Chapter 1: Speaking In Public

Similarities between Public speaking and Conversation

1. Organizing your thought logically => take your listener systematically, step by
step
2. Tailoring your message to your audience
3. Telling a story for maximum impact
4. Adapting to listener feedback

Differences between Public Speaking and Conversation

1. Public speaking is more highly structured
- It usually imposes strict time limitations on the speaker
- The situation does not allow listeners to interrupt with questions or commentary
=> the speaker must anticipate questions that may arise in the minds of listeners
and answer them => more detailed planning and preparation.
2. Public speaking requires more formal language (no slangs, jargons or grammar
mistakes)
3. Public speaking requires a different method of delivery
- Public speakers adjust their voices to be heard clearly throughout the audience
- More erect posture
- Avoid distracting mannerisms and verbal habits

Developing Confidence
Stage Fright: Anxiety over the prospect of giving a speech in front of an audience
Nervous is normal: Most experienced speakers have stage fright before taking the floor,
but their nervousness is a healthy sign that they are getting "psyched up" for a good
effort.
=> Dealing with Nervousness
You should aim at transforming nervousness from a negative force into what experts
call positive nervousness.
Positive nervousness: Controlled nervousness that helps energize a speaker for
her or his presentation.
1. Acquire speaking experience: learning to give a speech or register a speech class
2. Prepare: a standard rile of thumb is that each minute of speaking time requires
one to two hours of preparation time, perhaps more, depending on the amount of
research needed for the speech
3. Think positively:
4. Use the power of visualization:
 5. Know that most nervousness is not visible: most of the time, your listeners won't
realize how tense you are - especially if you do your best to act cool and
confident on the outside.
6. Don't expect perfection: one of the biggest reasons people are concerned about
making a mistake in a speech is that they view speechmaking as a performance
rather than an act of communication. They feel the audience is judging them
against a scale of absolute perfection in which every misstated words or
awkward gesture will count against them

Public Speaking and Critical Thinking

Critical thinking: Focused, organized thinking about such things as the logical
relationships among ideas, the soundness of evidence, and the differences between fact
and opinion
To some extent, it's a matter of logic - of being able to spot weaknesses in other
people's argument and to avoid them in your own.
The Speech Communication Process

1. Speaker
Your success as a speaker depends on you-on your personal credibility, your knowledge
of the subject, your preparation of the speech, your manner of speaking, your sensitivity
to the audience and the occasion. However, you must say something that you find
enthusiastic in order to interest others.

2. Message
Your goal in public speaking is to have your intended message be the message that is
actually communicated. Achieving this depends both on what you say (the verbal
message) and how you say it (the nonverbal message).
You also send the message with your tone of voice, appearance, gestures, facial
expression, and eye contact.

3. Channel
The channel is the means by which a message is communicated.

4. Listener
The listener is the person who receives the communicated message. Without a listener,
there is communication.
Everything a speaker says is filtered through a listener's frame of reference - the total of
his or her knowledge, experience, goals, values, and attitudes. And because a listener's
frame of reference can never be exactly the same as speaker's, the meaning of a
message will never be exactly the same to a listener as to a speaker.
Frame of reference: the sum of a person's knowledge, experience, goals, values,
and attitudes. No two people can have exactly the same frame of reference.
5. Feedback
Feedback: the messages, usually nonverbal, sent from a listener to a speaker.
In public speaking, there us plenty of feedback such as the listeners' reactions. You
must be alert and understand these feedbacks to adjust accordingly.

6. Interference
Interference: anything that impedes the communication of a message.
Interference can be external or internal to listeners.
There are two kinds of interference.
- The external: the traffic outside the building, the clatter of a radiator, students
conversing in the hall
- The internal: your listeners has a toothache => distracted by the pain that she
doesn't pay attention to the speech
7. Situation
Situation: the time and place in which speech communication occurs.
Public speakers must be alert of the certain occasions (funeral, church services,
graduation ceremonies) and the physical settings.

Public Speaking in a Multicultural World

Cultural Diversity In Public Speaking

The meanings attached to gestures, facial expressions, and other nonverbal signals
also vary from culture to culture. Even the gestures for such basic messages as "hello"
or "goodbye" are culturally based.

Avoiding Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism: the belief that one's own group or culture is superior to all other
groups or cultures.
● Because of ethnocentrism, we identify with our group or culture and see its
values, beliefs, and customs as "right" or "natural" - in comparision to the values,
and customs of other groups or cultures, which we tend to think as "wrong" or
"unatural".
● Ethnocentrism can play a positive role in creating group pride and loyalty, but it
can also lead to prejudice and hostility toward other cultural groups.
 ● Avoiding ethnocentrism does not mean you must agree with the values and
practices of all groups and culture, you might convince people of different culture
ti change their traditional ways of doing things. You must show respect for the
cultures of the people they address. They need to adapt their message to the
cultural values and expectations of their listeners.
● If you pose questions to get feedback from listeners, be aware that listeners from
different cultures may respond differently. Most Arabs, North Americans and
Europeans will give you fairly direct feedback while Asian and Caribbean may not
respond out of concern that doing so will show disrespect for the speaker.

Chapter 2: ETHICS AND PUBLIC SPEAKING

The Importance of Ethics

Ethics: the branch of philosophy that deals with issues od right and wrong in
human affairs.
Ethical decisions: sound ethical decisions involve weighing a potential course of
action against a set of ethical standards or guidelines.

Guidelines for Ethical Speaking

1. Make your goals ethically sound:
2. Be fully prepared for each speech:
Investigate the whole story; learn about all sides of an issue; seek out competing
viewpoints; get the facts right.
3. Be honest in what you say:
Subtle forms of dishonesty are unethical, they include juggling statistics, quoting out of
context, misrepresenting sources, painting tentative findings as firm conclusions,
portraying a few details as the whole story, citing unusual cases as typical examples,
and substituting innuendo and half-truth for evidence and proof. Ethicallt responsible
speakers also do not present other people's words as their own.

Avoid Name-calling and Other Forms of Abusive Language

1. Name-Calling and Personal Dignity

Name-calling: The use of language to defame, demean, or degrade individuals or
groups.
When applied to various groups in America, it includes such epithets as "fag", "kike",
"nigger", "honkey", "wop", "jap", "chink", and "spic". Such terms have been used to debase
people because of their sexual orientation, religious beliefs, or ethnic background.
Such language is also destructive social force because they encourage prejudice, hate
crimes, and civil rights violations.

2. Name-Calling and Free Speech:

As a public speaker, you have an ethical obligations to help preserve that right by
avoiding tactics such-as name-calling that inherently impugn the accuracy or
respectability of public statements made by groups or individuals who voice opinions
different from yours.
Although name-calling can be hazardous to free speech, it is still protected under the
free-speech clause of the Bill of Rights.
Bill of Rights: The first 10 amendments to the United States Constitution

Plagiarism
Plagiarism: present another person's language or ideas as your own
1. Global Plagiarism
Global Plagiarism: stealing a speech entirely from a single source and passing it
of as your own. The most blatant and unforgivable kind of plagiarism, it is grossly
unethical.
The best way to avoid this is to start preparing early and not leave the speech to the last
minute.
2. Patchwork plagiarism
Patchwork plagiarism: stealing ideas or language from two or three sources and
passing them off as one's own
You should consult a wide range of research materials.
3. Incremental plagiarism
Incremental plagiarism: failing to give credit for particular parts of a speech that
are borrowed from other people
- Quotations: whenever you quote someone directly, you must attribute the words
to that person.
- Paraphrases: to restate or summarize an author's ideas in one's own words
4. Plagiarism and The Internet
One way to avoid patchwork plagiarism or incremental plagiarism when working with
the Internet is to take careful research notes. Make sure you keep a record of the
following:
- The title of the Internet document
- The author or organization responsible for the document
- The date on which the document was last updated
- The date on which you accessed the site
- Identify your Internet sources when you present the speech
Almost all the speeches and papers offered on sale on the Web are of very low quality
=> keep in mind there is a good chance that you will waste your money or get caught.

Guideline for Ethical Listening

Be Courteous and Attentive

As you listen, be conscious of the feedback you are sending the speaker: sit up your
chair rather than slouching; maintain eye contact with the speaker; show support and
encouragement in your facial expressions.

Avoid Prejudging the Speaker

Maintain The Free and Open Expression Of Ideas

There are some kinds of speech that are not protected under the First Amendment
including defamatory falsehoods that destroy a person's reputation, threats against the
life of the President, and inciting an audience to illegal action in circumstances where
the audience is likely to carry out the action.
It is important to keep in mind that ensuring a person's freedom to express her or his
ideas does not simply imply agreement with those ideas. You can disagree entirely with
the messages but still support the speaker's right to express it.

Chapter 3: Listening

Hearing: the vibration of sound waves on the eardrums and the firing of electrochemical
impulses in the brain.
Listening: Paying close attention to, and making sense of, what we hear.
Listening is important
Listening and Critical thinking:
● Appreciative listening—listening for pleasure or enjoyment, as when we listen to
music, to a comedy routine, or to an entertaining speech.
● Empathic listening—listening to provide emotional support for the speaker, as
when a psychiatrist listens to a patient or when we lend a sympathetic ear to a
friend in distress.
● Comprehensive listening—listening to understand the message of a speaker, as
when we attend a classroom lecture or listen to directions for finding a friend’s
house.
 ● Critical listening—listening to evaluate a message for purposes of accepting or
rejecting it, as when we listen to the sales pitch of a car salesperson or the
campaign speech of a political candidate
Comprehensive thinking involves several skills: summarizing information, recalling
facts, distinguishing main points from minor points
Critical listening: separating fact from opinion, spotting weaknesses in reasoning, judging
the soundness of evidence
→ Use your mind as well as your ears when engaged in comprehensive listening and
critical listening

4 causes of poor listening

● Not concentrating
● Listening too hard
● Jumping in conclusions
● Focusing on delivery and personal appearance

How to become a better listener

● Take listening seriously

● Be an active listener
● Resist distractions
● Don’t be diverted by appearance or delivery
● Suspend judgement
● Focus your listening
● Develop note-taking skills

Chapter 4: Selecting a topic and a purpose

1. Choosing a topic
- Topics you know a lot about
- Draw on your own knowledge and experience
- Topics you want to know more about
- Choose a subject
- You already have some knowledge or expertise but not enough to
prepare a speech without doing additional research.
- You want to explore for the first time
- Brainstorming for topics
- Brainstorming: A method of generating ideas by free association of words and
thoughts.
- Personal Inventory:
 Make a quick inventory of your experiences, interests, hobbies, skills, beliefs,
and so forth.

- Clustering:

Take a sheet of paper and divide it into nine columns as follows: People, Places,
Things, Events, Processes, Concepts, Natural Phenomena, Problems, and Plans
and Policies. Then list in each column the first 4/5 items that come to mind.

- Internet Search
2. Determining the General Purpose
- To inform (explain, report, or demonstrate): Convey information clearly, accurately, and
interestingly → enhance the knowledge and understanding of your listeners-to give them
information they did not have before.
- To persuade (sell, advocate, or defend): Go beyond giving information to espousing a
cause→ change or structure the attitudes or actions of your audience. In doing so, you cannot
help but give information, but your primary goal is to win over your listeners to your point of
view-to get them to believe something or do something as a result of your speech.
3. Determining the Specific Purpose
- Specific purpose: A single infinitive phrase that states precisely what a speaker hopes to
accomplish in his or her speech.
- Formulating the specific purpose statement:
- Write the Purpose Statement as a Full Infinitive Phrase, Not as a Fragment,
- Express Your Purpose as a Statement, Not as a Question.
- Avoid Figurative Language in Your Purpose Statement.
- Limit Your Purpose Statement to One Distinct Idea.
- Make Sure Your Specific Purpose Is Not Too Vague or General.
- Questions to ask about your specific purpose:
- Does My Purpose Meet the Assignment? Can I Accomplish My Purpose in the
Time Allotted?
- Is the Purpose Relevant to My Audience? Is the Purpose Too Trivial for My
Audience?
- Is the Purpose Too Technical for My Audience?
4. Phrasing the Central Idea
- Central idea:
- A one-sentence statement that sums up or encapsulates the major ideas of a
speech.
- A concise statement of what you expect to say.
- Usually expressed as a simple, declarative sentence that refines and sharpens the specific
purpose statement. → It is more precise than your topic or your specific purpose
statement.
- Residual message: What a speaker wants the audience to remember after they have
forgotten everything else in a speech.
- Guidelines:
- Should be expressed in a full sentence
- Should not be in the form of a question
- Should avoid figurative language
- Should not be vague or overly general
Chapter 5: Analyzing the Audience
Audience - Centeredness

Chapter 6: Gathering materials: Đức

Using your own knowledge and experience: Build up speech through past experiences -
gather material from yourself
Doing library research: Get information from many resources including librarians, the
catalogue, periodical databases, newspapers, and reference works

Searching the Internet

Interviewing

Tips for doing research

Chapter 7: Supporting your ideas

Definition

Examples: A special case used to illustrate or to represent a group of people, ideas,

conditions, experiences
1. Brief example: a specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point
2. Extended example: a story, a narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to
illustrate a point
3. Hypothetical examples: describe a hypothetical situation to illustrate the use of
honor codes to reduce cheating
Tips for using examples

1. clarify your ideas, put abstract ideas => concrete terms

2. reinforce your ideas,
3. Personalize your ideas
Make examples vivid and richly textured

Chapter 8: Organizing the Body of the Speech

Why organize your speeches?

- Well-organized -> Ideas clearly presented for listeners to see & easy to identify
the most important ones

The body is the longest and most important part of a speech -> Prepare the body first

+ Start with the main points

+ Then provide supporting materials
+ Remember connectives

1. Main points

a. How do you choose your main points?

- If there are specific uses for the subject of the topic, those can be used as main
points i.e. hypnosis -> use in surgery, use to help pp stop smoking, use to help
students improve their academic

- Evident in your specific purpose i.e. “To inform my audience about the
development, technology, and benefits of hydrogen fuel cells”

- Infer from your specific purpose i.e. “To inform my audiences of the basic steps
in making stained-glass windows” -> steps of making stained-glass windows

b. Number of main points

- Optimal: 2-3 main points

c. Strategic order of main points

- Depending on
+ Topic
+ Purpose
+ Audience
- Chronological order - Follow a time pattern
- Spatial order - Follow a directional pattern i.e. top to bottom, left to right, front to
back
- Causal order - two main points - one dealing with the causes of an event, the
other dealing with its effects

- Problem-solution order - two main points - the first shows the existence and
seriousness of a problem, and the second presents a workable solution to the
problem

- Topical order - divide the speech into subtopics

 d. Tips for preparing main points
- Keep main points separate
- Try to use the same pattern of wording for the main points
- Balance the amount of time devoted to the main points

2. Supporting Materials

- Listeners require supporting materials to accept what a speaker says

- Examples, statistics, and testimonials

3. Connectives

- Words/phrases join one thought to another and indicate the relationship between
them
- Transitions - when the speaker has finished one thought and is moving to
another

- Internal previews - let the audience know what the speaker will take up next, but
they are more detailed
- Internal summaries - the reverse of internal previews, remind the audience of
what they have just heard -> Good for clarifying and reinforcing ideas

- Signposts - brief statements that indicate where you are in the speech, most of
the time they are just numbers -> Good for highlighting the main points
Chapter 9: Beginning and ending the speech

1. The introduction
- Objectives:
+ Get the attention and interest of the audience
+ Reveal the topic of your speech
+ Establish your credibility and goodwill
+ Preview the body of the speech

a. Get attention and interest

- Relate the topic to the audience
+ People pay attention to things they can relate to

- State the importance of your topic

+ Tell your audience why they should think your speech is important
+ Useful for getting attention to social and political issues i.e. child abuse,
endangered species, terrorism, etc.

- Startle your audience

- Arouse the curiosity of the audience

- Question the audience

- Begin with a quotation

- Tell a story

b. Reveal the topic

- State clearly the topic, avoid being vague and beating around the bush

c. Establish credibility and goodwill

- Credibility:
+ You’ll be more credible if you have experiences on the topic you’re giving a
speech about
 - Credibility:
+ Crucial for when speakers don’t have well-established reputations or the
cause of hostility among listeners

d. Preview the body of the speech

Tips for preparing the introduction

- Keep the introduction relatively brief (10-20%<)

- Be on the lookout for possible introductory materials as you do your research
- Be creative in devising your introduction
- Don’t worry about the exact wording of your introduction until you’ve finished
preparing the body of the speech
- Work out your introduction in detail
2. The conclusion
a. Signal the end of the speech
- Verbal cues i.e. “In conclusion”, “My purpose has been”, “Let me end by saying”
- Manner of delivery - by using the tone, pacing, intonation, and rhythm
- MLK “I’ve been to the mountaintop”

b. Reinforce the central idea

- Summarize your speech - restating your main points

- End with a quotation

- Make a dramatic statement

- Refer to the introduction

Tips for preparing the conclusion

- As with the introduction, keep an eye out for possible concluding materials as
you research and develop the speech
- Conclude with a bang, not a whimper
- Don’t be long-winded (5-10%<)
- Don’t leave anything in your conclusion to chance - work it out in detail
CHAPTER 10: Outlining the Speech
Preparation outline: A detailed outline developed during the process of speech
preparation that includes the title, specific purpose, central idea, introduction, main
points, subpoints, connectivies, conclusion, and bibliography of a speech.

Guidelines for the preparation outline:

1. State the specific purpose of Your Speech
2. Identify the Central Idea
3. Label the Introduction, Body, and Conclusion
4. Use a Consistent Pattern of Symbolization and Indentation

Vd:

5. State Main Points and Subpoints in Full Sentences

6. Label Transitions, Internal Summaries, and Internal Previews

7. Attach a Bibliography
8. Give Your Speech a Title, If One is Desired
Guidelines for the speaking outline
1. Follow the Visual Framework Used in the Preparation Outline
2. Make sure the Outline is Legible (readable at a distance)
3. Keep the Outline as Brief as Possible
4. Give yourself Cues for Delivering the Speech