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Unit 1 - The School as an Agent of Change

Introduction

A fixed organizational structure or bureaucracy influences the school as an

organization’s governance system. In basic education, the Department of Education
determines the bureaucratic structure of schools at the national, regional, division, district,
and local school levels.

At the national level, the DepEd Secretary heads the whole bureaucracy, supported by
the Undersecretaries and Assistant Secretaries. The Central Office is composed of 4
Bureaus, namely (1) the Bureau of Curriculum (2) the Bureau of Learning Delivery,
(3) the Bureau of Learning Resource, and (4) the Bureau of Educational
Assessment.

The Regional Offices are headed by regional directors supported by different education
supervisors, while the Division Offices are headed by the superintendent and also
supported by educational supervisors. The district supervisor and educational
supervisors head the District Offices.

Lastly, the principal serves as the school's chief administrative and academic
officer at the school level. Master teachers and classroom teachers support the
principal in accomplishing various tasks.

School as a learning organization’s main function is to help learners and

develop knowledge, skills, and values essential for every individual. Its main
function is to implement the curriculum the Department of Education prescribes. Guided
by the different principles and theories of teaching and learning, the school carries this
function by helping mold students’ minds and characters. With teachers' help, students in
a school develop much knowledge and skills.

School as a community is composed of teachers, administrators, students,

staff, and other stakeholders united in one purpose and guided by common values
and culture. As a community, the school is guided by the following essential elements:
● Vision – means a sense of direction of what the school hopes to accomplish
for itself, the people, and society.
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● Values- provide a framework for organizational culture and behavior of the

entire school;
● Leadership - provides administrative and management support for day-to-
day activities and functions of the school and
● Culture - pertains to shared values and behaviors of students, teachers,
staff, and administration

As a social organization, the school aims to respond to the changes and challenges of
different social and natural forces. It plays a role in shaping the future of the society it
belongs. The schools' working mechanism strongly affects the delivery of quality
education and the development of human resources needed by society.

School as a Social Organization

Schools are important organizations that prepare young children for their future
roles as productive citizens in the country. How schools fulfill this function strongly
affects the quality of education they provide. Several theories try to explain the nature of
school organizations. The systems theory best explains the nature of schools as a social
organization. Under the systems theory, it is best to examine some of the characteristics
of schools, including structure, culture, climate, leadership, decision-making, and the
relationships among personnel (Bozkus, 2014)

Structure: As social systems, schools' structures have characteristics of rational,

natural, and open systems. They have hierarchies of authority. They have goals, and
role expectations like bureaucratic organizations. Individual needs affect employee
behavior, organizational goals are not firm, and informal organizations derive from
individual interactions and schools (Bozkus, 2014).

A school is structured in a seamless bureaucracy that includes positions and offices

based on the type of programs and services the school offers. The size or the population
of the school also determines the structure of the school. Not only is the school an integral
part of the bigger education from the district, division, region, and national level. The line
of authority and responsibilities is also clearly defined.

Culture and Climate: School culture is preserved and transferred to new members
by socialization (Kowalski, 2010). New teachers learn shared values, beliefs, and norms
when interacting and building relationships with their colleagues. The school philosophy
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and core values influence the school culture, which is continuously shaped by the culture
of every individual member of the school. Private schools, especially sectarian schools,
are known for their ability to sustain their institutional norms and culture, especially among
students.

Norms are influential in shaping students' character and values system. The norms
or school culture often create a sense of place among students. The school has become
a place for learning and a home for them. Much of who they are as a person, including
their views on various issues, is influenced by the hidden curriculum they got from the
school. The institutional culture is the thread that binds all teachers, students, staff, and
alumni. It is their identity as a school.

Climate, on the other hand, represents an organization's distinguishing characteristics,

feelings, and behavior that can be presented with a framework that consists of four
elements: (1) physical frame is the physical factors of a school e.g. equipment,
classrooms, etc. (2) social frame is the social factor; (3) environment mostly related
to the social behavior of individuals within a school and (4) structural frame
represents factors such as hierarchy, authority, FOR and symbolic frames the parts
of culture like believes, norms, values (Kowa 2010)

Leadership and Decision-making in social systems of schools: an important aspect

of leadership is the quality and systematic effects of functions and behaviors of
principals as leaders (Bozkus, 2014).

The Governance of Basic Education Act provided a way to enhance the system of
leadership and decision-making process in the school. Currently, principals are now
the local executives in their schools. They help develop the vision and plans for improving
the school and for helping students' scholastic performance. Annually, the schools are
mandated to submit their annual school improvement plan (SIP), which serves as the
basis for their budget and for evaluating their performance. Likewise, the teachers are
now empowered to develop innovations to improve student achievement and
performance.

Relationships: Social organizations like schools stem from interaction among

people both within and outside the organization. Relationships within the school
building and with the community are essential elements of socialization and
significantly impact processes (Bozkus, 2014).
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Social Change and its Effect on the Educational System

Social change is a broad term, and every society develops and evolves uniquely
as Influenced by various social factors and events. Change is always changing in
every aspect of society and is inevitable. The physical features of society are always
changing as a result of economic developments. Human relationships and interactions
and cultures have changed as a result of various social forces and events, observe that
with the influence of technology and advancements in science, we expect more change
to happen in the coming years. The future remains unpredictable due to these social
change forces.

Sociologists generally define social change as changes in human interactions

and relationships that transform cultural and social transformation. These
changes occur over time and often have profound and long-term effects on society. The
Institutions 2025 Risk Index identified six megatrends that continue to share, shape, and
influence our society.

Digitalization and technological advances - Technological advancement is

impacting the finance industry as new challengers are emerging, and growing
customer expectations drive significant IT infrastructure investment.

Demographic and behavioral changes - The changing demographics

geographical, and behavioral profiles of customers are forcing financial
institutions to deal with divergent customer expectations, and new customer bases
and workforces.

Global talent and skills race. Talent capable of navigating a rapidly evolving
financial landscape will be required to respond to increasing regulatory pressures,
a changing approach to risk management, and the emergence of new markets.

Business Operating Model pressures - Regulation and the increasing cost of

capital exert pressure on business operating structures, driving segmentation and
disintermediation in the financial sector.
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Regulatory changes and complexity - Regulatory pressures arising from the

financial crisis have increased the cost of capital, prompted large-scale
divestment, reshaped attitudes toward risk, and redrawn the boundary between
retail and wholesale banking.

Changes in Investment, capital sources, and returns - Non-bank financial

institutions, fintech companies, and new investors bring fresh capital into the sector.
At the same time, banks meet capital requirements, manage stress tests, and spend on
compliance upgrades.

These social changes, among others, demand that all educational institutions at a level
must not only respond to these changes but they must also evolve and change:

1. New ways of teaching and learning must be developed and introduced.

2. Instruction must focus on the holistic development of every learner.
3. Technology must be utilized to improve access to quality education.
4. Curriculum must be progressive and innovative.
5. Alternative learning systems must be harnessed.
6. New literacies and skills must be developed.
7. Teachers must be equipped with a high level of technological, pedagogical,
and content knowledge (TPCK)
8. Classrooms must be equipped with technology.
9. New subjects and courses must be developed to respond to the needs of
society.
10. Old disciplines must evolve to embrace new research and developments in
the field.
11. Critical thinking, creativity, and innovation must be developed among
students
12. Industry-school partnerships must be developed
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Social Changes and Challenges Brought by the 4th Industrial Revolution

From the 3rd Industrial Revolution, which began in the 1950s, the world has shifted from
mechanical and analog to electronic technology. The concept of the Fourth Industrial
Revolution, according to Davis (2016) builds on the Digital Revolution with cipher-
physical systems providing new mechanisms and allows technology to be embedded
within societies and even the human body. It is a way of describing the blurred boundaries
between the physical, digital, and biological worlds. It is marked by emerging
technology breakthroughs in several fields, including robotics, artificial
intelligence, nanotechnology, quantum computing, biotechnology, the internet of
things, 3D printing, and autonomous vehicles (Bernard et al., 2016).

We are facing a world transformed by technology. The internet, cloud computing, and
social media create different opportunities and challenges in all social institutions,
particularly for the global education systems. Bernard (2016) posits that the 4 th Industrial
Revolution provides various opportunities to improve human communication and conflict
resolution.

The Fourth Industrial Revolution brought significant social transformation that

created a new world economy characterized by:

a) Wider Employment Opportunities

b) Demand for Quality, Competitive, and Flexible Workers
c) Globalization
d) Millennial Workforce
e) Mobility
f) Technological Advancement
g) New Behaviors
The 4th Industrial Revolution calls for the educational system to develop graduates
equipped with the knowledge and new skills and prepared for responding to the
various social challenges that may come. In order to produce qualified graduates, the
curriculum needs a new orientation. The old literacies (reading, writing, and math), have
to be strengthened as well as by adding the new emerging literacies to produce qualified
humans who can thrive in the digital era.
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Education should adjust itself to different social challenges and demands. Three
competencies need to be developed to prepare graduates for this 4 th Industrial
Revolution:

1. Data Competency- the ability to read, analyze, and use information in

the digital world.
2. Technology Competency- the ability to understand mechanical
(system) work, and to use the application of technology like (Coding,
Artificial Intelligence, & Engineering Principles).
3. Human Competency- This calls for developing leadership skills, social
competence, collaboration and teamwork, professionalism, and new values
to be developed among students.
The school or the education system cannot isolate itself from the demands and
needs of the changing society. Schools and the education system should be at the
forefront of these social changes. People should see schools as innovation hubs
to solve human and social issues. Schools should ignite people’s imagination to
be more creative and innovative in creating a desired future for all people.

With the changes and challenges of the 4th Industrial Revolution, schools need to revisit
their academic programs and focus on essential skills that human beings need to learn
to become productive and enjoy the fullness of life. The World Economics Forum in 2016
identified examples of these skills:

● Computer Problem Solving

● Innovation Skills
● Critical Thinking
● Creativity
● People Management
● Collaboration
● Emotional Quotient
● Decision Making
● Negotiation Skills
● Entrepreneurship
● Cognitive Fluency
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Change Forces

Sergiovanni (2000, pp. 154-155) identified six forces affecting school changes:
bureaucratic, personal, market, professional, cultural, and democratic. Each of these
forces is influential in implementing changes in schools:

● Bureaucratic forces are rules, mandates, and other requirements intended to

provide direct supervision, standardized work process, or standardized outcomes
used to prescribe change.
● Personal forces are personalities, leadership styles, and interpersonal skills of
change agents that could push for changes to happen in school.
● Market forces are competition, incentives, and individual choices that are
used to motivate change.
● Professional forces are standards of expertise, codes of conduct, collegiality,
felt obligations, and other professional norms intended to build a professional
community to compel change
● Cultural forces are shared values, goals, and ideas about pedagogy,
relationships, and politics intended to build a covenantal community that is used to
compel change
● Democratic forces are democratic social contacts that are shared commitments
to the common good intended to build a community that is used to compel change.

Due to these change forces, schools must build internal commitment to change and
positive social transformation. Internal commitment is an essential contributor to
school effectiveness. Internal commitment means all faculty, administrators, and
staff experience a high degree of ownership and a feeling of responsibility for the
changes they wish to make. Teachers, students, and staff must see their roles and
responsibilities in the changes that will happen. Cooperation, collaboration, and open
communication are essential. Responding to the different change forces requires
empowering every school community member. It also requires ethical and moral
leadership from school managers and administrators. Furthermore, all the school
members must process innovative behaviors and creativity.
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Characteristics of a Good School as an Agent of Social Change

To effectively serve as an agent of social change, schools need to evolve and be a model
of a good social institution. Reviewing the current literature on the characteristics of a
good school makes us conclude that good schools are generally described as being
learner-centered. Good schools try to serve all types of students by providing a good
physical and socio-emotional environment for all students. They provide an instructional
support system to help students learn effectively and develop a curricular program further
to enrich the knowledge and skills of the students. They respect the ethnic and linguistic
differences among students.

Based on the study of MacBeath, Boyd, Rand, and Bell (1995), there are six
indicators or an effective school that were also affirmed by Sergiovanni (2000):

TABLE 1: Indicators of a Good School from Six Composite Perspectives

Pupil

● Pupils are nice to each other

● Everyone is treated fairly
● There is a friendly atmosphere.
● Teachers control the classes but not too strict.
● Teachers help you with things you are not good at

Teacher

● Communication is good among all members

● Staff development is good
● The environment is good to work in
● Pupils are happy and well-motivated
● All pupils are helped to achieve what they are capable of

Parent

● There is a welcoming, friendly atmosphere.

● Staff are caring and communicate well with pupils
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● Discipline is good
● Extra time is spent with children who learn less quickly
● Relationships are good between teachers and parents

Management

● Pupils are safe

● All members of the school community work toward clear objectives
● A high quality of information is given to parents and visitors
● Rules are applied evenly and fairly
● All pupils are helped to achieve what they are capable of

Support Staff

● Resources are good and up to date

● Classrooms are clean, warm, and comfortable
● Support staff are given credit for their competence and contribution
● The environment is friendly and welcoming
● Staff development involves all staff
Board Member, Trustee

● Excellent reputation with the local community

● Strong leadership from senior management
● A happy and welcoming environment
● Pupils being helped to reach their individual potential
● A safe place for pupils

As an agent of social change, a school must set an example of a good social

institution. Schools need to model a dynamic social organization characterized by
the following:

● The school climate must be professional and friendly to all;

● There must be a positive relationship among students, faculty, staff, administrators,
and stakeholders;
● The classroom atmosphere must be mentally and emotionally engaging for
learning.
● There is enough and adequate support for learning;
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● The teacher and the other staff received support for professional and personal
growth;
● The school must be efficient in managing its resources;
● There must be an efficient communication system among teachers, students,
administrators, staff, parents, and other stakeholders;
● The school has a system to recognize good works and other achievements
● There must be a strong school and home relationship; and
● All members of the school community must be treated with respect.

As an agent of positive social change and transformation, the school must elicit support
and cooperation from all its constituents and stakeholders. The school community
members believe in and support its vision and mission. It encourages collaboration
rather than competition. It disassociates itself from unhealthy academic politics and
practices that destroy unity and good relationship among the faculty and staff.

Schools are guided by a clear vision and a passion for pursuing a noble mission.
Schools everywhere are not only centers of learning and knowledge production. They
are the guardians of peoples’ freedom and democratic life. They are shrines of noble
ideas and ethical principles. They are the minds and consciences of the people in the
field of education.

Responding to the Needs of the Country and Local Communities

In the Philippines, the genesis of community schools during the

American period planted the seed for developing a good school-
community partnership and a functionally literate citizenry. Community
schools were expected to contribute to the economic and cultural development of the
people and the communities where they are of knowledge and wisdom when there are
only a few basic education schools in the country. They are committed to ensuring equity
and access to quality education. Many of these community schools have evolved into
community colleges, and they have become the pioneer units of the many state
colleges and universities in the country now.

Trade and agricultural schools are also good models of how a school can
influence positive social changes. These schools aim to contribute to the economic
development of the people and the community. Over the years, these schools have
produced professionals and scientists who are helpful in developing agriculture and food
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production in the country. For example, we have the world-renowned University of the
Philippines Los Banos, which is famous in the field of research and in developing
many scientists in the field of agriculture, forestry, and other professional fields in
the Philippines and the Asia-Pacific region. Some outstanding agriculture schools are
Central Luzon State University, Central Mindanao University, Mariano Marcos State
University, Eastern Visayas State University, and many other agricultural universities.

The University of the Philippines, Manila, also made an outstanding contribution

in developing local doctors serving local communities in the county, its satellite campuses
in Leyte, Davao, and Aurora are excellent models of how schools can help serve the
people.

Silliman University, a private protestant school established during the time of the
Americans in Dumaguete City, is a good example of how a school can influence the
transformation of society. Silliman did not only produce outstanding leaders and
professionals in various disciplines and fields in the country. It has immensely influenced
the economic and cultural development of Dumaguete City and the whole island of
Negros. Currently, Silliman has strong research in marine science that focuses on
the conservation of our country’s marine resources.

Other schools have done noble contributions to nation-building. The following

are just a few examples:

a) The UP Baguio’s research on the indigenous people’s culture in the

Cordillera region.
b) Ateneo de Manila University is also known for its contributions to
helping the poor people in various parts of the country, and it has
collaborations with other agencies and institutions, like
Gawad Kalinga, in its mission, is to end poverty and serve the poor.
c) Miriam College’s partnership in developing children’s literacy in poor
communities.
d) St. Scholastica’s College program empowering women and promoting
gender equity.
e) The UP College of Law, Law Center for providing free legal assistance
to poor people
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f) The Central Visayas Institute of Technology for developing science

literacy by building a good science and mathematics program in the small
town of Jagna in the province of Bohol.
g) Mindanao State University for advancing the education of Muslims and
other indigenous groups in Mindanao.
h) Mary Johnston College of Nursing for serving the health needs of poor
families in Tondo, Manila.
i) TESDA Schools all over the country are helping to develop the vocational
and technical skills of millions of students.

All schools under the K-12 Education Program are expected to function as agents of
social change and transformation. They are expected to contribute to nation-building
by developing holistically developed and functionally literate learners characterized
by:
● A healthy mind and body;
● Solid moral and spiritual groundings;
● Essential knowledge and skills to continuously develop himself/herself
to the fullest;
● Engagement in critical and creative problem-solving;
● Contribution to the development of a progressive and human society;
and
● Appreciation of the world’s beauty and cares for the environment for a
sustainable future.

END OF MIDTERM

Unit 2 – The School as a Cultural Institution

This chapter highlights the roles of the school as a cultural institution. It presents the
different guiding principles and practical strategies for turning toxic school culture into a
positive one. The chapter is composed of numerous learner-centered tasks that will hone
students’ understanding of the role of the school as a cultural institution. It also allows the
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students to critically assess the common practices and issues in promoting positive
school culture.

The objectives of this chapter are the following:

● Define culture and school culture;

● Distinguish the different elements of school culture;
● Identify and explain the levels of school culture;
● Discover how to assess school culture; and
● Determine the different strategies for creating a positive school culture.

Introduction

Every school is unique in its own way, and its uniqueness commonly
originates from how they impose different cultures inside and outside
their school premises. Selznick (1957) claimed that culture is the distinctive
identity of a school from other schools. But some cultures are common across
schools, and some are unique and embedded in a particular school’s
history and location.
As an educator, one should be knowledgeable not only on the content or what to teach
and the pedagogy or how to teach but also on the culture or where to teach. The latter is
given much importance simply because students will learn best if they are set in a positive
school culture.

This chapter represents the most common yet the most unseen area in education, which
is viewing the school as a cultural institution, it is the most common because every school
has its own set of cultures but still the most unseen because teachers tend to disregard
the importance of culture in developing the optimum potential of their students. Most
students do not know the school’s vision, mission, and history, but it will be worst, and I
know everyone will agree if even teachers do not know the main foundation of their school
culture.

Truly, changing the school culture is more than changing teaching and learning strategies,
assessment, curricula, building and structures, and roles and responsibilities. This
chapter will lead you in turning toxic school culture into a positive one.
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Definition of Culture

Nowadays, due to the knowledge explosion, several definitions of school culture have
emerged. Every teacher has his or her definition of what school culture is. But before we
define what school culture is, let us first define what culture is.

As a result of an anthropological investigation of people, culture evolved in the twentieth

century. Theorists began to define culture and redefine how culture impacts life (Raymer,
2006). The first modern definition of culture can be rooted in the definition of Edward
Tyler, a well-known anthropologist who defined culture as a complex
whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

In a simple way, Bower (1966) defined culture as the way we do things

around here, whereas Schein (1985) provides a comprehensive definition, calling
it a pattern of basic assumptions --- invented, discovered, or developed by a
given group as it learns to cope with problems…. That worked well enough to be
considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way
to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems.

Definition of School Culture

School culture is characterized by deeply rooted traditions, values, and

beliefs, some of which are common across schools and some of which are unique
and embedded in a particular school’s history and location. Culture informs how
“things get done around here” and, just as important, frames how change
efforts are perceived. Based in accumulated experiences, a school’s rules and
regulations, policies, and procedures, whether written or informal, are the lasting
artifacts of old organizational lessons (Kruse & Louis, 2009).

Likewise, Schein (1985) defines school culture as a complex web of

traditions and rituals built over time as teachers, students, parents, and
administrators work together and deal with crises and accomplishments.
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The term culture in the school context refers to the basic assumptions,
beliefs, and practices that the members of a school community share.
These assumptions, beliefs, and practices affect how a school views itself and its
environment. They shape its operations and how it functions. School culture affects
the way people in a school think, perform, and learn (Starrat, 1993).

Furthermore, Waller (1993) opined that schools have a culture that is

definitely their own. There are, in the school, complex rituals of personal
relationships, a set of folkways, mores, irrational sanctions, and a moral code based upon
them. There are games, which are sublimated wars, teams, and an elaborate set of
ceremonies concerning them. Traditions and traditionists are waging their world-old
battle against innovators.

School culture, therefore, is most clearly seen in the ways people relate to
and work together; the management of the school’s structures, systems, and
physical environment; and the extent to which there is a learning focus for both
pupils and adults, including the nature of that focus (Stoli & Fink, 1998) or simply
the distinctive identity of the schools (Selznick, 1957).

Other Cultures in a School

In every school, there are several cultures existing. Pupil cultures, teacher cultures,
leadership cultures, non-teaching staff cultures, and even parent cultures do exist. All
stakeholders in a school, including students, parents, teachers, staff members, and
school administrators, experience school culture. But among the different cultures
existing in a school, teacher cultures have received the most attention in relation
to school improvement.

Hargreaves (1994) highlights the four existing teaching cultures:

1. Individualism- refers to classrooms as “egg-crates” or

“castles”. Autonomy, isolation, and insulation prevail, and blame and
support are avoided.
2. Collaboration- refers to the teachers who choose, spontaneously
and voluntarily, to work together without external control agenda. This
includes: “comfortable” activities sharing ideas and materials---- and
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rigorous forms, including mutual observation and focused reflective

inquiry.

3. Contrived collegiality- refers to the teacher’s collaborative

working relationships, which are compulsorily imposed, with
fixed times and places set for collaboration, for example,
planning meetings during preparation time.

4. Balkanization- refers to the teachers who are neither isolated

nor work as a whole school. Smaller collaborative groups form, for
example, within secondary school departments, between senior and junior
teachers, and class teachers and resource support teachers.

Becoming familiar with the culture of a particular school takes time. Some tangible
things that may give an initial indication include the following (Starrat, 1993):

● School’s statement of purpose

● School management plan
● School policies such as the student welfare policy
● School’s prospectus
● School’s motto
● Information booklet for casual teachers
● Information/induction booklet for newly appointed staff
● School newsletter
● Interactions between teachers and students

Lastly, Foster and Bates (1984) proposed that influencing school culture could result in
positive or negative orientation depending on the leader’s agenda.

School Rituals, Traditions, and Ceremonies

A life devoid of ritual and ceremony would be one without richness and zest.
The small daily rituals of our lives provide time for reflection,
connection, and meaningful experience (Peterson and Deal, 2009).
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There are sets of rituals, traditions, and ceremonies in every school. These make a school
unique from other schools and make the school active and alive. Joining rituals,
celebrating traditions, and conducting ceremonies are great opportunities to
convene as one while integrating the vision, mission, values, and goals of the
school (Confeld, 2016).

Peterson and Deal (2009) defined school rituals as procedures or

routines that are infused with deeper significance. Every school has
hundreds of routines that later on become rituals, such as greetings the teacher as
students encounter them along the corridor, conducting flag ceremonies every
morning, and observing the honoring gesture or “pagmamano” gesture. Indeed,
rituals help to transform common experiences into uncommon events. Moreover,
school traditions are significant events with a special history and
meaning and occur a year in and year out. Unlike ceremonies, they need not
be large communal events (Peterson & Deal, 2009). Some examples of school
traditions are conducting freshman orientation, holding recollection activities for
the graduating batch, and arranging school camping.

Finally, school ceremonies are elaborated as culturally sanctioned

events that provide a welcome spiritual boost. Most schools have formal
ceremonies that mark a transition in the school year. These periodic communal events
bind people to each other and shape unwritten cultural values (Peterson & Deal,
2009). Some examples of school ceremonies are holding the annual graduation
rites, joining some local cultural activities, and celebrating Christmas through
Christmas Parties.

Typology of School Culture

Given the different contextual influences described earlier, it is not surprising that
school cultures vary. What is interesting, however, is that schools with similar contextual
characteristics have different mindsets. Over recent years, typologies that describe and
label different idealized types of school culture have been created. While such typologies
cannot capture subtle nuances of individual schools and possible sub-cultures within
schools, they are useful as discussion starters to consider different facets of their school’s
cultures Stoll (1998).

Stoll and Fink (1996) developed a model for determining the school culture. They
focused on the school’s current effectiveness but also argued that the rapidly accelerating
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pace of change makes standing still impossible, and therefore, schools are either getting
better or getting worse. These two concepts enable school cultures to be examined on
two dimensions, effectiveness, and improving-declining.

A TYPOLOGY OF SCHOOL CULTURE

Effective Strolling Ineffective

-Improving: Moving -Improving: Struggling
-Declining: Cruising -Declining: Sinking

1. moving refers to the following:

● Boosting pupil’s progress and development
● Working together to respond to changing context
● Know where they are going and have the will and skill to get there
● Possess norms for improving schools
2. cruising focuses on the following:
● Appear to be effective
● Usually in more affluent areas
● Pupils achieve despite teaching quality
● Not preparing pupils for changing world
● Possess powerful norms that inhibit change
3. strolling highlights the following:
● Neither particularly effective nor ineffective
● Moving at an inadequate rate to cope with the pace of change
● Meandering into the future to pupils’ detriment
● Ill-defined and sometimes conflicting aims inhibit improvement
4. struggling centers the following:
● Ineffective, and they know it
● Expend considerable energy to improve
● Unproductive ‘thrashing about’
● Will ultimately succeed because have the will if not the skill
● Often identified as ‘falling’, which is demotivational
5. sinking refers to the following:
● Ineffective: norms of isolation, blame, self-reliance, and loss of faith
powerfully inhibit improvement.
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● Staff unable to change

● Often in deprived areas where they blame parenting or unprepared
children.
● Need dramatic action and significant support

Toxic School Culture

The dream of every educational leader is to have a desirable school culture

where everything works well, but not all they have planned run the way they have
visualized it. Sometimes, it goes the other way around.

School culture is the underlying set of norms, values, traditions,

ceremonies, and unwritten behavior, action, and thinking rules. The school culture
is built over time as educators cope with problems, change students and staff, and
deal with successes and failures. Over time the group develops a set of values and
beliefs that are the glue that keeps it together. Often the culture is positive,
nurturing, and professional- and supportive of change and improvement. The
culture has sometimes developed dysfunctional values and beliefs, negative
traditions, and caustic interactions. These are what Deal and Peterson (1998) called
toxic cultures.
Toxic school cultures lack a mission and vision, value laziness
and apathy, appreciate separateness and exclusivity, and have
negative peer relationships (Peterson, 2002). According to Gruenert and
Whitaker (2015), these cultures focus on failures and use these as an excuse to
remain stagnant. Also, they added that toxic school cultures encourage
individuals to see failures as the inevitable results of circumstances
outside of their control rather than as opportunities for improvement.

According to Peterson (2002), schools with negative or toxic culture:

1. Lack of a clear sense of purpose.

2. Have norms that reinforce inertia.
3. Blame students for lack of progress.
4. Discourage collaboration.
5. Often have actively hostile relations among staff
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Moreover, in toxic cultures, staff:

1. View students as the problem rather than as their valued clients

2. Are sometimes parts of negative subcultures that are hostile and
critical of change
3. Believe they are doing the best they can and do not search out new
ideas
4. Frequently share stories and historical perspectives on the school
that are often negative, discouraging, and demoralizing
5. Complain, criticize, and distrust any new ideas, approaches, or
suggestions for improvement raised by planning committees
6. Rarely share ideas, materials, or solutions to classroom problems
7. Have few ceremonies or school traditions that celebrate what is
good and hopeful about their place of work

These schools are not fun places to work in and seldom try to improve what
is happening. Toxic cultures inhibit and limit improvement efforts in several ways.
● In these cultures, staff are afraid to offer suggestions or new ideas
for fear of being attacked or criticized.
● Planning sessions led by the school improvement council or
committee is often half-hearted due to the negativity and sense of
hopelessness fostered by hostile staff that refuses to see that
improvement is possible.
● New staff that brings hope and a sense of possibility are quickly
squelched and re-socialized into negative thinking.
● Programs that are planned are poorly implemented because the
motivation and commitment to change are weak or nonexistent.
● Plans fail for lack of will.
● No one wants to work in these kinds of schools. But, it takes
leadership, time, and focus to rebuild these festering institutions.
Fortunately, most schools are not this negative, though many have
some of these cultural patterns that make change problematic.
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How do schools deal with "toxicity" in their culture? Deal and Peterson
(1999) suggest several things educators can do. These include:

● Confront negativity and hostility head-on and work to redirect

negative energies.
● Protect emergent sources of positive focus and effort.
● Actively recruit more positive and constructive staff.
● Vigorously celebrate the positive and the improving sides of the
school.
● Ensure that improvement efforts and plans are successful by
ssupporting with time, energy, and resources.
● Reconnect staff to the mission of schools: To help all children learn
and grow.

It is up to school leaders-principals, teachers, and often parents to help

overcome the debilitating influence of negative cultures and to rebuild and
reinforce positive student-focused cultures. Without positive, supportive cultures,
reforms will falter, staff morale and commitment will wither, and student learning
will decline.

Creating a Positive School Culture

An obvious goal for school leaders is for schools to develop and maintain
strong cultures. Schools with strong cultures will have effective leadership with
exceptional student performance (Jones, 2009). To create a new culture of change,
school principals and teacher leaders must focus on an overall organizational
transformation that includes the following successful practices:
● Defining the role of the school principal, teacher, and school
community through open communication and academic growth
activities that can best serve the needs of a particular school
community.
● Scheduling effective communication mechanisms, such as staff
lunchroom visits, department forums, staff meeting pop-ins, and all-
district personnel rallies.
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● Sharing successes through employee union newsletters, internal

correspondence, and community relations that breed further
successes for diverse student populations.
● Visualizing school-wide and classroom goals that support the goals of a
school • site and district to generate key results and offering staff
development training that supports these results.
Moreover, Deal (1985) identified eight attributes of effective schools with strong
cultures

1. Shared values and a consensus on "how we get things done around

here."
2. The principal is a hero or heroine who embodies core values.
3. Distinctive rituals that embody widely shared beliefs.
4. Employees as situational heroes or heroine.
5. Rituals of acculturation and cultural renewal.
6. Significant rituals to celebrate and transform core values.
7. Balance between innovation and tradition and between autonomy and
control.
8. Widespread participation in cultural rituals.

Responding to the Needs of a Culturally Diverse Global Community

We witnessed that various countries in the world are becoming increasingly

interconnected due to the growing influence of politics, technology, economics,
cooperation, educational collaborations, and tourism activities. Shim (2011) pointed
out that from a global perspective, people now live in a world wherein entanglement is an
inherent condition of human existence, and constant border crossing among cultural and
language boundaries using technology becomes inevitable. As a result, people live
in countries that are becoming more ethnically, racially, culturally, and
linguistically diverse yearly (Shim, 2011). Thus, the growing number of
immigrants in various countries has also made society multicultural.

In the study of Ball (2000), the enormous complexities of today’s world

require a new vision for schooling that responds to the needs of the global and
multicultural society in which we live. There is a need to prepare students with a high
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level of knowledge and skills that include a higher level; of cultural literacy. To be
culturally literate, according to Hirsch (1987) is to possess the basic
information extending over the major domains of human activity from
arts, sports, and science needed to thrive in the modern world.
Certain provisions in the school curriculum should allow students to immerse
themselves in different cultures. The school curriculum should focus on developing
learners who appreciate various cultures and ideas from different countries
(Pawllen et al., 2009).

Schools have great roles in addressing issues and demands of cultural

diversity. Our classrooms are becoming more complex and diverse (Shim, 2011).
Therefore, teachers play a significant role in helping students become cosmopolitan
members of society. It is, therefore, essential to study the preparation of teachers who
will accomplish the task. Merryfield (2000) also noted that despite the increasing demands
for teachers to teach for equity, diversity, and global interconnectedness, colleges of
education are not producing internationally adept teachers. Brodin (2010) also observed
that educating all citizens and providing them with information about other cultures
and countries has become imperative.

Gender Roles and Sex Differences

Similar to the development of our physical bodies, cognizance of gender identity
evolves with time, and some children find it very difficult to reconcile their given
gender and their gender identity (Rafferty, 2018). It's also important for teachers to
understand gender expression (how people externally communicate their gender identity
through physical expressions, such as clothing and hairstyle, and social expressions, like
their names and pronoun choices).

Students also navigate gender roles—the behaviors, attitudes, and expectations

associated with being either male or female. These differences have to do with
physical behaviors, styles of social interaction, academic motivations, behaviors,
and choices. Teachers sometime unconsciously influence gender role differences
through the responses and choices they make for and on behalf of their students. For
example, teachers might assign roles to students in role plays based on their biological
gender or influence student dress codes.
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Social Order and Social Control

In sociology, the social mechanisms that govern an individual's or group's
behavior are sometimes referred to as "social controls." Every civilization has
standards and values that dictate behavior (imagine a society without these standards
and values!). As a result, every society also has some sort of system in place to enforce
norm compliance and deal with nonconformity.

In light of this, social control is a universal aspect of society and a topic of

concern for sociologists from a wide variety of backgrounds and theoretical
stances, not simply deviant sociologists. Finding social control and figuring out the
mechanisms underlying it in particular social circumstances are the sociological
challenges, not whether social control exists.

Social control is simply put 'what keeps us in the social order?'. Let's take the law as an
example. Law is an example of a social order that guides individuals' lives (there are laws
against stealing, laws for property, etc.), but social control makes us follow these laws.
Why do we stop at traffic lights? Why do we not just steal when we feel like it?

There are two forms of social control, according to most theorists: formal and
informal control. Informal is the internalized norms and values of the social
order ('stealing is wrong'), and formal is the external sanctioning or
rewarding of social order ('I will be fined if I steal').

The sociologically significant questions include:

Who exercises control?
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Status and Role as Key to Socialization

In all of the many social groups that we as individuals belong to, we have a status and
a role to fulfill. Status is our relative social position within a group, while a role is
the part our society expects us to play in a given status. For example, a man may
have the status of father in his family. Because of this status, he is expected to fulfill a
role for his children that in most societies requires him to nurture, educate, guide, and
protect them. Of course, mothers usually have complementary roles.

Social group membership gives us a set of statuses and role tags that allow people to
know what to expect from each other--they make us more predictable. However, it is
common for people to have multiple overlapping statuses and roles. This potentially
makes social encounters more complex. A woman who is a mother to some children may
be an aunt or grandmother to others. At the same time, she may be a wife to one or more
men, and she very likely is a daughter and granddaughter of several other people. For
each of these various kinship statuses, she is expected to play a somewhat different role
and to be able to switch between them instantaneously.

The way in which people get their statuses can vary significantly in detail from culture to
culture. In all societies, however, they are either achieved or ascribed. Achieved
statuses are ones that are acquired by doing something. For instance, someone
becomes a criminal by committing a crime. A soldier earns the status of a good warrior
by achievements in battle and by being brave. A woman becomes a mother by having a
baby. She also can acquire the status of widow by the death of her husband. In contrast,
ascribed statuses are the result of being born into a particular family or being born
male or female. Being a prince by birth or being the first of four children in a family are
ascribed statuses. We do not make a decision to choose them--they are not voluntary
statuses. We do not pick the family we are born into, nor do we usually select our own
gender.