = u3 − u2
qin = P2 (v3 − v2 ) + (u3 − u2 ) = h3 − h2 = cp (T3 − T2 )
Otto Cycle
−qout = u1 − u4 qout = u4 − u1 = cv (T34 − T21)
Diesel Cycle wnet qout T4 − T1
ηth,Diesel = =1− =1−
qin qin k(T3 − T2 )
Dual Cycle Cutoff ratio: rc = V3
= v3
V2 v2 partiendo de aqui teiendo en cuenta rc
procesos isentrópico, llegar a la expresión de abajo
relacion de corte de admision
Stirling and 1

rck − 1

Ericsson Cycles ηth,Diesel = 1 −
rk−1 k(rc − 1)
compresion de otto

Brayton Cycle ηth,Otto > ηth,Diesel for the same compression ratio.

Jet-Propulsion
Thermal efficiency of the
Cycles ideal Diesel cycle as a
function of compression and
cutoff ratios (k = 1.4).
Chapter 8 Sabathé (dual) Cycle
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León

Dual cycle: A more realistic ideal cycle model for modern, high-speed compression
Otto Cycle ignition engine.

Diesel Cycle

Dual Cycle

Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles

P-v diagram of an ideal dual cycle.

Chapter 8 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León
1 − 2 Isothermal expansion (heat addition from the external source)
2 − 3 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to
Otto Cycle
the regenerator)
Diesel Cycle 3 − 4 Isothermal compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
4 − 1 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back
Dual Cycle to the working fluid)

Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles
A regenerator is a device that borrows
energy from the working fluid during one
part of the cycle and pays it back (without
interest) during another part.
Chapter 8 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León Both the Stirling and Ericsson cycles are
totally reversible, as is the Carnot cycle,
Otto Cycle and thus:
TL
Diesel Cycle ηth,Stirking = ηth,Ericsson = 1 −
TH

Dual Cycle The Ericsson cycle is very much like

the Stirling cycle, except that the two
Stirling and constant-volume processes are replaced by
Ericsson Cycles
two constant-pressure processes.

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles

The execution of the Stirling cycle. The Stirling and

Ericsson cycles give a message: Regeneration can
increase efficiency. A steady-flow Ericsson engine.
Chapter 8 Brayton Cycle
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León

Brayton Cycle: the ideal cycle for gas-turbine engines

Otto Cycle The combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition process from
an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a constant-pressure
Diesel Cycle heat-rejection process to the ambient air.

Dual Cycle

Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles

An open-cycle gas-turbine engine.

A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine.
Chapter 8 Brayton Cycle
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León
Brayton Cycle: the ideal cycle for gas-turbine engines
Otto Cycle 1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)

Diesel Cycle 2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition

3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
Dual Cycle
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles

An open-cycle gas-turbine engine.

A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine.
Chapter 8 Brayton Cycle
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León (qin − qout ) + (win − wout ) = hexit − hinlet
qin = h3 − h2 = cp (T3 − T2 ) qout = h4 − h1 = cp (T4 − T1 )
Otto Cycle
wnet qout cp (T4 − T1 )
ηth,Brayton = =1− =1−
Diesel Cycle qin qin cp (T3 − T2 )
 (k−1)/k  (k−1)/k
T2 P2 P3 T3
Dual Cycle = = =
T1 P1 P4 T4

Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle Pressure ratio: rP = P2 /P1

Jet-Propulsion 1
ηth,Brayton = 1 − (k−1)/k
Cycles rP

T-s and P-v diagrams for Thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton
the ideal Brayton cycle. cycle as a function of the pressure ratio.
Chapter 8 Brayton Cycle
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León The two major application areas of gas- The highest temperature in the cycle is
turbine engines are aircraft propulsion and limited by the maximum temperature that
Otto Cycle electric power generation. the turbine blades can withstand. This
also limits the pressure ratios that can be
Diesel Cycle used in the cycle.
The air in gas turbines supplies the nec-
Dual Cycle essary oxidant for the combustion of the
fuel, and it serves as a coolant to keep the
Stirling and temperature of various components within
Ericsson Cycles
safe limits. An air–fuel ratio of 50 or above
is not uncommon.
Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles
For fixed values of Tmin and Tmax, the net work of
the Brayton cycle first increases with the pressure
ratio, then reaches a maximum at
rP = (Tmax /Tmin )k/[2(k−1)] , and finally The fraction of the turbine work used to drive the
decreases. compressor is called the back work ratio.
Chapter 8 Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega cycles from idealized ones
Universidad de León

Development of gas turbines:

Otto Cycle Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures

Diesel Cycle Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery components (turbines, compressors):

Adding modifications to the basic cycle (intercooling, regeneration or
Dual Cycle recuperation, and reheating).

Stirling and
Reasons: Irreversibilities in turbine and
Ericsson Cycles
compressors, pressure drops, heat losses.
Isentropic efficiencies of the compressor
Brayton Cycle
and turbine:
Jet-Propulsion ws h2s − h1
Cycles ηC = ≈
wa h2a − h1
wa h3 − h4a
ηT = ≈
ws h3 − h4s
The deviation of an actual gas-turbine cycle from
the ideal Brayton cycle as a result of irreversibilities.
Chapter 8 The Brayton cycle with
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega regeneration
Universidad de León

In gas-turbine engines, the temperature of the exhaust gas leaving the turbine is
Otto Cycle
often considerably higher than the temperature of the air leaving the compressor.
Diesel Cycle Therefore, the high-pressure air leaving the compressor can be heated by the hot
exhaust gases in a counter-flow heat exchanger (a regenerator or a recuperator).
Dual Cycle The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases as a result of regeneration
since less fuel is used for the same work output.
Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles

A gas-turbine engine with regenerator. T-s diagram of a Brayton cycle

with regeneration.
Chapter 8 The Brayton cycle & regeneration
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León
qregen,act = h5 − h2 qregen,max = h05 − h2 = h4 − h2
Otto Cycle
Effectiveness of regenerator:
Diesel Cycle qregen,act (h5 − h2 )
= =
qregen,max (h4 − h2 )
Dual Cycle
Effectiveness under cold-air standard assumptions:
Stirling and  
T-s diagram of a Brayton cycle
T1 (k−1)/k
Ericsson Cycles  ≈ (T 5 −T2 )/(T4 −T2 ) η th,regen = 1− rP
with regeneration. T3
The thermal efficiency depends on the ratio of the
Brayton Cycle minimum to maximum temperatures as well as
the pressure ratio.
Jet-Propulsion Regeneration is most effective at lower pressure ratios
Cycles and low minimum-to-maximum temperature ratios.
Thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle with and without
regeneration.
Chapter 8 Intercooling, reheating &
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega regeneration
Universidad de León

For minimizing work input

Otto Cycle to compressor and maximiz-
ing work output from tur-
Diesel Cycle bine:
P2 P4 P6 P8
Dual Cycle = and =
P1 P3 P7 P9
Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles

A gas-turbine engine with two-stage compression with intercooling, two-stage expansion with reheating, and
regeneration and its T-s diagram.
Chapter 8 Intercooling, reheating &
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega regeneration
Universidad de León

Otto Cycle
Multistage compression with intercooling: The work required to compress a
gas between two specified pressures can be decreased by carrying out the
Diesel Cycle compression process in stages and cooling the gas in between. This keeps the
specific volume as low as possible.
Dual Cycle Multistage expansion with reheating keeps the specific volume of the
working fluid as high as possible during an expansion process, thus maximizing
Stirling and work output.
Ericsson Cycles Intercooling and reheating always decreases the thermal efficiency unless they
are accompanied by regeneration.
Brayton Cycle
As the number of
Comparison of work
Jet-Propulsion compression and
inputs to a
expansion stages
single-stage
Cycles compressor (1AC)
increases, the gas-turbine
cycle with intercooling,
and a two-stage
reheating, and
compressor with
regeneration approaches
intercooling (1ABD).
the Ericsson cycle.
Chapter 8 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León

Gas-turbine engines are widely used to power aircraft because they are light and
Otto Cycle compact and have a high power-to-weight ratio.
Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called a jet-propulsion cycle.
Diesel Cycle
The ideal jet-propulsion cycle differs from the simple ideal Brayton cycle in that
Dual Cycle the gases are not expanded to the ambient pressure in the turbine. Instead, they
are expanded to a pressure such that the power produced by the turbine is just
Stirling and sufficient to drive the compressor and the auxiliary equipment.
Ericsson Cycles The net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is zero. The gases that exit the
turbine at a relatively high pressure are subsequently accelerated in a nozzle to
Brayton Cycle provide the thrust to propel the aircraft.

Jet-Propulsion Aircraft are propelled by accelerating a fluid in the opposite direction to motion.
This is accomplished by either slightly accelerating a large mass of fluid
Cycles
(propeller-driven engine) or greatly accelerating a small mass of fluid (jet or
turbojet engine) or both (turboprop engine).
Chapter 8 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León

Otto Cycle

Diesel Cycle

Dual Cycle

Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles
In jet engines, the high-temperature and high-pressure gases leaving the turbine are
accelerated in a nozzle to provide thrust.
Chapter 8 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León
Thrust (propulsive force):

Otto Cycle F = (ṁV )exit − (ṁV )inlet = ṁ(Vexit − Vinlet )

Propulsive power:
Diesel Cycle
ẆP = F Vaircraf t = ṁ(Vexit − Vinlet )Vaircraf t
Dual Cycle
Propulsive efficiency:
Stirling and P ropulsive power ẆP
ηP = =
Ericsson Cycles Energy input rate Q̇in

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles

Propulsive power is the thrust acting on the aircraft through a distance per unit time.
Chapter 8 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León

Otto Cycle

Diesel Cycle

Dual Cycle

Stirling and
Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle

Jet-Propulsion
Cycles Basic components of a turbojet engine and the T-s diagram for the ideal turbojet cycle.
Chapter 8 Modifications to Turbojet Engines
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León The first airplanes built were all propeller-driven,
with propellers powered by engines essentially
Otto Cycle identical to automobile engines.
Both propeller-driven engines and
Diesel Cycle jet-propulsion-driven engines have their own
strengths and limitations, and several attempts
Dual Cycle have been made to combine the desirable
characteristics of both in one engine.
Energy supplied to an aircraft
Stirling and
Two such modifications are the propjet engine and (from the burning of a fuel)
Ericsson Cycles manifests itself in various forms.
the turbofan engine.
Brayton Cycle The most widely used engine in air-
craft propulsion is the turbofan (or
Jet-Propulsion fanjet) engine wherein a large fan
Cycles driven by the turbine forces a con-
siderable amount of air through a
duct (cowl) surrounding the engine.